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! 


AN 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  ;ilr 

COMPREHENDING 

THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  RULES 


OF  THE 

LANGUAGE, 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  APPROPRIATE  EXERCISES, 

AND 

A KEY  TO  THE  EXERCISES. 


BY  BINDLEY  MURRAY. 

S 


“ They  who  are  learning  to  compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  with  accuracy  and  order,  are 
learning  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with  accuracy  and  order.” — Blair.  . 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES.  ^ 

VOL  1.  ^ 


THE  SEVENTH  AMERICAN,  FROM  THE  LAST  ENGLISH  EDITION 
CORRECTED  AND  MUCH  ENLARGED. 


NEW  YORK : 

PUBLISHED  BIT  COLLINS  & CO.;  COLLINS  & HANNAY; 
SAMUEL  WOOD  <&  SONS. 


1832. 


NEW  YORK : 

R.  & G.  S.  WOOD,  PRINTERS,  261  PEARL-STREET. 


PREFACE. 


The  author  of  these  volumes  made  a number  of 
improvements  in  the  last  duodecimo  edition  of  his 
Grammar ; and  inserted  many  critical  and  explana- 
tory notes,  in  subsequent  editions  of  the  Exercises 
and  the  Key ; and  added,  at  the  end  of  the  Key,  a 
copioiTs  Alphabetical  Index  to  all  the  three  books. 
In  consequence  of  these  additions  and  variations, 
the  proprietors  of  the  works  conceived  that  an  im- 
proved edition  of  the  whole,  in  two  volumes  octavo^ 
in  a large  letter,  and  on  a superfine  paper,  with  an 
appropriate  title,  would  not  be  unacceptable  to  the 
public.  The  author  has  therefore  embraced  this 
opportunity,  to  revise  the  Grammar,  to  enlarge  it 
very  considerably,  and  to  adapt  the  whole  to  the 
purposes  in  view.* 

In  its  present  form,  the  work  is  designed  for  the 
use  of  persons  who  may  think  it  merits  a place  in 
their  libraries.  To  this  privilege  it  may,  perhaps, 
be  allowed  to  aspire,  as  a work  containing  an  ample 
exhibition  of  the  principles  of  English  Grammar,  and 
a copious  illustration  of  those  principles;  with  the 
addition  of  some  positions  and  discussions,  which 
the  author  persuades  himself  are  not  destitute  of 
originality.  It  may  therefore  serve  as  a book  of 
reference,  to  refresh  the  memory,  and,  in  some 
degree,  to  employ  the  curiosity,  of  persons  who  are 
skilled  in  grammar,  as  well  as  to  extend  the  know- 
ledge of  those  who  wish  to  improve  themselves  in 
the  art.  — ^ 

In  preparing  for  the  octavo  edition,  the  author 
examined  some  of  the  most  respectable  publica- 
tions on  the  subject  of  grammar  that  had  recently 

^ The  additions  occupy  more  than  Ninety  pages  of  the  first  volume ; and  are  interspersed 
throughout  the  book. 


IV 


PREFACE. 


appeared  ; and  he  has,  in  consequence,  been  the 
better  enabled  to  extend  and  improve  his  work. 
These  improvements  consist  chiefly  of  a number  of 
observations,  calculated  to  illustrate  and  confirm 
particular  rules  and  positions  contained  in  the 
Grammar:  and  of  many  critical  discussions,  in 
justification  of  some  of  its  parts,  against  which 
objections  had  been  advanced.  These  discussions 
are  not  of  small  importance,  nor  of  a merely  specula- 
tive nature.  They  respect  some  of  the  established 
principles  aud  arrangements  of  the  language.  And 
the  author  presumes,  that  whilst  they  support  these 
principles,  they  will  be  found  to  contain  some  views 
and  constructions,  which  the  reader  may  usefully 
apply  to  a variety  of  other  occasions. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  observe,  that  the 
Grammar,  Exercises,  and  Key,  in  their  common  form, 
and  at  their  usual  prices,  will  continue  to  be  sold, 
separately  or  together,  for  the  use  of  schools  and 
private  learners. 

If  any  person  should  be  inclined  to  think,  that  this 
work,  would  have  been  more  satisfactory  to  readers 
in  general,  had  the  first  volume  been  published 
separately,  and  the  Exercises  and  Key  omitted ; the 
author  takes  the  liberty  of  suggesting  to  them,  how 
very  imperfect  the  performance  would  have  been, 
and  how  liable  to  objection,  if  it  had  appeared  in  so 
detached  and  partial  a manner.  The  Exercises  and 
the  Key  are  necessary  appendages  to  the  principles 
of  grammar ; and  serve  not  only  to  illustrate  and 
enforce,  but  to  vary  and  extend,  the  grammatical 
rules  and  position.  Many  parts  of  the  second  volume 
are  as  particularly  calculated,  for  the  improvement 
of  persons  far  advanced  in  the  study  of  the  language, 
as  other  parts  of  it  are,  for  the  instruction  of  those 
who  have  made  but  little  progress  in  the  grammatical 
art.  The  two  volumes  are  indeed,  intimately  con- 
nected, and  constitute  one  uniform  system  of  English 
Grammar. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO  THE  DUODECIMO  EDITION.^ 


When  the  number  and  variety  of  English  Grammars  already 
published,  and  the  ability  with  which  some  of  them  are  written, 
are  considered,  little  can  be  expected  from  a new  compilation, 
besides  a careful  selection  of  the  most  useful  matter,  and  some 
degree  of  improvement  in  the  mode  of  adapting  it  to  the  un- 
derstanding, and  the  gradual  progress  of  learners.  In  these 
respects  something,  perhaps,  may  yet  be  done,  for  the  ease  and 
advantage  of  young  persons. 

In  books  designed  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  there  is  a 
medium  to  be  observed,  between  treating  the  subject  in  so 
extensive  and  minute  a manner,  as  to  embarrass  and  confuse 
their  minds,  by  offering  too  much  at  once  for  their  compre- 
hension ; and,  on  the  other  hand,  conducting  it.  by  such  short 
and  general  precepts  and  observations,  as  convey  to  them  no 
clear  and  precise  information.  A distribution  of  the  parts, 
which  is  either  defective  or  irregular,  has  also  a tendency  to 
perplex  the  young,  understanding,  and  to  retard  its  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  literature.  A distinct  general  view,  or 
outline,  of  all  the  essential  parts  of  the  study  in  which  they 
are  engaged  ; a gradual  and  judicious  supply  of  this  outline ; 
and  a due  arrangement  of  the  divisions,  according  to  their 
natural  order  and  connexion,  appear  to  be  among  the  best 
means  of  enlightening  the  minds  of  youth,  and  of  facilitating 
their  acquisition  of  knowledge.-  The  author  of  this  work,  at 
the  same  time  that  he  has  endeavoured  to  avoid  a plan,  which 
may  be  too  concise  or  too  extensive,  defective  in  its  parts,  or 
irregular  in  the  disposition  of  them,  has  studied  to  render  his 
subject  sufficiently  easy,  intelligible,  and  comprehensive.  He 
does  not  presume  to  have  completely  attained  these  objects.. 
How  far  he  has  succeeded  in  the  attempt,  and  wherein  he  has 
failed,  must  be  referred  to  the  determination  of  the  judicious 
and  candid  reader. 

The  method  which  he  has  adopted,  of  exhibiting  the  per- 
formance in  characters  of  different  sizes,  will,  he  trusts,  be 

* As  the  Introduction  to  the  Duodecimo  edition  of  the  Grammar,  contains  some  views  and  ex- 
planations of  the  subject,  which  may  be  useful  to  readers  in  general,  as  well  as  to  young  students, 
it  is  thought  proper  to  retain  it  in  this  edition  of  the  work. 


VI 


INTRODUCTION. 


conducive  to  that  gradual  and  regular  procedure,  which  is  so 
favourable  to  the  business  of  instruction.  The  more  important 
rules,  definitions,  and  observations,  and  which  are  therefore 
the  most  proper  to  be  committed  to  memory,  are  printed  with 
a larger  type  ; whilst  rules  and  remarks  that  are  of  less  con- 
sequence, that  extend  or  diversify  the  general  idea,  or  that 
serve  as  explanations,  are  contained  in  the  smaller  letter: 
these,  or  the  chief  of  them,  will  be  perused  by  the  student  to 
the  greatest  advantage,  if  postponed  till  the  general  system  be 
completed.  The  use  of  notes  and  observations,  in  the  common 
and  detached  manner,  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  would  not, 
it  is  imagined,  be  so  likely  to  attract  the  perusal  of  youth,  or 
admit  of  so  ample  and  regular  an  illustration,  as  a continued 
and  uniform  order  of  the  several  subjects.  In  adopting  this 
mode,  care  has  been  taken  to  adjust  it  so  that  the  whole  may 
be  perused  in  a connected  progress,  or  the  part  contained  in 
the  larger  character  read  in  order  by  itself;  Many  of  the  notes 
and  observations  are  intended,  not  only  to  explain  the  subjects, 
and  to  illustrate  them,  by  comparative  views  of  the  grammar  of 
other  languages,  and  of  the  various  sentiments  of  English  guam- 
marians,  but  also  to  invite  the  ingenious  student  to  inquiry  and 
reflection,  and  prompt  him  to  a more  enlarged,  critical,  and 
philosophical  research. 

With  respect  to  the  definitions  and  rules,  it  may  not  be  im- 
proper more  particularly  to  observe,  that  in  selecting  and  form- 
ing them^  it  has  been  the  author’s  aim  to  render  them  as  exact 
and  comprehensive,  and  at  the  same  time,  as  intelligible  to 
young  minds,  as  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the  difficulties 
attending  it,  would  admit.  He  presumes  that  they  are  also 
calculatecf  to  be  readily  committed  to  memory,  and  easily  re- 
tained. For  this  purpose,  he  has  been  solicitous  to  select  terms 
that  are  smooth  and  voluble  ; to  proportion  the  members  of  the 
sentences  to  one  another  ; to  avoid  protracted  periods : and  to 
give  the  whole  definition  or  rute,  as  much  harmony  of  expres- 
sion as  he  could  devise. 

From  the  sentiment  generally  admitted,  that  a proper  selec- 
tion of  faulty  composition  is  more  instructive  to  the  young  gram- 
marian, than  any  rules  and  examples  of  propriety  that  can  be 
given,  the  compiler  has  been  induced  to  pay  peculiar  attention 
to  this  part  of  the  subject ; and  though  the  instances  of  false 
grammar,  under  the  rules  of  Syntax,  are  numerous,  it  is  hoped 
they  will  not  be  found  too  many,  when  their  variety  and  use- 
fulness are  considered. 

In  a work  which  professes  itself  to  be  a compilation,  and 
which,  from  the  nature  and  design  of  it,  must  consist  chiefly 
of  materials  selected  from  the  writings  of  others,  it  is  scarcely 


INTRODUCTION. 


vii 

necessary  to  apologize  for  the  use  which  the  compiler  has  made 
of  his  predecessors’  labours  ; or  for  omitting  to  insert  their 
names.  From  the  alterations  which  have  been  frequently 
made  in  the  sentiments  and  the  language,  to  suit  the  connexion, 
and  to  adapt  them  to  the  particular  purposes  for  which  they 
are  introduced  ; and  in  many  instances,  from  the  uncertainty  to 
whom  the  passages  originally  belonged,  the  insertion  of  names 
could  seldom  be  made  with  propriety.  But  if  this  could  have 
been  generally  done,  a work  of  this  nature  would  derive  no  ad- 
vantage from  it,  equal  to  the  inconvenience  of  crowding  the 
pages  with  a repetition  of  names  and  references.  It  is,  how- 
ever, proper  to  acknowledge,  in  general  terms,  that  the  authors 
to  whom  the  grammatical  part  of  this  compilation  is  principally 
indebted  for  its  materials,  are  Harris,  Johnson,  Lowth,  Priestly, 
Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  and  Coote. 

The  Rules  and  Observations  respecting  Perspicuity  and  Ac- 
curacy of  Expression,  contained  in  the  Appendix,  and  which 
are,  chiefly,  extracted  from  the  writings  of  Blair  and  Campbell, 
will,  it  is  presumed,  form  a proper  addition  to  the  Grammar. 
The  subjects  are  very  nearly  related ; and  the  study  of  perspi- 
cuity and  accuracy  in  writing,  appears  naturally  to  follow  that 
of  Grammar.  A competent  acquaintance  with  the  principles 
of  both  will  prepare  and  qualify  the  students,  for  prosecuting 
those  additional  improvements  in  language  to  which  they  may 
be  properly  directed. 

On  the  utility  and  importance  of  the  study  of  Grammar,  and 
the  principles  of  composition,  much  might  be  advanced,  for  the 
encouragement  of  persons  in  early  life  to  apply  themselves  to 
this  branch  of  learning ; but  as  the  limits  of  this  Introduction 
will  not  allow  of  many  observations  on  the  subject,  a few  lead- 
ing sentiments  are  all  that  can  be  admitted  here  with  propriety. 
As  words  are  the  signs  of  our  ideas,  and  the  medium  by  which 
we  perceive  the  sentiments  of  others,  and  communicate  our 
own ; and  as  signs  exhibit  the  things  which  they  are  intended 
to  represent,  more  or  less  accurately,  according  as  their  real  or 
established  conformity  to  those  things  is  more  or  less  exact ; it 
is  evident,  that  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature 
and  properties  of  words,  of  their  relation  to  each  other,  and  of 
their  established  connexion  with  the  ideas  to  which  they  are  ap- 
plied, will  be  the  certainty  and  ease,  with  which  we  transfuse 
our  sentiments  into  the  minds  of  one  another ; and  that,  with- 
out a competent  knowledge  of  this  kind,  we  shall  frequently 
be  in  hazard  of  misunderstanding  others,  and  of  being  misun- 
derstood ourselves.  It  may  indeed  be  justly  asserted,  that 
many  of  the  differences  of  opinion  amongst  men,  with  the  dis- 
putes, contentions,  and  alienations  of  heart,  which  have  too 
often  proceeded  from  such  differences,  have  been  occasioned 


Vlll 


INTRODUCTION. 


by  a want  of  proper  skill  in  the  connexion  and  meaning  of 
words,  and  by  a tenacious  misapplication  of  language. 

One  of  the  best  supports,  which  the  recommendation  of  this 
study  can  receive,  in  small  compass,  may  be  derived  from  the 
following  sentiments  of  an  eminent  and  candid  writer  on  lan- 
guage and  composition  : “ All  that  regards  the  study  of  compo- 
sition, merits  the  higher  attention  upon  this  account,  that  it  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  improvement  of  our  intellectual 
powers.  For  I must  be  allowed  to  say,  that  when  we  are  em- 
ployed after  a proper  manner,  in  the  study  of  composition,  we 
are  cultivating  the  understanding  itself.  The  study  of  arranging 
and  expressing  our  thoughts  with  propriety,  teaches  to  think,  as 
well  as  to  speak,  accurately.”* 

Before  the  close  of  this  Introduction,  it  may  not  be  super- 
fluous to  observe,  that  the  author  of  the  following  work  has  no 
interest  in  it,  but  that  which  arises  from  the  hope,  that  it  will 
prove  of  some  advantage  to  young  persons,  and  relieve  the 
labours  of  those  who  are  employed  in  their  education.  He 
wishes  to  promote,  in  some  degree,  the  cause  of  virtue,  as  well 
as  of  learning ; and,  with  this  view,  he  has  been  studious, 
through  the  whole  of  the  work,  not  only  to  avoid  every  example 
and  illustration,  which  might  have  an  improper  effect  on  the 
minds  of  youth ; but  also  to  introduce,  on  many  occasions,  such 
as  have  a moral  and  religious  tendency.  His  attention  to  ob- 
jects of  so  much  importance  will,  he  trusts,  meet  the  approba- 
tion of  every  well-disposed  reader.  If  they  were  faithfully 
regarded  in  all  books  of  education,  they  would  doubtless  con- 
tribute very  materially  to  the  order  and  happiness  of  society, 
by  guarding  the  innocence,  and  cherishing  the  virtue,  of  the 
rising  generation. 

Holdgate,  near  York, — 1795. 


* Dr.  Blair. 


INTRODUCTION. 


IX 


ADVERTISEMENT 

TO  THE  NINTH  DUODECIMO  EDITION. 


The  eighth  edition  of  this  grammar  received  considerable 
alterations  and  additions ; but  works  of  this  nature  admit  of 
repeated  improvements  ; and  are,  perhaps,  never  complete. 
The  author,  solicitous  to  render  his  book  more  worthy  of  the 
encouraging  approbation  bestowed  on  it  by  the  public,  has  again 
revised  the  work  with  care  and  attention.  The  new  edition,  he 
hopes,  will  be  found  much  improved.  The  additions  which  are 
very  considerable,  are,  chiefly  such  as  are  calculated  to  expand 
the  learner’s  views  of  the  subject ; to  obviate  objections  ; and  to 
render  the  study  of  grammar  both  easy  and  interesting.  This 
edition  contains  also  a new  and  enlarged  system  of  parsing ; 
copious  lists  of  nouns  arranged  according  to  their  gender  and 
number;  and  many  notes  and  observations,  which  serve  to 
extend,  or  to  explain,  particular  rules  and  positions."^ 

The  writer  is  sensible  that,  after  all  his  endeavours  to  elucidate 
the  principles  of  the  work,  there  are  few  of  the  divisions, 
arrangements,  definitions  or  rules,  against  which  critical  ingenuity 
cannot  devise  plausible  objections.  The  subject  is  attended 
with  so  much  intricacy,  and  admits  of  views  so  various,  that  it 
was  not  possible  to  render  every  part  of  it  unexceptionable  ; 
or  to  accommodate  the  work,  in  all  respects,  to  the  opinions 
and  prepossessions  of  every  grammarian  and  teacher.  If  the 
author  has  adopted  that  system  which,  on  the  whole,  is  best 
suited  to  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  conformable  to  the 
sentiments  of  the  most  judicious  grammarians;  if  his  reasonings 
and  illustrations,  respecting  particular  points,  are  founded  on 
just  principles,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  English  language  ; he 
has,  perhaps,  done  all  that  could  reasonably  be  expected  in  a 
work  of  this  nature  ; and  he  may  warrantably  indulge  a hope 
that  the  book  will  be  still  more  extensively  approved  and 
circulated. 

Holdgate,  near  York, — 1804. 


^ The  author  conceives  that  the  occasional  strictures  dispersed  through  tile  book,  and  intended 
to  illustrate  and  support  a number  of  important  grammatical  points,  will  not,  to  young  persons  of 
ingenuity,  appear  to  be  dry  and  useless  discussions.  He  is  persuaded  that,  by  such  persons  they 
will  be  read  with  attention.  And  he  presumes  that  these  strictures  will  gratify  their  curiosity, 
stimulate  application,  and  give  solidity  and  permanence  to  tlieir  eraramatical  knowledge. 

VoT,.  1.  2 ' ' 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

* 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

* Page 

CHAP.  1.  Of  letters. 

SECT.  1.  Of  the  letters,  of  language,  and  a perfect 

alphabet  2 

2.  General  observations  on  the  sounds  of  the 

letters  10 

3.  Of  the  organs  of  articulation  19 

CHAP.  2.  Of  syllables,  and  the  rules,  for  ar- 
ranging them  21 

CHAP.  3.  Of  words  in  general,  and  the  rules  for 

spelling  them  22 


PART  II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAP.  1.  A general  view  of  the  parts  of  speech  27 
CHAP.  2.  Of  the  articles  31 

CHAP.  3.  Of  substantives 

SECT.  1.  Of  substantives  in  general  36 

2.  Of  gender  37 

3.  Of  number  40 

4.  Of  case  43 

CHAP.  4.  Of  Adjectives 

SECT.  1.  Of  the  nature  of  adjectives,  and  the  degrees 

of  comparison  46 

2.  Remarks  on  the  subject  of  comparison  48 


CONTENTS.  Xi  / 

Page 

CHAP.  5.  Of  pronouns. 

SECT.  1.  Of  the  personal  pronouns  50 

2.  Of  relative  pronouns  53 

3.  Of  the  adjective  pronouns  55 

CHAP.  6.  Of  verbs. 

SECT.  1.  Of  the  nature  of  verbs  in  general  59 

2.  Of  number  and  person  62 

3.  Of  moods  and  participles  63 

4.  Remarks  on  the  potential  mood  66 

5.  Of  the  tenses  68 

6.  The  conjugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  to 

have  and  to  he  *77 

7.  The  auxiliary  verbs  conjugated  in  their  sim- 

ple form;  with  observations  on  their 
peculiar  nature  and  force  85 

8.  The  conjugation  of  regular  verbs  90 

9.  Observations  on  passive  verbs  99 

10.  Of  irregular  verbs  101 

11.  Of  defective  verbs;  and  of  the  different 

ways  in  which  verbs  are  conjugated  108 

12.  Theory  respecting  the  inflections  of  language  1 10 

CHAP.  7.  Of  adverbs  114 

CHAP.  8.  Of  prepositions  117 

CHAP.  9.  Of  conjunctions  123 

CHAP.  10.  Of  interjections  128 

CHAP.  11.  Of  derivation. 

SECT.  I.  Of  the  various  ways  in  which  words  are 

derived  from  one  another  130 

2.  A sketch  of  the  steps  by  which  the  English 

language  has  risen  to  its  present  state  of 
refinement  136 

CHAP.  12.  Number  and  variety  of  words,  &c.  138 


PART  III. 

SYNTAX. 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  article  141 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  noun  170 


XU 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Of  several  nouns  joined  by  copulatives  149 

Of  nouns  connected  by  disjunctives  151 

Of  nouns  of  multitude  152 

Of  one  noun  governing  another  in  the  possessive  case  173 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  pronoun. 

Of  pronouns  agreeing  with  their  antecedents  154 

Of  the  relatives  being  the  nominative  to  the  verb  159 
Of  the  relatives  preceded  by  nominatives  of  different 

persons  160 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  adjective  161,  170 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  verb. 

Of  the  verb’s  agreement  with  the  nominative  case  143 
Of  verbs  active  requiring  the  objective  case  179 

Of  one  verb  governing  another  in  the  infinitive  mood  183 
Of  verbs  and  words  related  in  point  of  time  185 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  participle  192 

Of  the  rules  respecting  adverbs. 

Of  the  position  of  adverbs  196 

Of  two  negatives  198 

Of  the  syntax  of  prepositions  199,204 

Of  the  syntax  of  conjunctions. 

Of  conjunctions  connecting  the  same  moods,  tenses, 

and  cases  204 

Of  conjunctions  requiring  the  subjunctive  mood, 

&c.  205, 213 

Of  the  syntax  of  interjections  224 

Of  comparisons  by  the  conjunction  than  oy  as  214 

Directions  respecting  the  ellipsis  217 

General  rule  of  syntax  222 

Directions  for  parsing  225,234 


PART  IV. 

PROSODY. 


CHAP.  1.  Of  pronunciation 


235 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

Page 

SECT.  1.  Of  accent  235 

2.  Of  quantity  239 

3.  Of  emphasis  242 

4.  Of  pauses  248 

5.  Of  tones  250 

CHAP.  2.  Of  versification  252 

OP  PUNCTUATION. 

CHAP.  1.  Of  the  comma  268 

CHAP.  2.  Of  the  semicolon  275 

CHAP.  3.  Of  the  colon  276 

CHAP.  4.  Of  the  period  277 

CHAP.  5.  Of  the  dash,  notes  of  interrogation  and 

exclamation,  and  the  parenthesis  278 
CHAP.  6.  Of  the  apostrophe,  caret,  &c.  281 

CHAP.  7.  Directions  respecting  capital  letters  283 
CHAP.  8.  Of  paragraphs  285 

VINDICATION  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  GRAMMAR  288 


APPENDIX. 

RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS  FOR  PROMOTING  PERSPICUITY 
AND  ACCURACY  IN  WRITING. 


PART  I. 


Of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression,  with  respect  to  sin- 
gle words  and  phrases. 


CHAP.  1.  Of  purity 
CHAP.  2.  Of  propriety 
CHAP.  3.  Of  precision 


294 

295 
301 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


PART  11. 

Of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression,  with  respect  to  the 
construction  of  sentences. 

Page 

CHAP.  1.  Of  the  clearness  of  a sentence  306 

CHAP.  2.  Of  the  unity  of  a sentence  311 

CHAP.  3.  Of  the  strength  of  a sentence  316 

CHAP.  4v  Of  the  figures  of  speech  335 

PART  III. 

Of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression,  with  respect  to  the 
great  principle  which,  on  all  occasions,  decides  the  propriety  of 
language. 

CHAP.  1.  The  nature  and  character  of  the  use 

which  gives  law  to  language  357 

SECT.  1.  Of  reputable  use  358 

2.  Of  national  use  361 

3.  Of  present  use  362 

CHAP.  2.  The  nature  and  use  of  verbal  criti- 
cism, with  its  principle  canons  365 

SECT.  1.  Good  use  not  always  uniform  in  her  de- 
cisions. 366 

2.  Every  thing  favoured  by  good  use,  not  on 
, that  account  worthy  to  be  retained  369 

ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG  STUDENTS  372 


ADVERTISEMENT 

TO  THE  THIRD  OCTAVO  EDITION. 


The  improvements  contained  in  the  third  edition 
of  the  octavo  grammar,  consist  of  many  corrections 
and  alterations  of  particular  passages,  in  the  first 
volume,  and  of  more  than  forty  pages  of  additional 
matter,  dispersed  in  various  parts  of  it : and  also  of 
a considerable  modification  of  the  first  part  of  the 
second  volume ; namely,  the  Exercises  which  respect 
the  nature  and  principles  of  parsing.  The  last  sec- 
tion under  the  head  of  Parsing,  contains  a large 
number  of  recent  exercises  on  some  of  the  more 
difficult  rules  of  grammar;  and  they  are  exhibited 
in  a peculiar  form,  calculated  to  give  the  student  a 
radical  and  satisfactory  view  of  those  rules. 

The  author  indulges  a hope,  that  these  enlarge- 
ments and  variations  will  meet  the  approbation  of 
the  judicious  reader;  and  render  the  new  edition, 
what  he  has  sedulously  endeavoured  to  make  it,  a 
material  improvement  of  the  work. 

He  also  ventures  to  presume,  that  the  numerous 
exemplifications,  of  a moral  and  improving  nature, 
with  which  all  the  editions  of  the  work  are  inter- 
spersed ; and  the  short  subsidary  disquisitions  of  the 
present  edition,  as  well  as  those  of  former  impres- 
sions; will  afford  some  relief  to  the  subject  of 
grammar,  and  render  it  less  dry  and  uninteresting  to 
the  student.  Perhaps  they  will  be  found  to  con- 
tribute in  some  degree,  to  invite  and  encourage  him 
to  acquire  an  art,  which,  in  its  owm  nature,  does  not, 
to  young  minds  especially,  present  many  attractions. 

Holdgate,  near  York, — 1816. 


r „•  ".■_'  -nir'^v.^;:  i\ 

,r^-"  ' 

.4" ■ . — , S'.  , ^^^^  '^?T r 

‘1"  -'  V v ^-i  . ■< i> ; 

:v  -■ 

- 'io;-:-:;:  nwc  , 


r . : UlM.l 


A 


'm:: 


' , :"'.>.r  r '-Uifw 

^.-v  ■ rf.::'^:-: 


.:  ■"iifrp'vK  '-'-l*,- 


V 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


English  Grammar  is  the 
writing  the  English  language 
divided  into  four  parts,  viz. 

1.  . Orthography, 

}2.  Etymology, 

This  division  may  be  rendered  more  intelligible  to  the  student, 
by  observing,  in  other  words,  that  Grammar  treats. 

First,  of  the  form  and  sound  of  the  letters,  the  combination 
of  letters  into  syllables,  and  syllables  into  words ; 

Secondly,  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their  various  modi- 
fications, and  their  derivation ; 

Thirdly,  of  the  union  and  right  order  of  words  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a sentence ; and 

Lastly,  of  the  just  pronunciation,  and  poetical  construction  of 
sentences. 


art  of  speaking  and 
with  propriety.  It  is 

3.  Syntax,  and 

4.  Prosody. 


Grammar  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two  species, 
Universal  and  Particular.  Grammar  in  general,  or  Universal 
Grammar,  explains  the  principles  which  are  common  to  all  lan- 
guages. Particular  Grammar  applies  those  general  principles  to 
a particular  language,  modifying  them  according  to  the  genius  of 
that  tongue,  and  the  established  practice  of  the  best  speakers 
and  writers  by  whom  it  is  used. 

VoL  I.  3 


PART  I. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF  THE  LETTERS. 


k 

SECTION  I. 

Of  the  letters — of  language — and  of  a perfect  alphaheU 

Orthography  teaches  the  nature  and  powers  of 
letters,  and  the  just  method  of  spelling  w^ords. 

A letter  is  the  first  principle,  or  least  part  of  a 
word. 

The  letters  of  the  English  language,  called  the 
English  Alphabet,  are  twenty-six  in  number. 

These  letters  are  the  representatives  of  certain 
articulate  sounds,  the  elements  of  the  language. 
An  articulate  sound  is  the  sound  of  the  human  voice, 
formed  by  the  organs  of  speech. 

Language,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  signifies  the 
expression  of  our  ideas,  and  their  various  relations,  by  certain 
articulate  sounds,  which  are  used  as  the  signs  of  those  ideas  and 
relations.  The  faculty  of  speech  is  one  of  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  our  nature ; none  of  the  inferior  animals  being  in 
any  degree  possessed  of  it.  For  we  must  not  call  by  the  name 
of  speechy  that  imitation  of  human  articulate  voice  which  parrots 
and  some  other  birds  are  capable  of : speech  implying  thought 
and  consciousness,  and  the  powder  of  separating  and  arranging 
our  ideas,  which  are  faculties  peculiar  to  rational  minds. 

“ That  some  inferior  animals  should  be  able  to  mimic  human 
articulation,  will  not  seem  wonderful,  when  we  recollect,  that 
even  by  machines  certain  words  have  been  expressed  in  this 
manner.  But  that  the  paiYot  should  annex  thought  to  the 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


3 


word  he  utters,  is  scarcely  more  probable  than  that  a machine 
should  do  so.^  Rogue  and  knave  are  in  every  parrot’s  mouth : 
but  the  ideas  they  stand  for  are  incomprehensible  by  any  other 
beings  than  those  endued  with  reason  and  a moral  faculty. 

It  has  however  been  a common  opinion,  and  it  is  sufficiently 
probable,  that,  among  irrational  animals,  there  is  something 
which,  by  a figure^  we  may  call  Language,  as  the  instinctive 
economy  of  bees  is  figuratively  called  Government,  This  at 
least  is  evident,  that  the  natural  voices  of  one  animal  are,  in 
some  degree,  intelligible,  or  convey  particular  feelings,  or  im- 
pulses, to  others  of  the  same  species.  But  these,  and  other 
animal  voices  that  might  be  mentioned,  have  no  analogy  with 
human  speech.— For,  first,  men  speak  by  art  and  imitation, 
whereas  the  voices  in  question,  are  wholly  instinctive.  That  a 
dog,  which  had  never  heard  another  bark,  would,  notwithstarld- 
ing,  bark  himself,  admits  of  no  doubt ; and  that  a man,  who 
had  never  heard  any  language,  Ymuld  not  speak  any,  is  equally 
certain.  Secondly,  the  voices  of  brute  animals  are  not  broken, 
or  resolvable,  into  distinct  elementary  sounds,  like  those  of 
man  when  he  speaks ; nor  are  they  susceptible  of  that  variety 
which  would  be  necessary  for  the  communication  of  a very  few 
sentiments : and  it  is  pretty  certain,  that,  previously  to  instruc- 
tion, the  young  animals  comprehend  their  meaning,  as  well  as 
the  old  ones.  Thirdly,  these  voices  seem  intended  by  nature 
to  express,  not  distinct  ideas,  but  such  feelings  only,  as  it  may 
be  for  the  good  of  the  species,  or  for  the  advantage  of  man,  that 
they  should  have  the  power  of  uttering;  in  which,  as  in  all  other 
respects,  they  are  analogous,  not  to  our  speaking,  but  to  our 
weeping,  laughing,  groaning,  screaming,  and  other  natural  and 
audible  expressions  of  appetite  and  passion.” 

Buffon,  in  his  account  of  the  ouran-outang,  says,  “ The  tongue, 
and  all  the  organs  of  the  voice,  are  similar  to  those  of  men,  and 
yet  the  animal  cannot  articulate ; the  brain  is  formed  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  man,  and  yet  the  creature  wants  reason: 
an  evident  proof  that  the  parts  of  the  body,  how’  nicely  soever 
formed,  are  formed  to  very  limited  ends,  when  there  is  not  in- 
fused a rational  soul  to  direct  theif  operations.” 


4 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


The  following  is  a list  of  the  Romani)  Italic,  and  Old 
English  Characters. 


Roman. 

Italic. 

Old  English. 

Name. 

Cap. 

Small. 

Cap. 

Small. 

Cap. 

Small. 

A 

a 

A 

a 

HI 

ai. 

B 

b 

B 

b 

% 

K) 

bee. 

C 

c 

C 

c 

e 

c 

see. 

D 

d 

D 

d 

ir 

dee. 

E 

e 

E 

e 

m 

e 

ee. 

F 

f 

F 

f 

JF 

f 

G 

g 

G 

g 

S 

jee. 

H 

h 

H 

h 

m 

n 

aitch. 

I 

i 

I 

i 

K 

i 

i or  eye. 

J 

j 

J 

j 

3 

1 

K 

k 

K 

k 

m 

k 

Jcay. 

L 

1 

L 

1 

3L 

1 

el. 

M 

m 

M 

m 

m 

em. 

N 

n 

JY 

n 

n 

en. 

0 

o 

0 

0 

# 

0 

0. 

P 

P 

P 

P 

» 

pee. 

Q 

q 

Q 

9 

a 

cue. 

R 

r 

R 

r 

V 

ar. 

s 

8 

S 

s 

& 

&SS. 

T 

t 

T 

t 

t 

tee. 

U 

U 

U 

u 

ti 

uoTyou. 

V 

V 

V 

V 

m 

vee. 

w 

w 

W 

w 

iXf 

double  u. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

P 

eks. 

Y 

y 

Y 

y 

21 

» 

wy. 

Z 

z 

Z 

z 

Z 

1 

zed. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 


5 


A perfect  alphabet  of  the  English  language,  and,  indeed,  of 
every  other  language,  would  contain  a number  of  letters  pre- 
cisely equal  to  the  number  of  simple  articulate  sounds  belong- 
ing to  the  language.  Every  simple  sound  would  have  its  dis- 
tinct character ; and  that  character  be  the  representative  of 
no  other  sound.  But  this  is  far  from  being  the  state  of  the 
English  alphabet.  It  has  more  original  sounds  than  distinct 
significant  letters : and,  consequently,  some  of  these  letters  are 
made  to  represent,  not  one  sound  alone,  but  several  sounds. 
This  will  appear,  by  reflecting,  that  the  sounds  signified  by  the 
united  letters  th,  sfi^  ng^  are  elementary,  and  have  no  single 
appropriate  characters  in  our  alphabet ; and  that  the  letters  a 
and  w represent  the  different  sounds  heard  in  hat,  hate,  hall ; 
and  in  but,  hull,  mule. 

To  explain  this  subject  more  fully  to  the  learners,  we  shall 
set  down  the  characters  made  use  of  to  represent  all  the  ele- 
mentary articulate  sounds  of  our  language,  as  nearly  in  the 
manner  and  order  of  the  present  English  alphabet  as  the  design 
of  the  subject  will  admit : and  shall  annex  to  each  character 
the  syllable  or  word  which  contains  its  proper  and  distinct 
sound.  And  here  it  will  be  proper  to  begin  with  the  vowels. 


Letters  denoting  the 
simple  sounds. 

a long 

as  heard 

in 

Words  containing  \ 
simple  sounds. 

- ale,  pale. 

a 

short 

- 

- 

as 

in 

. 

- 

at,  bat. 

a 

middle 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

arm,  farm. 

a 

broad 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

all,  call. 

e 

long 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

me,  bee. 

e 

short 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

met,  net. 

i 

long 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

pine,  pile. 

i 

short 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

pin,  tin. 

0 

long 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

no,  so. 

0 

short 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

not,  lot. 

0 

middle 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

move,  prove. 

u 

long 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

muse,  use. 

u 

short 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

but,  nut. 

u 

middle 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

bull,  full. 

By  the  preceding  list  it  appears,  that  there  are  in  the  English 
language  fourteen  simple  vowel  sounds : but  as  i and  u,  when 
pronounced  long,  may  be  considered  as  diphthongs,  or  diph- 
thongal vowels,  our  language,  strictly  speaking,  contains  but 
twelve  simple  vowel  sounds ; to  represent  which  we  have  only 
five  distinct  characters-  or  letters.  If  a in  arm  is  the  same 
specific  sound  as  a in  at ; and  u in  bull  the  same  as  o in  move^ 


6 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


which  is  the  opinion  of  some  grammarians  ; then  there  are  but 
ten  original  vowel  sounds  in  the  English  language. 

The  following  list  denotes  the  sound  of  the  consonants,  being 
in  number  twenty-two. 

Letters  denoting  the  Words  containing  the 

simple  sounds,  simple  sounds. 


h 

- 

- 

- 

as  heard 

in 

- 

.. 

bat,  tub. 

d 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

dog,  sod. 

f 

- 

- 

- 

as 

m 

- 

- 

for,  olf. 

V 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

van,  love. 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

go,  egg. 

h* 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

hop,  ho. 

k 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

kill,  oak. 

1 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

lop,  loll. 

m 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

my,  mum. 

n 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

nod,  nun. 

P 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

pin,  pup. 

r 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

rap,  tar. 

s 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

so,  lass. 

z 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

zed,  buzz. 

t 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

top,  mat. 

w 

- 

- 

- 

as 

h\ 

- 

- 

wo,  will. 

y 

- ' 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

ye,  yes. 

ng 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

king,  sing. 

sh 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

shy,  ash. 

th 

- 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

thin,  thick. 

th 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

then,  them. 

zh 

- 

- 

as 

in 

- 

- 

pleasure. 

Several  letters  marked  in  the  English  alphabet  as  consa» 
Hants,  are  either  superfluous  or  represent,  not  simple,  but  com- 
plex sounds.  (7,  for  instance,  is  superfluous  in  both  its  sounds  ; 
the  one  being  expressed  by  k and  the  other  by  s,  G,  in  the 
soft  pronunciation,  is  not  a simple,  but  a complex  sound  : as 
age  is  pronounced  aidge,  J is  unnecessary,  because  its  sound, 
and  that  of  the  soft  g,  are  in  our  language  the  same.  Q,  with 
its  attendant  i/,  is  either  complex,  and  resolvable  into  kw^  as  in 
quality ; or  unnecessary,  because  its  sound  is  the  same  with  /c, 
as  in  opaque,  X is  compounded  of  gs,  as  in  example ; or  of  fo, 
as  in  expect. 

From  the  preceding  representation  it  appears  to  be  a point  of 
considerable  importance,  that  every  learner  of  the  English 

* Same  j^Tammarians  ^ipppse  h to  mark  only  an  as^pi^ation,  or  breathing  ; but  it  appears  to  be 
a distinct  sound,  and  formed  in  a particular  manner  by  the  oi'gans  of  speech. 

Jtincyclopcedia  Britci7tnica. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


7 


language  should  be  taught  to  pronounce  perfectly,  and  with  fa- 
cility, every  original  simple  sound  that  belongs  to  it.  By  a 
timely  and  judicious  care  in  this  respect,  the  voice  will  be  pre- 
pared to  utter,  with  ease  and  accuracy,  every  combination  of 
sounds  ; and  taught  to  avoid  that  confused  and  imperfect  man- 
ner of  pronouncing  words  which  accompanies,  through  life, 
many  persons,  who  have  not,  in  this  respect,  been  properly  in- 
structed at  an  early  period. 

Letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 

A vowel  is  an  articulate  sound,  that  can  be  per- 
fectly uttered  by  itself : as,  a,  o ; which  are  formed 
without  the  help  of  any  other  sound. 

A consonant  is  an  articulate  sound,  wLich  cannot 
be  perfectly  uttered  without  the  help  of  a vowel;  as, 
6,  d,  y,  /;  which  require  vowels  to  express  them 
fully. 

The  vowels  are,  a,  ^,  o,  w,  and  sometimes  to 
and  y. 

TV  and  y are  consonants  when  they  begin  a word 
or  syllable ; but  in  every  other  situation  they  are 
vowels. 


It  is  generally  acknowledged  by  the  best  grammarians,  that 
w and  y are  consonants  when  they  begin  a syllable  or  word, 
and  vowels  when  they  end  one.  That  they  are  consonants, 
when  used  as  initials,  seems  to  be  evident  from  their  not  ad- 
mitting the  article  an  before  them ; as  it  would  be  improper 
to  say,  an  walnut,  an  yard,  &c.  and  from  their  following  a vowel 
without  any  hiatus  or  difficulty  of  utterance ; as,  frosty  winter, 
rosy  youth.  That  they  are  vowels  in  other  situations,  appears 
from  their  regularly  taking  the  sound  of  other  vowels : as,  w 
has  the  exact  sound  of  u in  saw,  few%  now,  &c.  and  y that 
of  i in  hymn,  fly,  crystal,  &c.  See  the  letters  W and  Y,  pages 
17  and  18.^ 

We  paesent  the  following  as  more  exact  and  philosophical 
definitions  of  a vowel  and  consonant. 

A vowel  is  a simple  articulate  sound,  perfect  in  itself,  and 
formed  by  a continued  effusion  of  the  breath,  and  a certain 
conformation  of  the  mouth,  without  any  alteration  in  the 


The  letters  to  and  y are  of  an  ambiguous  nature ; being  consonants  at  the  beginning  of  wordS; 
and  vowels  at  the  end.  Encyclopc&dia  Britanmca. 

WiUjKER^S  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary,  page  24,  third  edition. 

PERIIY’>S  English  Dictionary,  preface,  page  7. 


8 


orthography. 


jposition  or  any  motion  of  the  organs  of  speech,  from  the  mo- 
ment the  vocal  sound  commences  till  it  ends. 

A consonant  is  a simple,  articulate  sound,  imperfect  by  itself, 
but  which,  joined  with  a vowel,  forms  a complete  sound,  by  a 
particular  motion  or  contact  of  the  organs  of  speech. 

Some  grammarians  subdivide  vowels  into  the  simple  and  the 
compound.  But  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  foundation  for 
the  distinction.  Simplicity  is  essential  to  the  nature  of  a vowel, 
which  excludes  every  degree  of  mixed  or  compound  sounds.  It 
requires,  according  to  the  definition,  but  one  conformation  of  the 
organs  of  speech  to  form  it,  and  no  motion  in  the  organs  whilst 
it  is  forming. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi- 
vowels. 

The  mutes  cannot  be  sounded  at  all  without  the 
aid  of  a vowel.  They  are  6,  if,  and  c and  g 
hard. 

The  semi-vowels  have  an  imperfect  sound  of 
themselves.  They  are/,  r,  5,  and  c 

and  g soft. 

Four  of  the  semi-vowels,  namely  /,  m,  n,  r,  are 
also  distinguished  by  the  name  of  liquids^  from  their 
readily  uniting  with  other  consonants,  and  flowing  as 
it  were  into  their  sounds. 

We  have  shown  above,  that  it  is  essential  to  the  nature  of  a 
consonant,  that  it  cannot  be  fully  uttered  without  the  aid  of  a 
vowel.  We  may  further  observe,  that  even  the  names  of  the 
consonants,  as  they  are  pronounced  in  reciting  the  alphabet,  re- 
quire the  help  of  vowels  to  express  them.  In  pronouncing  the 
names  of  the  mutes,  the  assistant  vowels  follow  the  consonants  : 
as,  he,  pe,  te,  de,  ka.  In  pronouncing  the  names  of  the  semi- 
vowels, the  vowels  generally  precede  the  co-nsonants : as,  ef, 
el,  em,  en,  ar,  es,  ex.  The  exceptions  are,  ce,  ge,  ve,  zed. 

This  distinction  between  the  nature  and  the  name  of  a con- 
sonant is  of  great  importance,  and  should  be  well  explained  to 
the  pupil.  They  are  frequently  confounded  by  writers  on 
grammar.  Observations  and  reasonings  on  the  name,  are 
often  applied  to  explain  the  nature  of  a consonant : and,  by 
this  means,  the  student  is  led  into  error  and  perplexity  res- 
pecting these  elements  of  language.  It  should  be  impressed 
on  his  mind,  that  the  name  of  every  consonant  is  a complex 
sound  ; but  that  the  consonant  itself  is  always  a simple  sound. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


9 


Some  writers  have  described  the  mutes  and  semi- vowels,  with 
their  subdivisions,  nearly  in  the  following  manner. 

The  mutes  are  those  consonants  whose  sounds  cannot  be 
protracted.  The  semi-vowels,  such  whose  sounds  can  be  con- 
tinued at  pleasure,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  vowels,  from 
which  they  derive  their  name. 

The  mutes  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and  impure. 

The  pure  are  those  whose  sounds  cannot  be  at  all  prolonged  ; 
they  are  k,  p,  t.  The  impure,  are  those  whose  sounds  may  be 
continued,  though  for  a very  short  space  : they  are  fe,  d,  g. 

The  semi- vowels  may  be  subdivided  into  vocal  and  aspirated. 
The  vocal  are  those  which  are  formed  by  the  voice ; the  as- 
pirated, those  formed  by  the  breath.  There  are  eleven  vocal, 
and  five  aspirated.  The  vocal  are  Z,  m,  n,  r,  v,  w,  y,  z,  th  flat, 
zh,  ng : the  aspirated,  f,  h,  s,  th  sharp,  sh. 

The  vocal  semi-vowels  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and 
impure.  The  pure  are  those  which  are  formed  entirely  by  the 
voice  : the  impure,  such  as  have  a mixture  of  breath  with  the 
voice.  There  are  seven  pure — Z,  m,  n,  r,  w,  y,  ng : four  impure 
— V,  z,  th  flat,  zh. 


A diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels,  pronounced 
by  a single  impulse  of  the  voice  : as  ea  in  beat,  ou  in 
sound. 

A triplithong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels,  pro- 
nounced in  like  manner:  as  eau  in  beau,  iew  in  view. 

A proper  diphthong  is  that  in  which  both  the 
vowels  are  sounded  : as  oi  in  voice,  ou  in  ounce. 

An  improper  diphthong  has  but  one  of  the  vowels 
sounded  : as  ea  in  eagle,  oa  in  boat. 

Each  of  the  diphthongal  letters,  was,  doubtless,  originally 
heard  in  pronouncing  the  words  which  contain  them.  Though 
this  is  not  the  case  at  present,  with  respect  to  many  of  them, 
these  combinations  still  retain  the  name  of  diphthongs  ; but,  to 
distinguish  them,  they  are  marked  by  the  term  improper.  As 
the  diphthong  derives  its  name  and  nature  from  the  sound,  and 
not  from  its  letters,  and  properly  denotes  a double  vowel  sound, 
no  union  of  two  vowels,  where  one  is  silent,  can,  in  strictness, 
be  entitled  to  that  appellation  ; and  the  single  letters  i and  u, 
when  pronounced  long,  must,  in  this  view,  be  considered  as 
diphthongs.  The  triphthongs,  having  at  most  but  two  sounds, 
are  merely  ocular,  and  are,  therefore,  by  some  grammarians, 
classed  with  the  diphthongs. 

VoL.  I. 


4 


10 


ORTHOGRAPHY, 


SECTION  II. 

General  observations  on  the  sound  of  the  letters. 

A. 

A has  four  sounds ; the  long  or  slender,  the  broad,  the  short 
or  open,  and  the  middle. 

The  long  ; as  in  name,  basin,  creation. 

The  broad  ; as  in  call,  wall,  all. 

The  short ; as  in  barrel,  fancy,  glass. 

The  middle  ; as  in  far,  farm,  farther. 

The  diphthong  aa  generally  sounds  like  a short  in  proper 
names  ; as  in  Balaam,  Canaan,  Isaac  ; but  not  in  Baal,  Gaal. 

Ae  has  the  sound  of  long  e.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  Latin 
words.  Some  authors  retain  this  form  ; as,  senigma,  aequator, 
&c. ; but  others  have  laid  it  aside,  and  write  enigma,  Cesar, 
Eneas,  &c. 

The  diphthong  ai  has  exactly  the  long  slender  sound  of  a ; as 
in  pail,  tail,  &c.  ; pronounced  pale,  tale,  &c.  ; except  plaid, 
again,  raillery,  fountain,  Britain,  and  a few  others. 

Au  is  generally  sounded  like  the  broad  a ; as  in  taught, 
caught,  &c.  Sometimes  like  the  short  or  open  a ; as  in  aunt, 
flaunt,  gauntlet,  &c.  • It  has  the  sound  of  long  o in  hautboy  ; 
and  that  of  o short  in  laurel,  laudanum,  &c. 

Aw  has  always  the  sound  of  broad  a : as  in  bawl,  scrawl, 
crawl. 

Ay,  like  its  near  relation  ai,  is  pronounced  like  the  long 
slender  sound  of  a ; as  in  pay,  day,  delay. 

B. 

B keeps  one  unvaried  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and 
end  of  words ; as  in  baker,  number,  rhubarb,  &c. 

In  some  words  it  is  silent ; as  in  thumb,  debtor,  subtle,  &c. 
In  others,  besides  being  silent,  it  lengthens  the  syllable  ; as  in 
climb,  comb,  tomb. 

C. 

C has  two  different  sounds. 

A hard  sound  like  k,  before  a,  o,  u,  r,  I,  t ; as  in  cart,  cottage, 
curious,  craft,  tract,  cloth,  &c.:  and  when  it  ends  a syllable;  as 
in  victim,  flaccid. 

A soft  sound  like  s before  e,  z,  and  y,  generally : as  in  centre, 
face,  civil,  cymbal,  mercy,  &c.  It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of 
sli ; as  in  ocean,  social. 

C is  mute  in  czar,  czarina,  victuals,  &c. 

C,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  according  to  English  orthography, 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


11 


never  ends  a word  ; and  therefore  we  find  in  our  best  diction- 
aries, stick,  block,  publick,  politick,  &c.  But  many  writers  of 
later  years  omit  the  k in  words  of  two  or  more  syllables : and 
this  practice  is  gaining  ground,  though  it  is  productive  of 
irregularities ; such  as  writing  mimic  and  mimickry  ; traffic  and 
trafficking. 

Ch  is  commonly  sounded  like  tch ; as  in  church,  chin,  chaff, 
charter : but  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  has  the  sound 
of  k;  as  in  chymist,  scheme,  chorus,  chyle,  distich:  and  in 
foreign  names ; as  Achish,  Baruch,  Enoch,  &c. 

CA,  in  some  words  derived  from  the  French,  takes  the  sound 
of  sli ; as  in  chaise,  chagrin,  chevalier,  machine. 

Ch  in  arch,  before  a vowel,  sounds  like  k ; as  in  arch-angel, 
archives.  Archipelago, ; except  in  arched,  archery,  archer,  and 
arch-enemy:  but  before  a consonant  it  always  sounds  like  tch; 
as  in  archbishop,  archduke,  archpresbyter,  &c.  Ch  is  silent  in 
schedule,  schism,  and  yacht. 

D. 

D keeps  one  uniform  sound  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and 
end  of  words  ; as  in  death,  bandage,  kindred ; unless  it  may 
be  said  to  take  the  sound  of  f,  in  stuffed,  tripped,  &c.  stuft, 
tript.  &c. 

E. 

jE  has  three  different  sounds. 

A long  sound  ; as  in  scheme,  glebe,  severe,  pulley,  turkey, 
behave,  prejudge.  See  Prosody.  Chapter  I.  Section  2.  On 
Quantity.” 

A short  sound : as  in  men,  bed,  clemency. 

An  obscure  and  scarcely  perceptible  sound  ; as  open,  lucre, 
participle. 

It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  middle  a ; as  in  clerk,  ser- 
jeant : and  sometimes  that  of  short  i ; as  in  England,  yes, 
pretty. 

E is  always  mute  at  the  end  of  a word,  except  in  monosylla- 
bles that  have  no  other  vowel ; as  me,  he,  she  : or  in  substant- 
ives derived  from  the  Greek ; as  catastrophe,  epitome,  Penelope. 
It  is  used  to  soften  and  modify  the  foregoing  consonants ; as 
force,  rage,  since,  oblige : or  to  lengthen  the  preceding  vowel ; 
as  can,  cane  ; pin,  pine  ; rob,  robe. 

The  diphthong  ea  is  generally  sounded  like  e long ; as  in 
appear,  beaver,  creature,  &c.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  short 
e;  as  in  breath,  meadow,  treasure.  And  it  is  sometimes 
pronounced  like  the  long  and  slender  a ; as  in  bear,  break,  great, 

Eau  has  the  sound  of  long  o ; as  in  beau,  flambeau,  port- 


12 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


manteau.  In  beauty  and  its  compounds,  it  has  the  sound  of 
long  w. 

Ei^  in  general,  sounds  the  same  as  long  and  slender  a ; as  in 
deign,  vein,  neighbour,  &c.  It  has  the  sound  of  long  e in  seize, 
deceit,  receive,  either,  neither,  &c.  It  is  sometimes  pronounced 
like  short  i ; as  in  foreign,  forfeit,  sovereign,  &c. 

Eo  is  pronounced  like  e long ; as  in  people ; and  sometimes 
like  short  e ; as  in  leopard,  jeopardy.  It  has  also  the  sound  of 
short  w ; as  in  dungeon,  sturgeon,  puncheon,  &c. 

Eu  is  always  sounded  like  long  u or  ew\  as  in  feud,  deuce. 

Ew  is  almost  always  pronounced  like  long  w ; as  in  new,  few, 
dew. 

jEy,  when  the  accent  is  on  it,  is  always  pronounced  like  a long ; 
as  in  bey,  grey,  convey ; except  in  key,  ley,  where  it  is  sounded 
like  long  e. 

When  this  diphthong  is  unaccented,  it  takes  the  sound  of  e 
long;  as,  alley,  valley,  barley.  See  Prosody.  Chapter  1. 
Section  2.  On  “ Quantity.” 


F. 

F keeps  one  pure  unvaried  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  end  of  words  ; as  fancy,  muffin,  mischief,  &c. ; except  in 
o/*,  in  which  it  has  the  flat  sound  of  ov ; but  not  in  composition ; 
as  whereof,  thereof,  &c.  We  should  not  pronounce  a wive’s 
jointure,  a calve’s  head  ; but  a wife’s  jointure,  a calPs  head. 


G has  two  sounds  : one  hard  ; as  in  gay,  go,  gun : the  other 
soft ; as  in  gem,  giant. 

At  the  end  of  a word  it  is  always  hard  ; as  in  bag,  snug,  frog. 
It  is  hard  before  a,  o,  u,  1,  and  r ; as  game,  gone,  gull,  glory, 
grandeur. 

G before  e,  i,  and  y,  is  soft as  in  genius,  gesture,  ginger, 
iJgypt ; except  in  get,  gegaw,  finger,  craggy,  and  some  others. 

G is  mute  before  n ; as  in  gnash,  sign,  foreign,  &c. 

Grij  at  the  end  of  a word  or  syllable  accented,  gives  the  pre- 
cedingvowel  a long  sound  as  in  resign,  impugn,  oppugn,  impregn, 
impugned  : pronounced,  impune,  imprene,  &c. 

Gh,  at  the  beginning  of  a word,  has  the  sound  of  hard  g : as 
ghost,  ghastly : in  the  middle,  and  sometimes  at  the  end  it  is  quite 
silent ; as  in  right,  high,  plough,  mighty. 

At  the  end  it  has  often  the  sound  of  f : as  in  laugh,  cough, 
tough.  Sometimes  only  the  g is  sounded ; as  in  burgh, 
burgher. 

H. 

The  sound  signified  by  this  letter  is,  as  before  observed, 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


13 


an  articulate  sound,  and  not  merely  an  aspiration.  It  is  heard 
in  the  words,  hat,  horse,  Hull.  It  is  seldom  mute  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a word.  It  is  always  silent  after  r : as,  rhetoric,  rheum, 
rhubarb. 

H final,  preceded  by  a vowel,  is  always  silent : as,  ah  ! hah  ! 
oh  ! foh  ! Sarah,  Messiah. 

From  the  faintness  of  the  sound  of  this  letter,  in  many  words, 
and  its  total  silence  in  others,  added  to  the  negligence  of  tutors, 
and  the  inattention  of  pupils,  it  has  happened,  that  many  per- 
sons have  become  almost  incapable  of  acquiring  its  just  and 
full  pronunciation.  It  is,  therefore,  incumbent  on  teachers  to 
be  particularly  careful  to  inculcate  a clear  and  distinct  utterance 
of  this  sound. 

I. 

/has  a long  sound  ; as  in  fine  ; and  a short  one  ; as  in  fin. 

The  long  sound  is  always  marked  by  the  e final  in  monosyl- 
lables ; as,  thin,  thine ; except  give,  live.  Before  r it  is  often 
sounded  like  short  u ; as  flirt,  first.  In  some  words  it  has  the 
sound  of  e long  ; as  in  machine,  bombazine,  magazine.  i 

The  diphthong  ia  is  frequently  sounded  like  ya  ; as  in  Chris- 
tian, filial,  poniard  ; pronounced  christ-yan,  &c.  It  has 
sometimes  the  sound  of  short  i ; as  in  carriage,  marriage,  p?ir- 
liament.  ’ 

le  sounds  in  general  like  e long  ; as  in  grief,  thief,  grenadier. 
It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  i ; as  in  die,  pie,  lie  ; and  sonse- 
times  that  of  short  i ; as  in  sieve. 

leu  has  the  sound  of  long  u ; as  in  lieu,  adieu,  purlieu. 

/o,  when  the  accent  is  upon  the  first  vowel,  forms  two  dis- 
tinct syllables  ; as  priory,  violet,  violent.  The  terminations 
tion  and  sion,  are  sounded  exactly  like  the  verb  shun ; except 
when  the  t is  preceded  by  5 or  x ; as  in  question,  digestion, 
combustion,  mixtion,  &c. 

The  triphthong  iou  is  sometimes  pronounced  distinctly  in 
two  syllables ; as  in  bilious,  various,  abstemious.  But  these 
vowels  often  coalesce  into  one  syllable ; as  in  precious,  fac- 
tious, noxious. 

J. 

J is  pronounced  exactly  like  soft  g ; except  in  hallelujah, 
where  it  is  pronounced  like  y. 

K. 

//has  the  sound  of  c hard,  and  is  used  before  e and  i,  where> 
according  to  English  analogy,  c would  be  soft : as,  kept,  king, 
skirts.  It  is  not  sounded  before  n ; as  in  knife,  knell,  knocker, 
It  is  never  doubled  ; except  in  Habbakkuk  ; but  c is  used  before 


14 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


it,  to  shorten  the  vowel  by  a double  consonant : as,  cockle, 
pickle,  sucker. 

L. 

L has  always  a soft  liquid  sound  ; as  in  love,  billow,  quarrel. 
It  is  sometimes  mute ; as  in  half,  talk,  psalm.  The  custom 
is  to  double  the  I at  the  end  of  monosyllables  ; as,  mill,  will, 
fall ; except  where  a diphthong  precedes  it  ; as  hail,  toil,  soiL 

ie,  at  the  end  of  words,  is  pronounced  like  a weak  eZ,  in 
which  the  e is  almost  mute  : as,  table,  shuttle. 

M. 

M has  always  the  same  sound  : as,  murmur,  monumental 
except  in  comptroller,  which  is  pronounced  controller. 

N. 

iVhas  two  sounds ; the  one  pure  ; as  in  man,  net,  noble,  the 
other  a ringing  sound  like  7ig  ; as  in  thank,  banquet,  &c. 

A is  mute  when  it  ends  a syllable,  and  is  preceded  by  m ; 
as  h/mn,  solemn,  autumn. 

The  participial  ing  must  always  have  its  ringing  sound  ; as 
wriang,  reading,  speaking.  Some  writers  have  supposed  that 
when  ing  is  preceded  by  ing,  it  should  be  pronounced  in ; as 
sirging,  bringing,  should  be  sounded  singin^  bvingin  ; but  as  it 
is  a good  rule  with  respect  to  pronunciation  to  adhere  to  the 
written  words,  unless  custom  has  clearly  decided  otherwise,  it 
dees  not  seem  proper  to  adopt  this  innovation. 

O. 

0 has  a long  sound ; as  in  note,  bone,  obedient,  over  ; and 
a short  one  ; as  in  lot,  got,  not,  trot. 

It  has  sometimes  the  short  sound  of  w ; as  son,  come,  attor- 
ney. And  in  some  words  it  is  sounded  like  oo ; as  in  prove, 
move  ; and  often  like  an  ; as  in  nor,  for,  lord. 

The  diphthong  oa  is  regularly  pronounced  as  the  long  sound 
of  o ; as  in  boat,  oat,  coal  ; except  in  broad,  abroad,  groat, 
where  it  takes  the  sound  of  broad  a ; as  brawd,  &c. 

Oe  has  the  sound  of  single  e.  It  is  sometimes  long  ; as  in 
foetus,  antoeci : and  sometimes  short ; as  in  oeconomics,  oecu- 
menical. In  doe,  foe,  sloe,  toe,  throe,  hoe,  and  bilboes,  it  is 
sounded  exactly  like  long  o. 

01  has  almost  universally  the  double  sound  of  a broad  and  e 
long  united,  as  in  boy ; as  boil,  toil,  spoil,  joint,  point,  anoint  ; 
which  should  never  be  pronounced  as  if  written  bile,  spile, 
tile,  &c. 

Oo  almost  always  preserves  its  regular  sound ; as  in  moon,, 
soon,  food.  It  has  a shorter  sound  in  wool,  good,  foot,  and  a 


orthography. 


15 


few  others.  In  blood  and  flood  it  sounds  like  short  w.  Door 
and  floor  should  always  be  pronounced  as  if  written  dore  and 
flore. 

The  dipthong  ou  has  six  different  sounds.  The  first  and 
proper  sound  is  equivalent  to  ow  in  down  ; as  in  bound,  found, 
surround. 

The  second  is  that  of  short  u ; as  in  enough,  trouble,  jour- 
ney. 

The  third  is  that  of  oo ; as  in  soup,  youth,  tournament. 

The  fourth  is  that  of  long  o ; as  in  though,  mourn,  poultice. 

The  fifth  is  that  of  short  o ; as  in  cough,  trough. 

The  sixth  is  that  of  awe ; as  in  ought,  brought,  thought. 

Ow  is  generally  sounded  like  ou  in  thou ; as  in  brown,  dowry, 
shower.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  o ; as  in  snow,  grown, 
bestow. 

The  dipthong  oy  is  but  another  form  for  oi,  and  is  pronounced 
exactly  like  it. 

P. 

P has  always  the  same  sound,  except,  perhaps,  in  cupboard, 
where  it  sounds  like  b.  It  is  sometimes  mute ; as  in  psalm, 
psalter,  Ptolemy ; and  between  m and  t ; as  in  tempt,  empty, 
presumptuous. 

Ph  is  generally  pronounced  like  f ; as  in  philosophy,  philan- 
throphy,  Philip. 

In  nephew  and  Stephen,  it  has  the  sound  of  v.  In  apoph- 
thegm, phthisis,  phthisic,  and  phthisical,  both  letters  are  entirely 
dropped. 


Q. 

Q is  always  followed  by  u;  as,  quadrant,  queen,  quire. 

Qu  is  sometimes  sounded  like  k ; as  conquer,  liquor,  risque. 

R. 

R has  a rough  sound  ; as  in  Rome,  river,  rage : and  a smooth 
one  ; as  in  bard,  card,  regard. 

Re  at  the  end  of  words,  is  pronounced  like  a weak  er ; as  a 
theatre,  sepulchre,  massacre. 

S. 

S has  two  different  sounds. 

A soft  and  flat  sound  like  z ; as  besom,  nasal,  dismaL 
A sharp  hissing  sound  ; as  saint,  sister,  Cyprus. 

It  is  always  sharp  at  the  beginning  of  words. 

This  letter  has  also  the  sound  of  zh ; as  in  pleasure,  measure, 
treasure,  crosier. 

At  the  end  of  words  it  takes  the  soft  sound  ; as  his,  was,  trees, 


16 


OR«rOGRAPHY. 


eyes  5 except  in  the  words  this,  thus,  us,  yes,  rebus,  surplus,  &c. 
and  in  words  terminating  with  ous. 

It  sounds  like  2:  before  ion,  if  a vowel  goes  before ; as,  intru- 
sion ; but  like  s sharp,  if  it  follows  a consonant ; as,  conversion. 

It  also  sounds  like  z before  e mute  ; as,  amuse ; and  before  y 
final ; as,  rosy ; and  in  the  words  bosom,  desire,  wisdom,  &c. 

S is  mute  in  isle,  island,  demesne,  viscount. 

T. 

T generally  sounds,  as  in  take,  temper.  T before  u,  when 
the  accent  precedes,  sounds  like  tch : as,  nature,  virtue,  are  pro- 
nounced, natchure,  virtchue.  Ti  before  a vowel  has  the  sound 
of  sh ; as  in  salvation  : except  in  such  words  at  tierce,  tiara,  &c. 
and  unless  an  s goes  before  : as,  question  : and  excepting  also 
derivatives  from  words  ending  in  ty ; as  mighty,  mightier. 

Th  has  two  sounds : the  one  soft  and  flat ; as  thus,  weather, 
heathen : the  other  hard  and  sharp : as,  thing,  think,  breath. 

Th,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  is  sharp  ; as  in  thank,  thick, 
thunder : except  in  that,  then,  thus,  thither,  and  some  others. 

Th,  at  the  end  of  words,  is  also  sharp:  as  death,  breath, 
mouth  ; except  in  with,  booth,  beneath,  &c. 

Th,  in  the  middle  of  words,  is  sharp  ; as,  panther,  orthodox, 
misanthrope;  except  worthy,  farthing,  brethren,  and  a few 
others. 

Th,  between  two  vowels,  is  generally  flat  in  words  purely 
English : as,  father,  heathen,  together,  neither,  mother. 

Th,  between  two  vowels,  in  words  from  the  learned  languages, 
is  generally  sharp : as,  apathy,  sympathy,  Atheils,  theatre,  apoth- 
ecary. 

Th  is  sometimes  pronounced  like  simple  t : as,  Thomas,  thyme, 
Thames,  asthma. 

U. 


U has  three  sounds,  viz. 

A long  sound ; as  in  mule,  tube,  cubic. 

A short  sound  ; as  in  dull,  gull,  custard. 

An  obtuse  sound,  like  00  ; as  in  bull,  full,  bushel. 

The  strangest  deviation  of  this  letter  from  its  natural  sound,  ^ 
is  in  the  words  busy,  business,  bury,  and  burial ; which  are  pro- 
nounced bizzy,  bizness,  berry,  and  berrial. 

A is  now  often  used  before  words  beginning  with  u long,  and 
an  always  before  those  that  begin  with  u short ; as  a union,  a 
university,  a useful  book  ; an  uproar,  an  usher,  an  umbrella. 

The  dipthong  ua  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  wa ; as  in  as- 
suage, persuade,  antiquary.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  middle  a ; 
as  in  guard,  guardian,  guarantee. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


17 


Ue  is  often  sounded  like  we ; as  in  quench,  querist,  conquest. 
It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  u ; as  in  cue,  hue,  ague.  In  a few 
words,  it  is  pronounced  like  e short ; as  in  guest,  guess.  In 
some  words  it  is  entirely  sunk  ; as  in  antique,  oblique,  prorogue, 
catalogue,  dialogue,  &c. 

Ui  is  frequently  pronounced  wi ; as  in  languid,  anguish, 
extinguish.  It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  i long ; as  in  guide, 
guile,  disguise : and  sometimes  that  of  i short ; as  in  guilt, 
guinea,  guildhall.  In  some  words  it  is  sounded  like  long  u ; 
as  in  juice,  suit,  pursuit : and  after  r,  like  oo  ; as  in  bruise,  fruit, 
recruit. 

Uo  is  pronounced  like  wo  ; as  in  quote,  quoram,  quondam. 

Uy  has  the  sound  of  long  e ; as  in  obloquy,  soliloquy  ; pro- 
nounced obloquee,  &c.  except  buy  and  its  derivatives. 

V. 

V has  the  sound  of  flat  jT,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to  it, 
as  h does  to  p,  d to  t,  hard  g to  A:,  and  to  s.  It  has  also  one 
uniform  sound  ; as  in  vain,  vanity,  love. 

W. 

W,  when  a consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  oo ; as  water 
resembles  the  sound  of  ooater  ; but  that  it  has  a stronger  and 
quicker  sound  than  oo,  and  has  a formation  essentially  different, 
will  appear  to  any  person  who  pronounces  with  attention,  the 
words  zoo,  1000,  ’keware ; and  who  reflects  that  it  will  not  admit 
the  article  an  before  it ; which  oo  would  admit.  In  some  words 
it  is  not  sounded  ; as  in  answer,  sword,  wholesome  : it  is  also 
silent  before  r ; as  in  wrap,  wreck,  wrinkle,  wrist,  wrong,  wry; 
bewray,  &c. 

W before  h is  pronounced  as  if  it  were  after  the  h ; as,  why, 
hwy  ; when,  hwen,  what,  hwat. 

W is  often  joined  to  o at  the  end  of  a syllable,  without 
affecting  the  sound  of  that  vowel ; as  in  crow,  blow,  grow, 
know,  row,  flow,  &c. 

When  z/;  is  a vow^el,  and  is  distinguished  in  the  pronunciation, 
it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  u would  have  in  the  same 
situation ; as  draw,  crew,  view,  now,  sawyer,  vowel,  outlaw. 

X. 

X has  three  sounds,  viz. 

It  is  sounded  like  z at  the  beginning  of  proper  names  of  Greek 
original ; as  in  Xarithus,  Xenophon,  Xerxes. 

It  has  a sharp  sound  like  ks  when  it  ends  a syllable  with 
the  accent  upon  it:  as,  exit,  exercise,  excellence,  or  when 

VoL.  I.  5 


18 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


the  accent  is  on  the  next  syllable,  if  it  begins  with  a consonant ; 
as,  excuse,  extent,  expense. 

It  has,  generally,  a flat  sound  like  g%,  when  the  accent  is  not 
on  it,  and  the  following  syllable  begins  with  a vowel ; as,  exert, 
exist,  example  ; pronounced,  egzert,  egzist,  egzamble. 

Y. 

F,  when  a consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  ee ; as,  youth, 
York,  resemble  the  sound  of  eeouth,  eeork : but  that  this  is 
not  its  exact  sound,  will  be  clearly  perceived  by  pronouncing 
the  words  yc,  yes^  new-year,  in  which  its  just  and  proper  sound 
is  ascertained.  It  not  only  requires  a stronger  exertion  of  the 
organs  of  speech  to  pronounce  it,  than  is  required  to  pronounce 
ee;  but  its  formation  is  essentially  different.  It  will  not  admit 
of  an  before  it,  as  ee  will  in  the  following  example ; an  eel.  The 
opinion  that  y and  when  they  begin  a word  or  syllable,  take 
exactly  the  sound  of  ee  and  oo,  has  induced  some  grammarians 
to  assert,  that  these  letters  are  always  vowels  or  diphthongs. 

When  j/  is  a vowel,  it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  i would 
have  in  the  same  situation  ; as,  rhyme,  system,  justify,  pyramid, 
party,  fancy,  hungry.  See  Prosody.  Chapter  I.  Section  2. 
On  ‘‘Quantity.” 


Z. 

Z has  the  sound  of  an  s uttered  with  a closer  compression  of 
the  palate  by  the  tongue  : it  is  the  flat  s ; as  freeze,  frozen,  brazen. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  the  sounds  of  the  letters 
vary,  as  they  are  differently  associated,  and  that  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  these  associations  depends  upon  the  position  of  the 
accent.  It  may  also  be  observed,  that,  in  order  to  pronounce 
accurately,  great  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  vowels  which 
are  not  accented.  There  is  scarcely  any  thing  which  more 
distinguishes  a person  of  a poor  education,  from  a person  of  a 
good  one,  than  the  pronunciation  of  the  unaccented  vowels. 
When  vowels  are  under  the  accent,  the  best  speakers  and  the 
lowest  of  the  people,  with  very  few  exceptions,  pronounce 
them  in  the  same  manner ; but  the  unaccented  vowels  in  the 
mouths  of  the  former,  have  a distinct,  open,  and  specific  sound, 
while  the  latter  often  totally  sink  them,  or  change  them  into 
some  other  sound. 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


19 


SECTION  III. 


Of  the  organs  of  articulation. 

A CONCISE  account  of  the  origin  and  formation  of  the  sounds 
emitted  by  the  human  voice,  may,  perhaps,  not  improperly  be 
here  introduced.  It  may  gratify  the  ingenious  student,  and 
serve  to  explain  more  fully  the  nature  of  articulation,  and  the 
radical  distinction  between  vowels  and  consonants. 

“Human  voice  is  air  sent  out  from  the  lungs,  and  so  agitated 
or  modified  in  its  passage  through  the  windpipe  and  larynx 
as  to  become  distinctly  audible.  The  windpipe  is  that  tube, 
which,  on  touching  the  fore  part  of  our  throat  externally,  we 
feel  hard  and  uneven.  It  conveys  air  into  the  lungs  for  the 
purpose  of  breathing  and  speech.  The  top  or  upper  part 
of  the  windpipe  is  called  the  larynx,  consisting  of  four  or  five 
cartilages  that  may  be  expanded  or  brought  together,  by  the 
action  of  certain  muscles  which  operate  all  at  the  same  time. 
In  the  middle  of  the  larynx  there  is  a small  opening  called  the 
glottis,  through  which  the  breath  and  voice  are  conveyed.  This 
opening  is  not  wider  than  one  tenth  of  an  inch : and  therefore, 
the  breath  transmitted  through  it  from  the  lungs,  must  pass 
with  considerable  velocity.  The  voice  thus  formed  is  strength- 
ened and  softened,  by  a reverberation  from  the  palate  and  other 
hollow  places  in  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  nostrils ; and  as 
these  are  better  or  worse  shaped  for  this  reverberation,  the 
voice  is  said  to  be  more  or  less  agreeable. 

If  we  consider  the  many  varieties  of  sound,  which  one  and 
the  same  human  voice  is  capable  of  uttering,  together  with  the 
smallness  of  the  diameter  of  the  glottis  ; and  reflect,  that  the 
same  diameter  must  always  produce  the  same  tone,  and  con- 
sequently, that  to  every  change  of  tone  a correspondent  change 
of  diameter  is  necessary  ; we  must  be  filled  with  admiration 
at  the  mechanism  of  these  parts,  and  the  fineness  of  the  fibres 
that  operate  in  producing  effects  so  minute,  so  various,  and  in 
their  proportions  so  exactly  uniform.  For  it  admits  of  proof, 
that  the  diameter  of  the  human  glottis  is  capable  of  more  than 
sixty  distinct  degrees  of  contraction  or  enlargement,  by  each 
of  which  a different  note  is  produced  ; and  yet  the  greatest 
diameter  of  that  aperture,  as  before  observed,  does  not  exceed 
one  tenth  of  an  inch. 

Speech  is  made  up  of  articulate  voices ; and  what  w^e  call 
articulation,  is  performed,  not  by  the  lungs,  windpipe,  or  la- 
rynx, but  by  the  action  of  the  throat,  palate,  teeth,  tongue, 


20 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


lips,  and  nostrils.  Articulation  begins  not  till  the  breath,  or 
voice  has  passed  through  the  larynx. 

The  simplest  articulate  voices  are  those  which  proceed  from 
an  open  mouth,  and  are  by  grammarians  called  vowel  sounds. 
In  transmitting  these,  the  aperture  of  the  mouth  may  be  pretty 
large,  or  somewhat  smaller,  or  very  small ; which  is  one  cause 
of  the  variety  of  vowels ; a particular  sound  being  produced 
by  each  particular  aperture.  Moreover,  in  passing  through  an 
open  mouth,  the  voice  may  be  genthj  acted  upon  by  the  lips,  or 
by  the  tongue  and  palate,  or  by  the  tongue  and  throat ; whence 
another  source  of  variety  in  vowel  sounds. 

Thus  ten  or  twelve  simple  vowel  sounds  may  be  formed, 
agreeably  to  the  plan  in  page  5 ; and  the  learners,  by  observing 
the  position  of  their  mouth,  lips,  tongue,  &c.  when  they  are  ut- 
tering the  sounds,  will  perceive  that  various  operations  of  these 
organs  of  speech  are  necessary  to  the  production  of  the  different 
vowel  sounds  ; and  that  by  minute  variations  they  may  all  be 
distinctly  pronounced. 

When  the  voice,  in  its  passage  through  the  mouth,  is  totally 
intercepted,  or  strongly  compressed,  there  is  formed  a certain 
modification  of  articulate  sound,  which,  as  expressed  by  a char- 
acter in  writing,  is  called  a consonant.  Silence  is  the  effect  of 
a total  interception  ; and  indistinct  sound,  of  a strong  compres- 
sion ; and  therefore  a consonant  is  not  of  itself  a distinct  artic- 
ulate voice  ; and  its  influence  in  varying  the  tones  of  language 
is  not  clearly  perceived,  unless  it  be  accompanied  by  an  open- 
ing of  the  mouth,  that  is,  by  a vowel. 

By  making  the  experiment  with  attention,  the  student  will 
perceive  that  each  of  the  mutes  is  formed  by  the  voice  being 
intercepted  hy  the  lips,  by  the  tongue  and  palate,  or  by  the 
tongue  and  throat ; and  that  the  semi-vowels  are  formed  by  the 
same  organs  strongly  compressing  the  voice  in  its  passage,  but 
not  totally  intercepting  it. 

The  elements  of  language,  according  to  the  different  seats 
where  they  are  formed,  or  the  several  organs  of  speech  chiefly 
concerned  in  their  pronunciation,  are  divided  into  several  clas- 
ses, and  denominated  as  follows : those  are  called  labials,  which 
are  formed  by  the  lips ; those  dentals,  that  are  formed  with  the 
teeth ; palatals,  that  are  formed  with  the  palate  ; and  nasals, 
that  are  formed  by  the  nose. 

The  importance  of  obtaining  in  early  life,  a clear,  distinct, 
and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  sounds  of  the  first  principles  of 
language,  and  a wish  to  lead  young  minds  to  a further  consid- 
eration of  a subject  so  curious  and  useful,  have  induced  the 
compiler  to  bestow  particular  attention  on  the  proceeding  part 
of  his  work.  Some  writers  think  that  these  subjects  do  not 
properly  constitute  any  part  of  grammar ; and  consider  them 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


21 


as  the  exclusive  province  of  the  spelling-book:  but  if  we  reflect, 
that  letters  and  their  sounds  are  the  constituent  principles  of 
that  art  which  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  with  propriety, 
and  that,  in  general,  very  little  knowledge  of  their  nature  is 
acquired  by  the  spelling-book,  we  must  admit,  that  they  prop- 
erly belong  to  grammar ; and  that  a rational  consideration  of 
these  elementary  principles  of  language  is  an  object  that  de- 
mands the  attention  of  the  young  grammarian.  The  sentiments 
of  a very  judicious  and  eminent  writer,  (Quinctilian,)  respecting 
this  part  of  grammar,  may,  perhaps,  be  properly  introduced  on 
the  present  occasion. 

“ Let  no  persons  despise,  as  inconsiderable,  the  elements  of 
grammar,  because  it  may  seem  to  tliem  a matter  of  small  con- 
sequence, to  show  the  distinction  between  vowels  and  conso- 
nants, and  to  divide  the  latter  into  liquids  and  mutes.  But  they 
who  penetrate  into  the  innermost  parts  of  this  temple  of  science, 
wall  there  discover  such  refinement  and  subtility  of  matter,  as 
are  not  only  proper  to  sharpen  the  understandings  of  young 
persons,  but  sufficient  to  give  exercise  for  the  most  profound 
knowledge  and  erudition.” 

The  elementary  sounds  under  their  smallest  combination 
produce  a syllable;  syllables  properly  combined  produce  a 
word ; words  duly  combined  produce  a sentence ; and  sen- 
tences properly  combined  produce  an  oration  or  discourse. 
Thus  it  is,  says  Harris,  in  his  Hermes,  that  to  principles  ap- 
parently so  trivial  as  a few  plain  elementary  sounds,  we  owe 
that  variety  of  articulate  voices,  which  has  been  sufficient  to 
explain  the  sentiments  of  so  innumerable  a multitude  as  all  the 
present  and  past  generations  of  men. 


CHAPTER  H. 

OF  SYLLABLES,  AND  THE  RULES  FOR  ARRANGING  THEM. 

A SYLLABLE  a souiid,  either  simple  or  com-* 
pounded,  pronounced  by  a single  impulse  of  the 
voice,  and  constituting  a word,  or  a part  of  a word : 
as,  a,  an,  ant. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  rightly  dividing  words  into 
their  syllables,  or  expressing  a word  by  its  proper 
letters. 


22 


ORTHOGRArUY 


The  following  are  the  general  rules  for  the  division  of  words 
into  syllables. 

1.  A single  consonant  between  two  vowels  must  be  joined 
to  the  latter  syllable:  as,  de-light,  bri-dal,  re-source ; except 
the  letter  x , as,  ex-ist,  ex-amine ; and  except  likewise  words 
compounded : as  up-on,  un-even,  dis-ease. 

2.  Two  consonants  proper  to  begin  a word  must  not  be 
separated  : as,  fa-ble,  sti-fle.  But  when  they  come  between 
two  vowels,  and  are  such  as  cannot  begin  a word,  they  must  be 
divided  : as,  ut-most,  un-der,  in-sect,  ei"-ror,  cof-fin. 

3.  When  three  consonants  meet  in  the  middle  of  a word,  if 
they  can  begin  a word,  and  the  preceding  vowel  is  pronounced 
long,  they  are  not  to  be  separated  : as,  de-throne,  de-stroy.  But 
w^hen  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable  is  pronounced  short, 
one  of  the  consonants  always  belongs  to  that  syllable : as,  dis- 
tract, dis-prove,  dis-train. 

4.  When  three  or  four  consonants,  which  are  not  proper  to 
begin  a syllable,  meet  between  two  vowels,  such  of  them  as 
can  begin  a syllable  belong  to  the  latter,  the  rest  to  the  former 
syllable : as,  ab-stain,  com-plete,  em-broil,  trans-gress,  dap-ple, 
con-strain,  hand-some,  parch-ment. 

5.  Two  vowels,  not  being  a dipthong,  must  be  divided  into 
separate  syllables  ; as,  cru-el,  de-ni-al,  so-ci-e-ty. 

6.  Compounded  words  must  be  traced  into  the  simple  words 
of  which  they  are  composed  ; as,  ice-house,  glow-worm,  over- 
power, never-the-less. 

7.  Grammatical,  and  other  particular  terminations,  are  gen- 
erally separated : as,  teach-est,  teach-eth,  teach-ing,  teach-er, 
contend-est,  great-er,  wretch-ed,  good-ness,  free-dom,  false- 
hood. 

The  rules  for  dividing  words  into  syllables,  with  the  reasons 
in  support  of  them,  are  expressed  at  large  in  the  authors  Eng- 
lish Spelling-book,  Stereotype  edition,  pages  144 — 154. 


CHAPTER  III. 

or  WORDS  IN  GENERAL,  AND  THE  RULES  FOR  SPELLING  THEM. 
See  Exercises,  Part  II.  Rule  I. 

Words  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  common 
consent,  as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

A w ord  of  one  syllable  is  termed  a Monosyllable ; 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


23 


a word  of  two  syllables,  a Dissyllable;  a word  of 
three  syllables,  a Trisyllable;  and  a word  of  four  or 
more  syllables,  a Polysyllable. 

All  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative. 

A primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  reduced 
to  any  simpler  word  in  the  language  : as  man,  good, 
content. 

A derivative  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  reduced 
to  another  word  in  English  of  greater  simplicity;  as 
manful,  goodness,  contentment,  Yorkshire."^ 

There  are  many  English  words  which,  though  compounds  in 
other  languages,  are  to  us.  primitives  ; thus  circumspect,  circum- 
vent, circumstance,  delude,  concave,  complicate,  &c.  primitive 
words  in  English,  will  be  found  derivatives,  when  traced  to  the 
Latin  tongue. 

The  orthography  of  the  English  language  is  attended  with 
much  uncertainty  and  perplexity.  But  a considerable  part  of 
this  inconvenience  may  be  remedied,  by  attending  to  the 
general  laws  of  formation ; and  for  this  end,  the  learner  is  pre- 
sented with  a view  of  such  general  maxims,  in  spelling  primitive 
and  derivative  words,  as  have  been  almost  universally  received. 

Rule  1. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  f,  Z,  or  s,  preceded  by  a single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant ; as,  staff,  mill,  pass,  &c. 
The  only  exceptions  are,  of,  if,  as,  is,  has,  was,  yes,  this,  us,  and 
thus. 


Rule  2. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  any  consonant  but  f,  Z,  or  s,  and 
preceded  by  a single  vowel,  never  double  the  final  consonant ; 
excepting  add,  ebb,  butt,  egg,  odd,  err,  inn,  bunn,  purr,  and 
buzz. 


Rule  3. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a consonant,  form  the 
plurals  of  nouns,  the  persons  of  verbs,  verbal  nouns,  past  par- 
ticiples, comparatives,  and  superlatives,  by  changing  y into  i ; 
as  spy,  spies ; I carry,  thou  earnest ; he  carrieth,  or  carries ; 
carrier,  carried  ; happier,  happiest 


* A compound  word  is  included  under  the  head  of  derivative  words  : as  pen  knife,  tea-cup,  look* 
ing-glass,  may  bo  reduced  to  other  words  of  greater  simplicity, 


24 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


The  present  participle  in  ing,  retains  the  j/  that  z may  not  be 
doubled  ; as  carry,  carrying ; bury,  burying,  &c. 

But  j/  preceded  by  a vowel,  in  such  instances  as  the  above,  is 
not  changed ; as  boy,  boys,  I cloy,  he  cloys,  cloyed,  &c. 
except  in  lay,  pay,  and  say ; from  which  are  formed,  laid, 
paid,  and  said ; and  their  compounds,  unlaid,  unpaid,  un- 
said, &c. 


Rule  4. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a consonant,  upon  assum- 
ing an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a consonant,  commonly 
• change  y into  i ; as,  happy,  happily,  happiness.  But  when  y is 
preceded  by  a vowel,  it  is  very  rarely  changed  in  the  additional 
syllable  : as  coy,  coyly  ; boy,  boyish,  boyhood ; annoy,  annoyer, 
annoyance  ; joy,  joyless,  joyful. 

Rule  5. 

Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  end- 
ing with  a single  consonant,  preceded  by  a single  vowel,  double 
that  consonant,  when  they  take  another  syllable  beginning  with 
a vowel ; as  wit,  witty  ; thin,  thinnish  ; to  abet,  an  abettor  ; to 
begin,  a beginner. 

But  if  a dipthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  on  the  preceding 
syllable,  the  consonant  remains  single  ; as  to  toil,  toiling  ; to  of- 
fer, an  offering  ; maid,  maiden  &c. 

Rule  6. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  but  Z,  and  taking  ness, 
less^  1y^  ovful^  after  them,  preserve  the  letter  double : as  harm- 
lessness, carelessness,  carelessly,  stiffly,  successful,  distressful, 
&c.  But  those  words  which  end  with  double  /,  and  take  ness, 
less,  ly,  or  ful,  after  them,  generally  omit  one  I : as,  fulness, 
skilless,  fully,  skilful,  &c. 

Rule  7. 

Ness,  less,  ly,  and  ful,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e, 
do  not  cut  it  off ; as,  paleness,  guileless,  closely,  peaceful ; except 
in  a few  words ; as  duly,  truly,  awful. 

Rule  8. 

Ment,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e,  generally  preserves 
the  e from  elision  : as  abatement,  chastisement,  incitement,  &c. 
The  words  judgment,  abridgment,  acknowledgment,  are  devia- 
tions from  the  rule. 

Like  other  terminations,  vient  changes  y into  i,  when  preceded 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


25 


ceded  by  a consonant  : as  accompany,  accompaniment ; merry, 
merriment. 

Rule  9. 

Able  and  ihle,  when  incorporated  into  words  ending  with  si- 
lent e,  almost  always  cut  it  off : as,  blame,  blameable  ; cure, 
curable  ; sense,  sensible,  &c.  : but  if  c or  ^ soft  comes  before 
e in  the  original  w^ord,  the  e is  then  preserved  in  words  com- 
pounded with  able : as  change,  changeable  ; peace,  peace- 
able, &c. 

Rule  10. 

When  ing  or  ish  is  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e,  the 
e is  almost  universally  omitted  : as,  place,  placing  ; lodge, 
lodging  ; slave,  slavish  ; prude,  prudish  ; blue,  bluish  ; white, 
whitish. 

Rule  11. 

Compounded  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  simple  w^ords  of  w^hich  they  are  formed  ; as  glass- 
house, skylight,  thereby,  hereafter.  Many  words  ending  with 
double  /,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule  : as,  already,  welfare,  Vvdl- 
ful,  fulfil : and  also  the  wwds  wherever,  Christmas,  lammas,&c.  / 

The  orthography  of  a great  number  of  English  words,  is 
far  from  being  uniform,  even  amongst  wTiters  of  distinction. 
Thus,  honour  and  honor^  inquire  and  enquire,  negotiate,  and 
negociate,  control  and  controul,  expense  and  expence,  allege 
and  alledge,  surprise  and  surprize,  complete  and  compleat,  con- 
nexion and  connection,  abridgment  and  abridgement,  and  many 
other  orthographical  variations,  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  best 
modern  publications.  Some  authority  for  deciding  differences 
of  this  nature,  appears  to  be  necessary  : and  where  can  we 
find  one  of  equal  pretensions  with  Dr.  Johnson’s  Dictionary  ? 
though  a few  of  his  decisions  do  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by 
the  principles  of  etymology  and  analogy,  the  stable  foundations 
of  his  improvements. — “ As  the  weight  of  truth  and  reason 
(says  Nares  in  his  ‘ Elements  of  Orthoepy,)  is  irresistible,  Dr. 
Johnson’s  Dictionary  has  nearly  fixed  the  external  form  of  our 
language.  Indeed  so  convenient  is  it  to  have  one  acknowdedged 
standard  to  recur  to  ; so  much  preferable,  in  matters  of  this 
nature,  is  a trifling  degree  of  irregularity,  to  a continual 
change,  and  fruitless  pursuit  of  unattainable  perfection  ; that 
it  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped,  that  no  author  will  henceforth,  on 
light  grounds,  be  tempted  to  innovate.” 

This  Dictionary,  however,  contains  some  orthographical 
inconsistencies,  v/hich  ought  to  be  rectified  : such  as  immova 

Vol.  I.  G 


26 


ORTHOGRAPHT. 


hie  moveable,  chastely  chasteness,  fertileness,  fertility,  sliness 
slyly,  fearlessly  fearlessness,  needlessness  needlessly.  If  these, 
and  similar  irregularities,  Were  corrected  by  spelling  the  words 
analogically,  according  to  the  first  word  in  each  part  of  the 
series,  and  agreeably  to  the  general  rules  of  spelling,  the  Die- 
tionary  would  doubtless,  in  these  respects,  be  improved. 

“ Every  thing  deserves  praise,  which  is  done  with  a view  to 
make  language  durable  : for  on  the  permanency  of  any  tongue 
depends  that  of  the  literature  conveyed  in  it.  And  if  new 
words,  new  letters,  or  new  modes  of  spelling,  might  be  intro- 
duced at  pleasure,  language  would  soon  be  disfigured  and 
altered  ; the  old  authors  would  ere  long  be  laid  aside  as  unin- 
telligible, and  the  new  would  be  consigned  to  oblivion  before 
their  time.  Yet  several  attempts  w^ere  made  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  to  alter  the  spelling,  and  even  the  alphabet,  of  the 
English  tongue.  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  Dr.  Gill,  and  Charles 
Butler,  thought  it  absurd  to  speak  one  way,  and  write  another ; 
and  seem  to  have  founded  their  respective  plans  of  improve- 
ment upon  this  principle,  that  pronunciation  ought  to  determine 
orthography : not  considering  that,  as  Dr.  Johnson  well  ob- 
serves, ‘ This  is  to  measure  by  a shadow,  and  take  that  for  a 
model  or  standard,  which  is  changing  while  they  apply  it.’  For, 
according  to  this  rule,  pronunciation  ought  to  be  uniform 
throughout  the  kingdom  ; which,  however  desirable,  and  how- 
ever easy  it  may  have  appeared  to  some  projectors,  is  indeed 
scarcely  practicable  ; and  the  alphabet,  or  the  mode  of  spelling, 
must  vary  continually  as  the  pronunciation  varies  ; which  would 
be  a matter  of  such  nicety,  as  no  degree  of  human  wisdom 
could  regulate.  Besides  reformations  of  this  kind,  supposed 
practicable,  would  obliterate  etymology,  and  with  that,  the 
remembrance  of  many  old  customs  and  sentiments  ; would 
take  away  from  the  significancy  of  many  important  words  ; and 
involve  in  confusion  both  our  grammar  and  our  policy.” 


PART  II. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

A GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  second  part  of  grammar  is  etymology,  which 
treats  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their  various 
modifications,  and  their  derivation. 

There  are  in  English,  nine  sorts  of  words,  or  as 
they  are  commonly  called,  parts  op  speech;  namely  : 

1.  Article,  6.  Adverb, 

2.  Substantive  or  Noun,  7.  Preposition 

3.  Adjective,  8.  Conjunction, 

4.  Pronoun,  and 

5.  Verb,  9.  Interjection. 

1.  An  Article  is  a word  prefixed  to  substantives,  to 
point  them  out,  and  to  show  how  far  their  significa- 
tion extends : as  a garden,  an  eagle,  the  woman. 

2.  A Substantive,  or  noun,  is  the  name  of  any  thing 
that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  notion : as  Lon- 
don^ man,  virtue, 

A substantive  may,  in  general,  be  distinguished  by  its  taking 
an  article  before  it,  or  by  its  making  sense  of  itself : as,  a hook, 
the  sun,  an  apple : temperance,  industry,  chastity. 

3.  An  Adjective  is  a word  added  to  a substantive, 
to  express  its  quality : as,  “ An  industrious  man,  a 
virtuous  woman.” 

An  Adjective  may  be  known  by  its  making  sense  with  the 
addition  of  the  word  thing : as,  a good  thing  ; a bad  thing : or 
of  any  particular  substantive : as,  a sweet  apple,  a pleasant 
prospect,  a lively  boy. 


28 


ETYMOLOGY. 


4.  A Pronoun  is  a word  used  instead  of  a noun,  to 
avoid  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  word : 
as,  “The  man  is  happy;  he  is  benevolent;  he  is 
useful.” 

5.  A Verb  is  a word  v^hich  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  to 
SUFFER  : as,  “I  am  ; I rule ; I am  ruled!’'’ 

A Verb  may  generally  be  distinguished  by  its  making  sense 
with  any  of  the  personal  pronouns,  or  the  word  to  before  it : as, 
I walk,  he  plays,  they  write  ; or,  to  walk,  to  play,  to  write. 

6.  An  Adverb  is  a part  of  speech  joined  to  a verb, 
an  adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another  adverb,  to 
express  some  quality  or  circumstance  respecting  it; 
as,  “ He  reads  to  ell ; a truly  good  man;  he  writes  very 
correctly!’’ 

An  Adverb  may  be  generally  known  by  its  answering  to  the 
question,  How  ? how  much  ? when  ? or  where  ? as,  in  the 
phrase,  “He  reads  correctly!’  the  answer  to  the  question.  How 
does  he  read  ? is,  correctly. 

7.  Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one 
another,  and  to  show  the  relation  between  them : as 
“He  went  from  London  to  York;”  “She  is  above 
disguise  ;”  “ They  are  supported  by  industry.” 

A Preposition  may  be  known  by  its  admitting  after  it  a per- 
sonal pronoun,  in  the  objective  case  ; as,  with,  for,  to,  ^c.  will 
allow  the  objective  case  after  them ; with  him,  for  her,  to 
them,  4'C. 

8.  A Conjunction  is  a part  of  speech  that  is  chiefly 
used  to  connect  sentences,  so  as,  out  of  two  or  more 
sentences  to  make  but  one : it  sointimes  connects 
only  words : as,  “ Thou  ant?  he  are  happy,  because  you 
are  good.”  “ Two  and  three  are  five.” 

9.  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  a sentence  to  express  the  passions  or  emo- 
tions of  the  speaker : as,  “O  virtue!  how  amiable 
thou  art !” 

The  observations  which  have  been  made,  to  aid  learners  in 
distinguishing  the  parts  of  speech  from  one  another,  may  at- 


ETYMOLOGY. 


29 


ford  them  some  small  assistance ; but  it  will  certainly  be  much 
more  instructive,  to  distinguish  them  by  the  definitions,  and  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  their  nature. 

In  the  following  passage,  all  the  parts  of  speech  are  exem- 
plified : 

1 2 7 2 5 12  3 72  8 

The  power  of  speech  is  a faculty  peculiar  to  man ; and 

5 5 7474  3 2 71 

w^as  bestowed  on  him  by  his  beneficent  Creator,  for  the 

3 8 6>  3 2 89  66  54 

greatest  and  most  excellent  uses;  but  alas!  how  often  do  we 

5 4 7 1 3 7 2 

pervert  it  to  the  worst  of  purposes ! 

In  the  foregoing  sentence,  the  words  the,  a,  are  articles ; 
powevy  speech,  faculty,  man.  Creator,  uses,  purposes,  are  sub- 
stantives ; peculiar,  beneficent,  greatest,  excellent,  worst,  are 
adjectives  ; him,  his,  we,  it,  are  pronouns  ; is,  was,  bestowed,  do, 
pervert,  are  verbs  ; most,  how,  often,  are  adverbs  ; of,  to,  on,  by, 
for,  are  prepositions ; and,  but,  are  conjunctions  ; and  alas  is 
an  interjection. 

The  number  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  or  of  the  parts  of 
speech  has  been  variously  reckoned  by  different  grammarians. 
Some  have  enumerated  ten,  making  the  participle  a distinct 
part;  some  eight,  excluding  the  participle,  and  ranking  the 
adjective  under  the  noun ; some  four,  and  others  only  two,  (the 
noun  and  the  verb,)  supposing  the  rest  to  be  contained  in  the 
parts  of  their  division.  We  have  followed  those  authors,  who 
appear  to  have  given  them  the  most  natural  and  intelligible 
distribution.  Some  remarks  on  the  division  made  by  the  learned 
Horne  Tooke,  are  contained  in  the  first  section  of  the  eleventh 
chapter  of  Etymology. 

To  assign  names  to  objects  of  thought,  and  to  express  their 
properties  and  qualities,  are  the  only  indispensable  requisites  in 
language.  If  this  be  admitted,  it  follows,  that  the  noun  and  the 
verb  are  the  only  parts  of  speech,  which  are  essentially  neces- 
sary ; the  former  being  the  name  of  the  thing  of  which  we  speak, 
and  the  latter^expressing  what  we  think  of  it.  All  other  sorts  of 
words  must  be  regarded  as  subsidiaries,  convenient  indeed  for 
the  more  easy  communication  of  thought,  but  by  no  means 
indispensably  requisite. 

The  interjection  seems  scarcely  worthy  of  being  considered 
as  a part  of  artificial  language  or  speech,  being  rather  a branch 
of  that  natural  language,  which  we  possess  in  common  with 
the  brute  creation,  and  by  which  we  express  the  sudden 
emotions  and  passions  that  actuate  our  frame.  But,  as  it  is 
used  in  written  as  well  as  oral  language,  it  may,  in  some  measure, 
be  deemed  a part  of  speech.  It  is  with  us,  a virtual  sentence, 


30 


ETYMOLOGY. 


in  which  the  noun  and  verb  are  concealed  under  an  imperfect 
or  indigested  word. 

Whilst  some  grammarians  have  objected  to  the  usual  number 
and  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  speech,  others  have  disapproved 
of  the  terms  by  which  they  have  been  designated.  Instead  of 
the  generally  received  appellations  of  nouns, pronouns,  adjectives, 
adverbs,  and  conjunctions,  they  have  adopted  those  of  names^ 
substitutes,  attributes,  modifiers,  and  connectives.  This  spirit  of 
innovation  has  extended  itself  to  other  parts  of  grammar,  and 
especially  to  the  names  of  the  Tenses.  Not  satisfied  with  the 
ancient  and  approved  terms,  several  writers  on  the  subject,  have 
introduced  the  following,  as  more  accurate  and  expressive : 
Present  tense  indefinite.  Present  tense  emphatic.  Present  pro- 
gressive  or  continued ; Past  tense  continuately.  Prior  past  tense 
indefinite.  Preterite  indefinite  and  emphatic-.  The  foretelling 
future  imperfect.  Prior  future  indefinite.  Future  imperfect 
progressive  : and  many  others,  corresponding  with  these,  which 
it  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate. 

Of  what  use  such  deviations  from  the  customary,  established 
terms  of  our  best  grammarians,  can  be  productive,  we  are 
unable  to  conceive.  They  certainly  tend  to  perplex  and  con- 
found the  student,  if  their  promoters  advanced  no  farther:  but 
when  we  reflect  that  the  friends  and  projectors  of  such  innova- 
tions, may  be  continually  altering  and  extending  our  grammatical 
nomenclature  ; there  appears  to  be  additional  reason  for  re- 
jecting them,  and  adhering  to  long-established  names.  These 
are  universally  intelligible  ; and,  if  preserved,  would  produce  a 
happy  uniformity  among  all  the  teachers  and  learners  of  the 
language.  They  have  likewise  a great  similarity  to  the  terms 
used  in  teaching  other  languages ; and,  on  this  ground  also,  it  is 
highly  proper  to  retain  them. 

If,  however,  any  of  the  old  grammatical  names  should  appear 
to  be,  in  some  respects,  too  comprehensive ; and,  in  others,  too 
limited ; it  would  be  much  more  eligible,  to  contract  or  enlarge 
their  extent,  by  explanatory  notes  and  observations,  than  rashly 
to  sweep  away  our  ancient  terms,  for  the  sake  of  introducing 
others  ; which,  after  all,  are  without  authority,  and  may  them- 
selves, when  critically  examined,  be  found  inconvenient  and 
exceptionable. 

We  shall  close  our  remarks  on  this  subject,  by  introducing 
the  sentiments  of  Dr.  Johnson  respecting  it : they  are  extracted 
from  his  “ Grammar  of  the  English  Tongue.’^ — “ In  this 
division  and  order  of  the  parts  of  grammar,  I follow  (says  he) 
the  common  grammarians,  without  inquiring  whether  a fitter 
distribution  might  not  be  found.  Experience  has  long  shown 
this  method  to  be  so  distinct  as  to  obviate  confusion,  and  so 
comprehensive  as  to  prevent  any  inconvenient  omissions.  I 


ETYMOLOGY. 


31 


likewise  use  the  terms  already  received,  and  already  under- 
stood, though  perhaps  others  more  proper  might  sometimes 
be  invented.  Sylburgius,  and  other  innovators,  whose  new 
terms  have  sunk  their  learning  into  neglect,  have  left  sufficient 
warning  against  the  trifling  ambition  of  teaching  arts  in  a new 
language. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

An  article  is  a word  prefixed  to  substantives,  to 
point  them  out,  and  to  show  how  far  their  significa- 
tion extends : as,  a garden,  an  eagle,  the  woman. 

In  English,  there  are  but  two  articles,  a and  the : 
a becomes  an  before  a vowel,*  and  before  a silent  h: 
as,  an  acorn,  an  hour.  But  if  the  h be  sounded,  the 
a only  is  to  be  used : as,  a hand,  a heart,  a highway. 

The  inattention  of  writers  and  printers  to  this  necessary 
distinction,  has  occasioned  the  frequent  use  of  an  before  A, 
when  it  is  to  be  pronounced  ; and  this  circumstance,  more  than 
any  other,  has  probably  contributed  to  that  indistinct  utterance, 
or  total  omission,  of  the  sound  signified  by  this  letter,  wffiich 
very  often  occurs  amongst  readers  and  speakers.  An  horse, 
an  husband,  an  herald,  an  heathen,  and  many  similar  associa- 
tions, are  frequently  to  be  found  in  works  of  taste  and  merit. 
To  remedy  this  evil,  readers  should  be  taught  to  omit,  in  all 
similar  cases,  the  sound  of  the  n,  and  to  give  the  h its  full  pro- 
nunciation. 

j1  or  an  is  styled  the  indefinite  article;  it  is  used 
in  a vague  sense  to  point  out  one  single  thing  of 
the  kind,  in  other  respects  indeterminate  : as,  “Give 
me  a book “ Bring  me  an  apple.” 

The  is  called  the  definite  article ; because  it  as- 
certains what  particular  thing  or  things  are  meant : 
as,  “ Give  me  the  book “ Bring  me  the  apples 
meaning  some  book  or  apples,  referred  to. 


, * 4 injrtwui-of  ewe.  tsnow  caed  before  worcis  beginning  with  u long.  See  page  16,  letter  U.  It 
is  used  before  one  : as,  many  a one. — An  must  be  used  before  words  where  the  h is  not  silent,  if 
the  accent  is  on  the  second  syllable  j as  an  heroic  action^  an  historical  account^  &c. 


32 


ETYMOLOGY. 


M 


A substantive  without  any  article  to  limit  it,  is 
generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense  : as,  A candid 
temper  is  proper  for  man;”  that  is,  for  all  mankind. 

The  peculiar  use  and  importance  of  the  articles  will  be  seen 
in  the  following  examples  ; “ The  son  of  a king — the  son  of  the 
king — a son  of  the  king.”  Each  of  these  three  phrases  has  an 
entirely  different  meaning,  through  the  different  application  of 
the  articles  a and  the. 

“ Thou  art  a man  is  a very  general  and  harmless  position  ; 
but,  Thou  art  the  man,”  (as  Nathan  said  to  David,)  is  an  as- 
sertion capable  of  striking  terror  and  remorse  into  the  heart. 

The  article  is  omitted  before  nouns  that  imply  the  different 
virtues,  vices,  passions,  qualities,  sciences,  arts,  metals,  herbs, 
&c. : as,  “ prudence  is  commendable ; falsehood  is  odious  ; 
anger  ought  to  be  avoided,”  &c.  It  is  not  prefixed  to  a proper 
name : as,  ‘‘  Alexander,”  (because  that  of  itself  denotes  a de- 
terminate individual  or  particular  thing,)  except  for  the  sake  of 
distinguishing  a particular  family  ; “ He  is  a Howard,  or  of  the 
family  of  the  Howards ;”  or  by  way  of  eminence : as,  ‘‘  Every 
man  is  not  a Newton  ;”  He  has  the  courage  of  an  Achilles :” 
or  when  some  noun  is  understood  : “ He  sailed  down  the  (river) 
Thames,  in  the  (ship)  Britannia.” 

When  an  adjective  is  used  with  the  noun  to  which  the  article 
relates,  it  is  placed  between  the  article  and  the  noun  : as,  “ a 
good  man,”  “ an  agreeable  w^oman,”  “ the  best  friend.”  On 
some  occasions,  however,  the  adjective  precedes  a or  an : as, 
“ such  a shame,”  “ as  great  a man  as  Alexander,”  “ too  careless 
an  author.” 

The  indefinite  article  can  be  joined  to  substantives  in  the  sin- 
gular number  only ; the  definite  article  may  be  joined  also  to 
plurals. 

But  there  appears  to  be  a remarkable  exception  to  this  rule, 
in  the  use  of  adjectives  few  and  mamj,  (the  latter  chiefly  with 
the  word  great  before  it,)  which,  though  joined  with  plural 
substantives,  yet  admit  of  the  singular  article  a : as,  a few  men  ; 
a great  many  men. 

The  reason  of  it  is  manifest,  from  the  effect  which  the  article 
has  in  these  phrases : it  means  a small  or  great  number  col- 
lectively taken  ; and  therefore  gives  the  idea  of  a whole,  that 
is,  of  unity.  Thus,  likewise,  a dozen,  a score,  a hundred,  or  a 
thousand,  is  one  whole  number,  an  aggregate  of  many  collect- 
ively taken  ; and  therefore  still  retains  the  article  a though 
joined  as  an  adjective  to  a plural  substantive  : as,  a hundred 
years,  &c. 


ETYMOLOGY 


33 


The  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  placed  between  the  adjec- 
tive many,  and  a singular  noun : as, 

‘‘  Full  mamj  a gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 

“ The  dark  unfathom’d  caves  of  ocean  bear  : 

“ Full  many  a flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 

And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air.” 

In  these  lines  the  phrases  many  a gem  and  many  a flower,  refer 
to  many  gems  and  many  flowers,  separately,  not  collectively 
considered. 

The  definite  article  the  is  frequently  applied  to  adverbs  in 
the  comparative  and  superlative  degree ; and  its  effect  is  to 
mark  the  degree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define  it  the  more 
precisely ; as,  “ The  more  I examine  it,  the  better  I like  it.  I 
like  this  the  least  of  any.” 

‘‘  That  which  is  nearly  connected  with  us,  or  with  which, 
from  its  vicinity,  we  have  been  long  acquainted,  becomes  emi- 
nent or  distinguishable  in  our  eyes,  even  though,  in  itself,  and 
compared  with  other  things  of  the  same  kind,  it  is  of  no  par- 
ticular importance.  A person  who  resides  near  a very  little 
town,  speaks  of  it  by  the  name  of  the  town.  Every  clergyman 
within  his  own  parish  is  called  the  minister  or  the  parson ; and 
if,  in  a village,  there  be  but  one  barber  or  one  smith,  his  neigh- 
bours think  they  distinguish  him  sufficiently  by  calling  him  the 
smith  or  the  barber.  A tree,  a rock,  a hill,  a river,  a meadow, 
may  be  spoken  of  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  same  emphasis. 
He  is  not  returned  from  the  hill : he  is  bathing  in  the  river ; I 
saw  him  on  the  top  of  the  rock : shall  we  walk  in  the  meadow  ? 
A branch  is  blown  down  from  the  tree.  In  these  examples,  the 
definite  article  is  used,  because  the  thing  spoken  of,  being  in  the 
neighbourhood,  is  well  known,  and  a matter  of  some  conse- 
quence to  the  people  who  are  acquainted  with  it. 

That  we  may  perceive  still  more  clearly,  the  nature  and 
significancy  of  the  articles,  let  us  put  the  one  for  the  other,  and 
mark  the  effect.  When  it  is  said,  that  “ the  ancestors  of  the 
present  royal  family  wxre  the  kings  in  England  three  hundred 
years  before  the  Conqueror,”  the  sense  is  clear ; as  every  body 
knows  that  the  person  here  spoken  of  by  the  name  of  the 
conqueror  is  William  duke  of  Normandy,  who  subdued  Eng- 
land about  seven  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago.  But  if  we  say, 
that  “ the  ancestors  of  the  present  royal  family  were  kings  in 
England  three  hundred  years  before  a conqueror,”  we  speak 
nonsense.  Again,  when  it  is  said,  that  “ health  is  a most  de- 
sirable thing,”  there  is  no  man  who  will  not  acquiesce  in  the 
position  ; which  only  means,  that  health  is  one  of  those  things 
that  are  to  be  very  much  desired.  But  if  we  take  the  other 
VoL.  I.  7 


34 


ETYMOLOGY. 


article,  and  say,  “ Health  is  the  most  desirable  thing,”  we 
change  the  position  from  truth  to  falsehood:  for  this  would 
imply,  that  nothing  is  so  desirable  as  health;  which  is  very 
wide  from  the  truth  : virtue  and  a good  conscience  being  of  in- 
finitely greater  value.  Moreover,  if  instead  of  “ Man  is  born 
to  trouble,”  we  say,  “ A man  is  born  to  trouble  ” there  is  no 
material  change  in  the  sense ; only  the  former  is  more  solemn, 
perhaps  because  it  is  more  concise  : and  here  we  may  perceive 
that 'the  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  of  no  great  use.  But 
if  we  say,  “ The  man  is  born  to  trouble,”  the  maxim  is  no 
longer  general ; some  one  particular  man  is  intimated  ; and 
they  to  whom  we  speak  may  naturally  ask.  What  man? — 
Sometimes  our  two  articles  do  not  differ  widely  in  signification. 
Thus,  we  may  say,  “ It  is  true,  as  the  proverb  declares,”  of  Ir 
is  true  as  a proverb,  or  as  a certain  proverb  declares,  that”  &c. 
and  the  change  of  the  article  does  not  make  any  material 
change  in  the  sense. 

On  the  whole,  as  articles  are  by  their  nature  definitives,  it 
follows,  of  course,  that  they  cannot  be  united  with  such  words 
as  are,  in  their  own  nature,  as  definite  as  they  may  he ; (the  per- 
sonal pronouns,  for  instance ;)  nor  with  such  words,  as,  being 
undefinahle,  cannot  properly  he  made  otherwise ; (as  the  inter- 
rogative pronouns  ;)  but  only  with  those  words,  which,  though 
indefinite,  are  yet  capable,  hy  means  of  the  article,^of  becoming 
definite. 

Though  the  definitions  and  uses  of  the  articles,  as  we  have 
explained  them,  are  conformable  to  those  exhibited  by  Harris, 
Lowth,  Johnson,  Beattie,  Priestley,  Blair,  Coote,  Crombie,  and 
other  respectable  grammarians,  an  ingenious  writer  on  the  sub- 
ject strenuously  contends,  that  the  definitions  are  erroneous. 
This  critic  says,  that,  in  the  following  sentences,  “ A philosoph- 
ical grammar,  written  by  James  Harris,  Esquire “ There 
was  a man,  named  John  the  Baptist ;”  “ The  Lord  planted  a 
garden  eastward  in  Eden ;”  the  article  a is  not,  according  to 
our  definition  of  it,  used  in  a vague  sense,  to  point  out  one 
single  thing  of  the  kind,  in  other  respects  indeterminate.  He 
asserts  that,  in  these  and  similar  instances,  it  is  used  in  a de- 
terminate sense,  to  denote,  in  the  most  precise  manner,  a 
particular  book,  a particular  man,  and  a particular  garden. 
This  conclusion  of  our  critic  we  conceive  to  be  totally  un- 
founded. He  supposes  that  the  article,  in  the  examples  ad- 
duced, applies  to  the  whole  of  the  sentences,  to  the  subsequent 
and  explanatory  parts,  as  well  as  to  those  which  precede.  But 
he  is  not  warranted  in  this  supposition.  The  real  application  of 
the  article  is  solely  to  the  words  philosophical  grammar,  man, 
and  garden ; and  it  is  therefore  indeterminate.  The  circum- 
stances, which  render  the  subjects  precise  and  definite,  are  the 


ETYMOLOGV. 


35 


subsequent  explanations ; which  certainly  do  not  alter  or  affect 
the  grammatical  nature  of  the  article. 

The  mode  of  arguing  adopted  by  this  writer  proves  too 
much,  and  therefore  nothing.  Let  us  try  its  operation  on 
other  parts  of  speech.  The  words  some  and  other  are  allowed 
to  be  indefinite  pronouns ; and  the  words  this  and  that  demon- 
strative pronouns.*  But  according  to  the  reasoning  of  our  op- 
ponent, these  pronouns  would  alter  their  established  nature  in 
such  expressions  as  the  following:  “Some  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors, namely,  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  Nero  were  extremely 
cruel  and  tyrannical : ” “ Other  men,  namely,  Charles,  James, 
and  William  were  present : ” “ This  person,  or  some  other,  com- 
mitted the  fact : ” “ That  man,  or  another,  was  an  accomplice.” 
On  the  new  system,  the  words  some  and  other ^ in  these  exam- 
ples, would  cease  to  be  indefinite  pronouns ; and  the  ^ords 
this  and  that  would  not  be  demonstrative ; because  the  sub- 
jects in  the  first  are  acertained,  and  in  the  second  rendered 
uncertain  by  the  subsequent  expressions.  It  is  unquestionably 
false  reasoning  to  conclude  that  certain  expressions  cannot  be 
of  a definite  or  of  an  indefinite  nature,  because  it  is  possible, 
by  the  annexation  of  particular  circumstances,  to  give  them  a 
different  designation. 

With  regard  to  the  definite  article,  our  critic  produces  the 
following  example  in  support  of  his  opinion : “ Be  not  afraid 
ye  beasts  of  the  field  ; ” and  relying  on  its  efficacy,  he  inquires, 
what  particular  field  is  here  meant  ? The  answer  is  obvious. 
The  particularity  is  as  clearly  denoted  in  this  instance  as  in 
the  following  phrases:  “The  boar  out  of  the  wood:  Every 
beast  of  the  forest : Fish  of  the  sea : Beasts  of  the  earth.” 
The  field,  the  wood,  the  forest,  &c.  are  used  by  way  of  con- 
tradistinction, or  to  designate  the  special  or  individual  objects. 
These  phrases  are,  therefore,  perfectly  consistent  with  our  ex- 
planation of  the  nature  and  use  of  the  definite  article.  Other 
modes  of  expression  are  adduced  by  our  opponent,  as  favour- 
ing his  opinion.  Such  as,  “ The  tree  beareth  her  fruit;  The 
Fig-tree  and  the  Vine  do  yield  their  strength :”  and  we  are  asked 
“What  particular  tree  ? Does  the  article  the  point  out  the  par- 
ticular tree  or  vine  ? ” — Here  too  we  think  the  reply  is  not  diffi- 
cult. The  Tree,  the  Fig-tree,  and  the  Vine,  may  be  justly 
considered  as  a figure  of  speech,  putting  a part  for  the  whole, 
or  as  one  species  of  things  distinguished  from  others.  We  say, 
“The  horse  is  a noble  animal;”  “The  dog  is  a faithful  crea- 
ture:” meaning  the  species  of  animals  called  horse  or  dog. 

* Whether  these  werds  are  aonsidered  as  pronouns  or  adjectives,  the  reasoning  upon  them  is  of 
equal  validity. 


36 


ETYMOLOGY. 


This  application  of  the  definite  article  comports  exactly  with 
the  definition  : it  ascertains  what  particular  thing  or  things  are 
meant. 

Though  we  think  that  the  arguments  already  advanced  are 
sufficient  to  support  our  definitions  of  the  articles,  it  may  not  be 
improper  further  to  observe,  that  after  all  which  can  be  done  to 
render  the  definitions  and  rules  of  grammar  comprehensive  and 
accurate,  men  of  learning  and  science  know  that  they  generally 
admit  of  exceptions  ; that  there  are  peculiar  anomalies  which 
belong  to  some  of  them  ; extreme  cases  which  may  be  stated  ; 
and  precise  boundaries  which  cannot  be  ascertained.  These,  in 
the  hands  of  men  more  ingenious  than  candid,  may  be  plausibly 
advanced  against  any  system ; and  to  those  who  are  not  thor- 
oughly conversant  in  the  art,  may  appear  to  be  material  imper- 
fections, attributable  to  the  author’s  work,  and  not  to  the  nature 
of  the  subject. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF  SUBSTANTIVES. 


SECTION  I. 

Of  Suhstantives  in  general, 

A Substantive  or  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing 
that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  notion:  as, 
London^  man^  virtue. 

Substantives  are  either  proper  or  common. 

Proper  names  or  substantives,  are  the  names  ap- 
propriated to  individuals ; as,  George,  London, 
Thames. 

Common  names  or  substantives,  stand  for  kinds 
containing  many  sorts,  or  for  sorts  containing  many 
individuals  under  them  : as,  animal,  man,  tree,  &c. 

. When  proper  names  have  an  article  annexed  to 
them,  they  are  used  as  common  names : as,  He  is 
the  Cicero  of  his  age ; he  is  reading  the  lives  of  the 
Twelve  Ccesars..^^ 


ETYMOLOGY. 


37 


Common  names  may  also  be  used  to  signify  individ- 
uals, by  the  addition  of  articles  or  pronouns : as, 
“ The  boy  is  studious  : that  girl  is  discreet.”* 

To  substantives  belong  gender,  number,  and  case  ; 
and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person  when  spoken  of, 
and  of  the  second  when  spoken  to  : as,  “ Blessings 
attend  us  on  every  side ; be  grateful,  children  of 
men  !”  that  is,  ye  children  of  men. 


SECTION  II. 

Of  Gender. 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  with  regard  to 
sex.  There  are  three  genders,  the  masculine,  the 
FEMININE,  and  the  neuter. 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  animals  of  the 
male  kind  : as,  a man,  a horse,  a bull. 

The  Feminine  Gender  signifies  animals  of  the 
female  kind  : as,  a woman,  a duck,  a hen. 

The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  objects  which  are 
neither  males  nor  females : as,  a field,  a house,  a 
garden. 

Some  Substantives,  naturally  neuter,  are,  by  a 
figure  of  speech,  converted  into  the  masculine  or 
feminine  gender : as,  when  we  say  of  the  sun,  he  is 
setting ; and  of  a ship  she  sails  well. 

Figuratively,  in  the  English  tongue,  we  commonly  give  the 
masculine  gender  to  nouns  which  are  conspicuous  for  the  attri- 
butes of  imparting  or  communicating,  and  which  are  by  nature 
strong  and  efficacious.  Those,  again,  are  made  feminine,  which 
are  conspicuous  for  the  attributes  of  containing,  or  bringing  forth, 
or  which  are  peculiarly  beautiful  or  amiable.  Upon  these  prin- 
ciples, the  sun  is  said  to  be  masculine  ; and  the  moon,  being  the 
receptacle  of  the  sun’s  light,  to  be  feminine.  The  earth  is  gene- 
rally feminine.  A ship,  a country,  a city,  &c.  are  likewise  made 
feminine,  being  receivers  or  containers.  Time  is  always  mascu- 


* Nouns  may  also  be  divided  into  the  following  classes  : Collective  nouns,  or  nouns  of  multi- 
tude : as  the  people,  the  parliament,  the  army  : Abstract  nouns,  or  the  names  of  qualities  abstract- 
ed from  their  substances  ; as,  knowledge,  goodness,  whiteness  : Verbal  or  participal  nouns  : as^ 
beginning,  reading,  writing. 


38 


ETYMOLOGY. 


line,  account  of  its  mighty  efficacy.  Virtue  is  feminine  froqi 
its  beauty,  and  its  being  the  object  of  love.  Fortune  and  the 
ehurch,  are  generally  put  in  the  feminine  gender.  There  appears 
to  be  a rational  foundation  for  these  figurative  distinctions,  though 
they  have  not  been  adopted  in  all  countries.  Many  of  the  sub- 
stances, which,  in  one  language,  have  masculine  names,  have,  in 
others,  names  that  are  feminine. 

Greek  and  Latin,  and  many  of  the  modern  tongues,  have 
nouns,  some  masculine,  some  feminine,  which  denote  sub- 
stances where  sex  never  had  existence.  Nay,  some  languages 
are  so  particularly  defective  in  this  respect,  as  to  class  every 
object,  inanimate  as  well  as  animate,  under  either  the  mascu- 
line or  the  feminine  gender,  as  they  have  no  neuter  gender 
for  those  which  are  of  either  sex.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
Hebrew,  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  But  the  English, 
strictly  following  the  order  of  nature,  puts  every  noun  which 
denotes  a male  animal,  and  no  other,  in  the  masculine  gender ; 
every  name  of  a female  animal,  in  the  feminine ; and  every 
animal  whose  sex  is  not  obvious,  or  known,  as  well  as  every 
inanimate  object  whatever,  in  the  neuter  gender.  And  this 
gives  our  language  a superior  advantage  to  most  others,  in  the 
poetical  and  rhetorical  style : for  when  nouns  naturally  neuter, 
are  converted  into  masculine  and  feminine,  the  personification 
is  more  distinctly,  and  more  forcibly  marked. 

The  English  language  has  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the 

sex,  viz. 


By  different  words  : as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Bachelor. 

Maid. 

Dog, 

Bitch. 

Boar. 

Sow. 

Drake. 

Duck. 

Boy. 

Girl. 

Earl. 

Countess. 

Brother. 

Sister. 

Father. 

Mother. 

Buck. 

Doe. 

Friar. 

Nun. 

Bull. 

Cow. 

Gander. 

Goose. 

Bullock  or  ) 

Heifer. 

Hart. 

Roe. 

Steer.  ] 

Horse. 

Mare. 

Cock. 

Hen. 

Husband. 

Wife. 

King, 

Queen. 

Si  ncTPi* 

( Songstress  or 

Lad. 

Lass. 

/ Singer, 

Lord. 

Lady. 

Sloven. 

Slut. 

Man. 

V • iman. 

Son. 

Daughter. 

Master. 

Mistress. 

Stag, 

Hind. 

Milter. 

S pawner. 

Uncle. 

Aunt. 

Nephew. 

Ram. 

Niece. 

Ewe. 

Wizard. 

Witch. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


39 


2.  By  a difTerence  of  termination  : 

as, 

Male. 

, Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Abbot. 

Abbess. 

Jew. 

Jewess. 

Actor. 

Actress. 

Landgrave. 

Landgravine. 

Administrator. 

Administratrix.  Lion. 

Lioness. 

Adulterer. 

Adultress. 

Marquis. 

Marchioness.- 

Ambassador. 

Ambassadress.  Mayor. 

Mayoress. 

Arbiter. 

Arbitress. 

Patron. 

^ Patroness. 

Baron. 

Baroness. 

Peer. 

Peeress. 

Bridegroom. 

Bride. 

Poet. 

Poetess. 

Benefactor. 

Benefactress. 

Priest. 

Priestess. 

Caterer. 

Cateress. 

Prince. 

Princess. 

Chanter. 

Chantress. 

Prior. 

Prioress. 

Conductor. 

Conductress. 

Prophet. 

Prophetess. 

Count. 

Countess. 

Protector. 

Protectress. 

Deacon. 

Deaconess. 

Shepherd. 

Shepherdess. 

Duke. 

Dutchess. 

Songster. 

Songstress. 

Elector. 

Electress. 

Sorcerer. 

Sorceress. 

Emperor. 

Enchanter. 

Empress. 

Enchantress. 

Sultan. 

( Sultaness. 

1 Sultana 

Executor. 

Executrix. 

Tiger. 

Tigress. 

Governor. 

Governess. 

Traitor. 

Traitress. 

Heir. 

Heiress. 

Tutor. 

Tutoress. 

Hero. 

Heroine. 

Viscount. 

Viscountess. 

Hunter. 

Huntress. 

Votary. 

Votaress. 

Host. 

Hostess. 

Widower. 

Widow. 

3.  By  a noun,  pronoun,  oradiective,  h^mg  prefixed  to  ihe 
substantive  : as, 


A cock-sparrow. 
A man-servant. 

A he-goat. 

A he-bear. 

A male  child. 

Male  descendants. 


A hen-sparrow. 

A maid-servant. 

A she-goat. 

A she-bear. 

A female-child. 
Female  descendants. 


It  sometimes  happens,  that  the  same  noun  is  either  masculine 
or  feminine.  The  words  child,  cousin,  friend,  neigh- 

bour, servant,  and  several  others,  are  used  indifferently  for 
males  or  females.  These  words  cannot  properly  be  said  to 
denote  a distinct  species  of  gender,  as  some  writers  on  English 
grammar  have  asserted,  and  who  denominate  ^ihem  the  common 
gender.  The  business  of  parsing  can  be  effectually  per- 
formed, without  having  recourse  to  a common  gender.  Thus, 
we  may  say : Parents  is  a noun  of  the  masculine  and  feminine 


40 


ETYMOLOGY. 


gender  ; Parent,  if  doubtful,  is  of  the  masculine  or  feminine 
gender  ; and  Parent,  if  the  gender  is  known  by  the  construction, 
is  of  the  gender  so  ascertained. 

Nouns  with  variable  terminations  contribute  to  conciseness 
and  perspicuity  of  expression.  We  have  only  a sufficient  num- 
ber of  them  to  make  us  feel  our  want : for  when  we  say  of  a 
woman,  she  is  a philosopher,  an  astronomer,  a builder,  a wea- 
ver, we  perceive  an  impropriety  in  the  termination,  which  we 
cannot  avoid  ; but  we  can  say,  that  she  is  a botanist,  a student, 
a witness  a scholar,  an  orphan,  a companion,  because  these 
terminations  have  not  annexed  to  them  the  notion  of  sex. 

SECTION  III. 

Of  Number. 

Number  is  the  consideration  of  an  object,  as  one 
or  more. 

Substantives  are  of  two  numbers,  the  singular  and 
the  plural. 

The  singular  number  expresses  but  one  object : as, 
a chair,  a table. 

The  plural  number  signifies  more  objects  than  one : 
as,  chairs,  tables. 

Some  nouns,  from  the  nature  of  the  things  which 
they  express,  are  used  only  in  the-singular  form  : as, 
wheat,  pitch,  gold,  sloth,  pride,  &c. ; others,  only 
in  the  plural  form : as,  bellows,  scissors,  ashes, 
riches,  &c. 

Some  words  are  the  same  in  both  numbers : as, 
deer,  sheep,  swine,  &c. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  generally  formed 
by  addings  to  the  singular  : as,  dove,  doves;  face, 
faces  ; thought,  thoughts.  But  when  the  substantive 
singular  ends  in  x,  ch  soft,  sh,  ss,  or  s,  we  add  es  in  the 
plural;  as,  box,  boxes;  church,  churches;  lash, 
lashes  ; kiss,  kisses  ; rebus,  rebuses.  If  the  singular 
ends  in  ch  hard,  the  plural  is  formed  by  addings  ; as, 
monarch,  monarchs  ; distich,  distichs. 

Nouns  which  end  in  o have  sometimes  es  added,  to  form 
the  plural  : as,  cargo,  echo,  hero,  negro,  manifesto,  potato. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


41 


volcano,  wo : and  sometimes  only  s ; as,  folio,  nuncio,  punctilio, 
seraglio. 

Nouns  ending  in  f,  or  fe,  are  rendered  plural  by  the  change 
of  those  terminations  into  ves  ; as  loaf,  loaves ; half,  halves ; 
wife,  wives  ; except  grief,  relief,  reproof,  and  several  others 
which  form  the  plural  by  the  addition  of  s.  Those  which  end 
in^,  have  the  regular  plural : as,  ruff,  ruffs;  except  staff,  staves. 

Nouns  which  have  y in  the  singular,  with  no  other  vowel  in 
the  same  syllable,  change  it  into  ies  in  the  plural : as,  beauty, 
beauties ; fly,  flies.  But  the  y is  not  changed,  when  there  is 
another  vowel  in  the  syllable : as,  key,  keys  ; delay,  delays  ; 
attorney,  attorneys. 

Some-  nouns  become  plural  by  changing  the  a of  the  singu- 
lar into  e : as,  man,  men  ; woman,  women  ; alderman,  aider- 
men.  The  words,  ox  and  child,  form  oxen  and  children ; 
brother,  makes  either  brothers,  or  brethren.  Sometimes  the 
diphthong  oo  is  changed  into  ee  in  the  plural : as,  foot,  feet ; 
goose,  geese  ; tooth,  teeth.  Louse  and  mouse,  make  lice  and 
mice.  Penny,  makes  pence ; or  pennies,  when  the  coin  is  meant ; 
die,  dice,  (for  play ;)  die,  dies,  (for  coining.) 

It  is  a general  rule,  that  all  names  of  things  measured  or 
weighed,  have  no  plural ; for  in  them  not  number,  but  quantity 
is  regarded  : as,  wool,  wine,  oil.  When  we  speak,  however,  of 
different  kinds,  we  use  the  plural : as,  the  coarser  wools,  the 
richer  wines,  the  finer  oils. 

It  is  agreeable  to  analogy,  and  the  practice  of  the  generality 
of  correct  writers,  to  construe  the  following  words  as  plural 
nouns : pains,  riches,  alms  : and  also,  mathematics,  metaphysics, 
politics,  ethics,  optics,  pneumatics,  with  other  similar  names  of 
sciences. 

Dr.  Johnson  says,  that  the  adjective  much  is  sometimes  a 
terni  of  number,  as  well  as  of  quantity.  This  may  account  for 
the  instances  we  weet  with  of  its  associating  with  pains  as  a 
plural  noun : as,  ‘‘  much  pains.”  The  connexion,  however,  is 
not  to  be  recommended. 

The  word  news  is  now  almost  universally  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  singular  number. 

The  noun  means  is  used  both  in  the  singular  and  the  plural 
number. 

“ As  a general  rule  for  the  use  of  it,  as  either  singular  or  plu- 
ral, it  might  (as  Dr.  Crombie  justly  observes)  render  the  con- 
struction less  vague,  and  the  expression  therefore  less  ambigu- 
ous, were  we  to  employ  it  as  singular  when  the  mediation  or 
instrumentality  of  one  thing  is  implied  ; and  as  plural,  when 
two  or  more  mediating  causes  are  referred  to.  ‘ He  was  care- 
ful to  observe  what  means  were  employed  by  his  adversaries,  to 
counteract  his  schemes.’  Here  means  is  properly  joined  with  a 

VoL.  I.  ‘8 


42 


ETYMOLOGY. 


plural  verb,  several  methods  of  counteraction  being  signified. 
‘ The  king  consented ; and,  by  t/izs  means  all  hope  of  success 
was  lost.’  Here  only  one  mediating  circumstance  is  implied ; 
and  the  noun  is  therefore  used  as  singular.  See  page  164. 


The  following  words,  which  have  been  adopted  from  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin  languages,  are  thus  distinguished  with  respect  to  number. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Cherub. 

Cherubim. 

Phoenomenon. 

Phoenomena. 

Seraph. 

Seraphim. 

Appendix.  | 

Appendices  or 

Antithesis. 

' Antitheses. 

Appendixes. 

Automaton. 

Automata. 

Arcanum. 

Arcana. 

Basis. 

Bases. 

Axis. 

Axes. 

Crisis. 

Crises. 

Calx. 

Calces. 

Criterion. 

Criteria. 

Datum. 

Data. 

Diaeresis. 

Diaereses. 

Effluvium. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipsis. 

Emphasis. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 

Encomium.  | 

1 Encomia  or 
Encomiums. 

Hypothesis. 

Hypotheses. 

Erratum. 

Errata. 

Metamor- 

(  Metamor- 

Genius. 

Genii. f 

phosis. 

( phoses. 

Memoran-  i 

j Memoranda  or 

Genus. 

Genera. 

durn.  i 

j Memorandums. 

Index. 

( Indices  o?^ 

Radius. 

Radii. 

( Indexes.* 

Stamen. 

Stamina. 

Lamina. 

Laminae. 

Stratum. 

Strata. 

Medium. 

Media. 

Vortex. 

Vortices. 

Magus. 

Magi. 

- 

Some  words^  derived  from  the  learned  languages,  are  con- 
fined to  the  plural  number : as,  antipodes,  credenda,  literati, 
minutiae. 

The  following  nouns  being,  in  Latin,  both  singular  and  plural, 
are  used  in  the  same  manner,  when  adopted  into  our  tongue : 
hiatus,  apparatus,  series,  species. 

* Indexes,  when  it  signifies  pointers,  or  Tables  of  contents ; Indices,  when  refen’ing  to  Alge- 
braic quantities. 

t Genii,  when  denoting  serial  spirits ; Geniuses,  when  signifying  persons  of  genius. 


etymology 


43 


SECTION  IV. 


Of  Case. 


In  English,  substantives  have  three  cases ; the  nom- 
inative, the  possessive,  and  the  objective.* 

The  nominative  case  simply  expresses  the  name  of 
a thing,  or  the  subject  of  the  verb : as,  “ The  boy 
plays “ The  girls  learn.” 

The  possessive  case  expresses  the  relaftion  of  prop- 
erty or  possession ; and  has  an  apostrophe  with  the 
letters  coming  after  it:  as,  “ The  scholar’s  duty 
“ My  father’s  house.” 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  other  s is  omitted, 
but  the  apostrophe  is  retained : as,  “ On  eagles’ 
wings “ The  drapers’  company.”t 

Sometimes  also,  when  the  singular  terminates  in 
55,  the  apostrophic  s is  not  added  : as,  “ Foy  goodness’ 
sake “ F or  rigJiteousness’  sake.” 

The  objective  case  expresses  the  object  of  an 
action,  or  of  a relation ; and  generally  follows  a verb 
active,  or  a preposition  : as  “ John  assists  Charles;” 
“ They  live  in  London.” 


English  substantives  are  declined  in  the  following  manner. 


Nominative  Case. 
Possessive  Case. 
Objective  Case. 


Singular. 

A mother. 
A mother’s. 
A mother. 


Plural. 

Mothers. 

Mothers.’ 

Mothers. 


Nominative  Case.  The  man. 
Possessive  Case.  The  man’s. 

Objective  Case.  The  man. 


The  men. 
The  men’s. 
The  men. 


The  possessive  is  sometimes  sailed  the  genitive  case  ; and  the  objective  the  accusative, 
t “ As  a proof  of  the  utility  of  the  genitive  plural  marked  by  apostrophe,  tve  need  only  recur  to 
a few  common  phrases. 

All  the  ships  masts  were  blown  away 
All  the  trees  leaves  were  blown  off. 

In  these  and  similar  phrases,  it  is  only  the  apostrophe,  placed  before  or  after  the  Sj  that 
determines  the  ships  and  trees  to  be  either  singular  or  plural.” 

WALKER’S  Outlines  of  English  Grammar*  • 


44 


ETYMOLOGY. 


The  English  language,  to  express  different  connexions  and 
relations  of  one  thing  to  another,  uses,  for  the  most  part,  prep- 
ositions. The  Greek  and  Latin  among  the  ancient,  and  some 
too  among  the  modern  languages,  as,  the  German,  vary  the 
termination  or  ending  of  the  substantive,  to  answer  the  same 
purpose : an  example  of  which,  in  the  Latin,  is  inserted,  as 
explanatory  of  the  nature  and  use  of  cases,  viz. 


Nominative. 

Singular. 

Dominus. 

A Lord. 

Genitive. 

Domini. 

Lord’s,  of  a Lord. 

Dative. 

Domino. 

To  a Lord. 

Accusative. 

Dominum. 

A Lord.^ 

\ ocative. 

Domine. 

O Lord. 

Ablative. 

Domino. 

By  a Lord. 

Nominative. 

Plural. 

Domini. 

Lords. 

Genitive. 

Dominorum. 

Lords^  of  Lords. 

Dative. 

Dominis. 

To  Lords. 

Accusative. 

Dominos. 

Lords. 

Vocative. 

Domini. 

O Lords. 

Ablative. 

Dominis. 

By  Lords. 

Some  writers  think,  that  the  relations  signified  by  the  addition 
of  articles  and  prepositions  to  the  nouns,  may  properly  be 
denominated  cases,  in  English ; and  that,  on  this  principle, 
there  are,  in  our  language,  as  many  cases  as  in  the  Latin  tongue. 
But  to  this  mode  of  forming  cases  for  our  substantives,  there 
are  strong  objections.  It  would-,  indeed,  be  a formal  and  useless 
arrangement  of  nouns,  articles,  and  prepositions.  If  an  ar- 
rangement of  this  nature  were  to  be  considered  as  constituting 
cases,  the  English  language  would  have  a much  greater  number 
of  them,  than  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  : for,  as  every  prep- 
osition habits  distinct  meaning  and  effect,  every  combination 
of  a preposition  and  article  w^ith  a noun,  would  form  a different 
relation,  and  would  constitute  a distinct  case.  This  would 
encumber  our  language  with  many  new  terms,  and  a heavy 
and  useless  load  of  distinctions.* 

On  the  principle  of  imitating  other  languages  in  names  and 
forms,  without  a correspondence  in  nature  and  idiom,  we 
might  adopt  a number  of  declensions,  as  well  as  a variety  of 
cases,  for  English  substantives.  Thus,  five  or  six  declensions, 

* “ If  cases  are  to  be  distinguisheJ  by  the  difTerent  significations  of  the  noun,  or  by  the  different 
relations  it  may  bear  to  the  governing  word,  then  we  have  in  our  language  as  many  cases  almost, 
as  there  are  prepositions  ; and,  above  a man,  beneath  a man,  beyond  a man,  round  about  a man, 
within  a man,  without  a man,  &c.  shall  be  cases,  as  well  as,  of  a man,  to  a man,  and  with  a man.” 

Dr.  Beattie. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


45 


distinguished  according  to  the  various  modes  of  forming  the 
plural  of  substantives,  with  at  least  half  a dozen  cases  to  each 
declension,  would  furnish  a complete  arrangement  of  English 
nouns,  in  all  their  trappings.  See  on  this  subject  the  fifth  and 
ninth  sections  of  the  sixth  chapter  of  Etymology. 

But  though  this  variety  of  cases  does  not  at  all  correspond 
with  the  idiom  of  our  language,  there  seems  to  be  great  proprie- 
ty in  admitting  a case  in  English  substantives,  which  shall  serve 
to  denote  the  objects  of  active  verbs  and  of  prepositions  ; and 
which,  is  therefore,  properly  termed  the  objective  case.  The 
general  idea  of  case,  doubtless,  has  a reference  to  the  termina- 
tion of  the  noun  : but  there  are  many  instances,  both  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  in  which  the  nominative  and  accusative  cases  have 
precisely  the  same  form,  and  are  distinguished  only  by  the  rela- 
tion they  bear  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  We  are  there- 
fore warranted  by  analogy,  in  applying  this  principle  to  our  own 
language,  as  far  as  utility,  and  the  idiom  of  it,  will  admit.  Now 
it  is  obvious,  that  in  the  English,  a noun  governed  by  an  active 
verb,  or  a preposition,  is  very  differently  circumstanced,  from  a 
noun  in  the  nominative,  or  in  the  possessive  case ; and  that  a 
comprehensive  case,  corresppndent  to  that  difference,  must  be 
useful  and  proper.  The  business  of  parsing,  and  of  showing  the 
connexion  and  dependence  of  words,  will  be  most  conveniently 
accomplished,  by  the  adoption  of  such  a case ; and  the  irregu- 
larity of  having  our  nouns  sometimes  placed  in  a situation, 
in  which  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  in  any  case  at  all,  will  be 
Ifcvoided. 

The  author  of  this  work  long  doubted  the  propriety  of  assign- 
ing to  English  substantives  an  objective  case:  but  a renewed, 
critical  examination  of  the  subject ; an  examination  to  which  he 
was  prompted  by  the  extensive  and  increasing  demand  for  the 
grammar,  has  produced  in  his  mind  a full  persuasion,  that  the 
nouns  of  our  language  are  entitled  to  this  comprehensive  object- 
ive case. 


When  the  thing  to  which  another  is  said  to  belong,  is  express- 
ed by  a circumlocution,  or  by  many  terms,  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive case  is  commonly  added  to  the  last  term  : as,  “ The  king 
of  Great  Britain’s  dominions.” 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  two  nouns  in  the  possessive  case, 
immediately  succeed  each  other,  in  the  following  form;  “My 
friend’s  wife’s  sister a sense  which  would  be  better  expressed 
by  saying,  “ the  sister  of  my  friend’s  wife or,  “ My  friend’s 
sister  in  law.”  Some  grammarians  say,  that  in  each  of  the  fol- 


46 


ETYMOLOGY. 


lowing  phrases,  viz.  “ A book  of  my  brother’s,’’  “ a servant  of 
the  queen’s,  ” “ A soldier  of  the  king’s,”  there  are  two  genitive 
cases  ; the  first  implying,  one  of  the  books  of  my  brother,”  the 
next  one  of  the  servsnts  of  the  queen,”  and  the  last,  one  of 
the  soldiers  of  the  king.”  But  as  the  preposition  governs  the 
objective  case  ; and  as  there  are  not,  in  each  of  these  sentences, 
two  apostrophes  with  the  letter  s coming  after  them,  we  cannot 
with  propriety  say  that  there  are  two  genitive  cases. 


CHAPTER  IV 


OF  ADJECTIVES. 


SECTION  I. 


Of  the  nature  of  adjectives,  and  the  degrees  of  comparison. 

An  Adjective  is  a word  added  to  a substantive,  to 
express  its  quality : as,  An  industrious  man A 
virtuous  woman  A benevolent  mind.” 

In  English,  the  adjective  is  not  varied  on  account 
of  gender,  number,  or  case.  Thus  we  say,  “A  care- 
less boy,  careless  girls.” 

The  only  variation  which  it  admits,  is  that  of  the 
degrees  of  comparison. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  three  degrees  of 
comparison  : the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the 

SUPERLATIVE. 

Grammarians  have  generally  enumerated  these  three  degrees 
of  comparison ; but  the  first  of  them  has  been  thought  by 
some  writers,  to  be  improperly  termed  a degree  of  compa- 
rison ; as  it  seems  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  simple  form 
of  the  adjective,  and  not  to  imply  either  comparison  or  de- 
gree. This  opinion  may  be  well  founded,  unless  the  adjective 
be  supposed  to  imply  comparison  or  degree,  by  containing  a 
secret  or  general  reference  to  other  things : as,  when  we  say, 


ETYMOLOGY. 


47 


“ he  is  a tall  man,”  “ this  is  a fair  day,”  we  make  some  refer- 
ence to  the  ordinary  size  of  men,  and  to  different  weather. 

The  positive  State  expresses  the  quality  of  an  ob- 
ject, without  any  increase  or  diminution:  as,  good, 
wise,  great. 

The  Comparative  Degree  increases  or  lessens  the 
positive  in  signification:  as,  wiser,  greater,  less  wise. 

The  Superlative  Degree  increases  or  lessens  the 
positive  to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  ; as,  wisest, 
greatest,  least  wise. 

The  simple  word,  or  positive,  becomes  the  com- 
parative, by  adding  r or  er;  and  the  superlative,  by 
adding  st  or  est^  to  the  end  of  it:  as,  wise,  w'iser, 
wisest ; great,  greater,  greatest.  And  the  adverbs 
more  and  most,  placed  before  the  adjective,  have  the 
same  effect : as,  wise,  more  wise,  most  wise. 

\ 

The  termination  ish  may  be  accounted  in  some  sort  a de- 
gree of  comparison,  by  which  the  signification  is  diminished 
below  the  positive  : as,  black,  blackish,  or  tending  to  blackness ; 
salt,  saltish,  or  having  a little  taste  of  salt. 

The  word  rather  is  very  properly  used  to  express  a small 
degree  or  excess  of  a quality  : as,  “ she  is  rather  profuse  in  her 
expenses. 

Monosyllables,  for  the  most  part,  are  compared  by  er  and 
est ; and  dissyllables  by  more  and  most ; as,  mild,  milder, 
mildest ; frugal,  more  frugal,  most  frugal.  Dissyllables  ending 
in  y ; as,  happy,  lovely ; and  in  le  after  a mute,  as  able,  ample ; 
or  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  as  discreet,  polite  ; easily  admit 
of  er  and  est : as,  happier,  happiest ; abler,  ablest ; politer, 
politest.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  hardly  ever  admit 
of  those  terminations. 

In  some  words  the  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  the  ad- 
verb to  the  end  of  them : as,  nethermost,  uttermost,  or 
utmost,  undermost,  uppermost,  foremost. 

In  English,  as  in  most  languages,  there  are  some  words  of 
very  common  use,  (in  which  the  caprice  of  custom  is  apt  to  get 
the  better  of  analogy,)  that  are  irregular  in  this  respect : as, 
‘‘  good,  better,  best ; bad,  worse,  worst ; little,  less,  least ; much 
or  many,  more,  most ; near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next ; late,  later, 
latest  or  last ; older,  older,  or  elder,  oldest  or  eldest ; ” and  a 
few  others. 

An  adjective  put  without  a substantive,  with  the  definite  ar- 
ticle before  it,  becomes  a substantive,  in  sense  and  meaning, 


48 


ETYMOLOGY. 


and  is  written  as  a substantive  : as,  “ Providence  rewards  the 
good,  ard  punishes  the  bad. 

Various  nouns  placed  before  other  nouns  assume  the  nature 
of  adjectives:  as,  sea  fish,  wine  vessel,  corn  field,  meadow 
ground,  &:c. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  either  cardinal,  dr  ordinal:  car- 
dinal, as  one,  two,  three,  &c. ; ordinal,  as  first,  second,  third, 
&c. 

SECTION  II. 

Remarks  on  the. subject  of  Comparison, 

If  we  consider  the  subject  of  comparison  attentively,  we  shall 
perceive  that  the  degrees  of  it  are  infinite  in  number,  or  at 
least  indefinite.  The  following  instances  will  illustrate  this 
position. — A mountain  is  larger  than  a mite  ; — by  how  many 
degrees  ? How  much  bigger  is  the  earth  than  a grain  of  sand  ? 
By  how  many  degrees  was  Sdcrates  wiser  than  Alcibiades  ; or 
by  how  many  is  snow  whiter  than  this  paper  ? It  is  plain,  that 
to  these,  and  many  other  questions  of  a similar  nature,  no  def- 
inite  answers  can  be  returned. 

In  quantities,  however,  that  may  be  exactly  measured,  the 
degrees  of  excess  may  be  exactly  ascertained.  A foot  is  just 
twelve  times  as  long  as  an  inch ; and  an  hour  is  sixty  times 
the  length  of  a minute.  But  in  regard  to  qualities  and  to  those 
quantites  which  cannot  be  measured  exactly,  it  is  impossible 
to  say  how  many  degrees  may  be  comprehended  in  the  com- 
parative excess. 

But  though  these  degrees  are  infinite  or  indefinite  in  fact, 
they  cannot  be  so  in  language : it  is  not  possible  to  accommo- 
date our  speech  to  such  numberless  gradations ; nor  would  it 
be  convenient,  if  language  were  to  express  many  of  them.  In 
regard  to  unmeasured  quantities  and  qualities,  the  degrees  of 
more  and  less,  ( besides  those  marked  above,)  may  be  ex- 
pressed intelligibly,  at  least,  if  not  accurately,  by  certain  ad- 
verbs, or  words  of  like  import:  as,  “virtue  is  greatly  pref- 
erable to  riches ; ” “ Socrates  was  much  wiser  than  Alcibia- 
des; “Snow  is  a great  deal  whiter  than  this  paper”;  “The 
tide  is  considerably  higher  to-day  than  it  was  yesterday ; ” 
“Epimonides  w^as  by  far  the  most  accomplished  of  the  The- 
bans;” “The  evening  star  is  a very  splendid  object,  but  the 
sun  is  incomparably  moi^e  splendid  ; ” “ The  Deity  is  infinitely 
greater  than  the  greatest  of  his  creatures.”  The  inaccuracy 
of  these,  and  the  like  expressions,  is  not  a material  incon- 
venience ; and,  if  it  were,  it  is  unavoidable : for  human 


ETYMOLOGY. 


49 


speech  can  only  express  human  thought ; and  where  thought  is 
necessarily  inaccurate,  language  must  be  so  too. 

When  the  word  very^  exceedingly^  or  any  other  of  similar 
import,  is  put  before  the  positive,  it  is  called  by  some  writers, 
the  superlative  of  eminence,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
superlative,  which  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  is  called 
the  superlative  of  comparison.  Thus  very  eloquent,  is  termed 
the  superlative  of  eminence ; most  eloquent,  the  superlative  of 
comparison.  In  the  superlative  of  eminence,  something  of 
comparison  is,  however,  remotely  or  indirectly  intimated ; for 
we  cannot  reasonably  call  a m.an  very  eloquent,  without  com- 
paring his  eloquence  with  the  eloquence  of  other  men. 

The  comparative  may  be  so  employed,  as  to  express  the 
same  pre-eminence  or  inferiority  as  the  superlative.  Thus,  the 
sentence,  “ Of  all  acquirements,  virtue  is  the  most  valuahle^^ 
conveys  the  same  sentiment  as  the  following ; “ Virtue  is  more 
valuable  than  every  other  acquirement.” 

When  we  properly  use  the  comparative  degree,  the  objects 
compared  are  set  in  direct  opposition,  and  the  one  is  not  con- 
sidered  as  a part  of  the  other,  or  as  comprehended  under  it. 
If  I say,  “ Cicero  was  more  eloquent  than  the  Romans,”  I 
speak  absurdly ; because  it  is  well  known,  that  of  the  class  of 
men  expressed  by  the  word  Roma7is,  Cicero  was  one.  But 
when  I assert  that  ‘‘  Cicero  was  more  eloquent  than  all  the 
other  Romans,  or  than  any  other  Roman 1 do  not  speak  ab- 
surdly ; for  though  the  persons  spoken  of  were  all  of  the  same 
class  or  city,  yet  Cicero  is  here  set  in  contradistinction  to  the 
rest  of  his  countrymen,  and  is  not  considered  as  one  of  the 
persons  with  whom  he  is  compared. — Moreover,  if  the  Psalm- 
ist had  said,  “ I am  the  wisest  of  my  teachers,”  the  phrase 
would  have  been  improper,  because  it  would  imply  that  he 
was  one  of  his  teachers.  But  when  he  says,  “ I am  wiser 
than  my  teachers,”  he  does  not  consider  himself  as  one  of 
them,  but  places  himself  in  contradistinction  to  them.  So 
also,  in  the  expression,  ‘‘  Eve  was  the  fairest  of  her  daugh- 
ters,” the  same  species  of  impropriety  is  manifest ; since  the 
phrase  supposes,  that  Eve  w^as  one  of  her  own  daughters. — 
Again,  in  the  sentence,  “ Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  men,” 
Solomon  is  compared  with  a kind  of  beings,  of  whom  he  him- 
self was  one,  and  therefore  the  superlative  is  used.  But  the 
expression,  “ Solomon  was  of  all  men  the  wiser,”  is  not 
sense : because  the  use  of  the  comparative  would  imply,  that 
Solomon  was  set  in  opposition  to  mankind : which  is  so  far 
from  being  the  case,  that  he  is  expressly  considered  as  one  of 
the  species. 

As  there  are  some  qualities  which  admit  of  comparison,  so 
there  are  others  which  admit  of  none.  Such,  for  example, 

VoL.  L 9 


50 


ETYMOLOGY. 


are  those  which  denote  that  quality  of  bodies  arising  from  their 
figure : as  when  we  say,  “ A circular  table ; a quadrangular 
court ; a conical  piece  of  metal,”  &c.  The  reason  is,  that  a, 
million  of  things  participating  the  same  figure  participate  it 
equally,  if  they  do  it  at  all.  To  say,  therefore,  that  while 
A and  B are  both  quadrangular,  A is  more  or  less  quadrangular 
than  B,  is  absurd.  The  same  holds  true  in  all  attributives 
denoting  definite  quantities,  of  whatever  nature.  Thus  the 
two-foot  rule  C cannot  be  more  a two  foot  rule,  than  any  other 
of  the  same  length.  For  as  there  can  be  no  comparison  with- 
out intension  or  remission,  and  as  there  can  be  no  intension 
or  remission  in  things  always  definite  these  attributives  can 
admit  of  no  comparison.  By  the  same  method  of  reasoning, 
we  discover  the  cause  why  no  substantive  is  susceptible  of 
these  degrees  of  comparison.  A mountain  cannot  be  said  more 
to  be,  or  to  exist,  than  a molehill ; but  the  more  or  less  must  be 
sought  for  in  their  qualities. 


CHAPTER  V. 

OF  PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun  is  a word  used  instead  of  a noun,  to 
avoid  the  too  froquent  repetition  of  the  same  word : 
as,  ^^The  man  is  happy;  he  is  benevolent;  he  is  use- 
ful.”'' 

There  are  three  kinds  of  pronouns,  viz.  the  per- 
sonal, the  RELATIVE,  and  the  adjective  pronouns. 


SECTION  I. 


Of  the  Personal  Pronouns^ 


There  are  five  Personal  Pronouns,  viz.  /,  thou^  he^ 
she^  it ; with  their  plurals  tue,  ye  or  yow,  they. 


* The  pronoun  is  also  used  to  represent  an  adjective,  a sentence,  a part  of  a sentence,  and  some- 
times  even  a series  of  propositions,  as  “They  suppose  him  to  be  innocent^  tthich  he  certainly 
was  not.”  “ Ris  friend  bore  the  abuse  very  patiently ; ichich  served  to  increase  his  rudeness  j it 
produced,  at  length,  contempt  and  insolence,” 


ETYMOLOGY. 


51 


Personal  Pronouns  admit  of  person,  number,  gen 
der,  and  case. 

The  persons  of  pronouns  are  three  in  each  number,  viz. 

/,  is  the  first  person 

Thou^  is  the  second  person 

He^  she^  or  is  the  third  person 

We^  is  the  first  person 

or  you^  is  the  second  person 

They^  is  the  third  person. 

This  account  of  persons  will  be  very  intelligible,  when  we 
reflect,  that  there  are  three  persons  who  may  be  the  subject 
of  any  discourse : first,  the  person  who  speaks,  may  speak  of 
himself ; secondly,  he  may  speak  of  the  person  to  whom  be 
addresses  himself ; thirdly,  he  may  speak  of  some  other  person  ; 
and  as  the  speakers,  the  persons  spoken  to,  and  the  other  per- 
sons spoken  of,  may  be  many,  so  each  of  these  persons  must 
have  the  plural  number. 

The  numbers  of  pronouns,  like  those  of  substan- 
tives, are  two,  the  singular  and  the  plural : as,  /,  thou^ 
he  ; we^  ye  or  t/ow,  they. 

Gender  has  respect  only  to  the  third  person  sin- 
gular of  the  pronouns,  she^  it.  He  is  masculine ; 
she  is  feminine  ; it  is  neuter. 

The  persons  speaking  and  spoken  to,  being  at  the  same  time 
the  subjects  of  the  discourse,  are  supposed  to  be  present ; from 
which,  and  other  circumstances,  their  sex  is  commonly  known, 
and  needs  not  to  be  marked  by  a distinction  of  gender  in  the 
pronouns ; but  the  third  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  being  absent 
and  in  many  respects  unknown,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be 
marked  by  a distinction  of  gender ; at  least,  when  some  parti- 
cular person  or  thing  is  spoken  of,  that  ought  to  be  more  dis- 
tinctly marked : accordingly,  the  pronoun  singular  of  the  third 
person  has  the  three  genders,  he,  she,  it. 

Pronouns  have  three  cases ; the  nominative,  the 
possessive,  and  the  objective. 

The  objective  case  of  a pronoun  has,  in  general,  a form  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  nominative  or  the  possessive  case. 


^ Singular. 
> Plural. 


52 

Person. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined. 
Case.  Singular. 

Plural. 

First. 

JYom. 

I. 

We. 

Foss. 

Mine. 

Ours. 

Obj. 

Me. 

Us. 

Second. 

JYom. 

Thou. 

Ye  or  You. 

Foss. 

Thine. 

Yours. 

Obj. 

Thee. 

You. 

Third. 

JYom. 

He. 

They. 

Mas. 

Foss. 

His. 

Theirs. 

Obj. 

Him. 

Them. 

Third. 

JYom. 

She. 

They. 

Fern. 

Foss. 

Hers. 

Theirs. 

Obj. 

Her. 

Them. 

Third. 

JYom. 

It. 

They. 

JYeuter. 

Foss. 

Its. 

Theirs. 

Obj. 

It. 

Them. 

The  propriety  of  admitting  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  &c.  as  pos« 
.sessive  cases  of  the  personal  pronouns,  has  been  disputed, 
though  the  nature  and  meaning  of  these  words,  and  the  concur- 
rent practice  of  our  first  grammarians,  have  assigned  them  this 
rank  and  denomination.  It  has  been  alleged,  that  these  sup- 
posed possessives  are  actually  used  in  the  nominative  and 
objective  cases ; and  that  therefore  our  classification  must  be 
erroneous.  The  instances  offered  in  support  of  this  allegation, 
are  such  as  the  following : “ My  pleasures  are  past ; hers  and 
yours  are  to  come  They  applauded  his  conduct,  but  con- 
demned hers  and  yoursT  A little  reflection  will,  however,  show 
that  these  pronouns,  in  the  examples  produced,  are  not  in  the 
nominative  and  objective  cases,  but  in  the  possessive  case.  The 
following  appears  to  be  the  true  construction  of  these_«entences : 

My  pleasures  are  past ; the  pleasures  of  her  and  of  you  are  to 
come “ They  applauded  his  conduct,  but  condemned  the 
conduct  of  her  and  of  youT  That  this  is  the  right  construction 
will  more  clearly  appear,  if  we  substitute  nouns  for  the  pro- 
nouns : “ My  pleasures  are  past ; Mary’s  and  Ann’s  afe  to 
come;”  ‘‘ They  applauded  his  conduct,  but  condemned  Mary’s 
and  Ann’s that  is  “ Mary’s  and  Ann’s  pleasures ; Mary’s  and 
Ann’s  conduct.” 

The  objection  too,  that  the  phrase,  ‘‘An  acquaintance  of 
yoiirs,’^  supposes  the  same  word  to  admit  of  two  different  signs 
of  the  case,  seems  to  be  of  no  validity.  Instances  of  a 
double  genitive,  as  it  is  called,  are  not  uncommon  in  our  lan- 
guage, and  they  are  far  from  implying  any  absurdity.  We 


ETYMOLOGY. 


53 


properly  say,  “ An  acquaintance  of  Peter^s “ A soldier  of 
the  king’s” — See  Syntax,  Rule  x.  Note  6. 

The  possessives  under  consideration,  like  other  parts  of 
grammar,  may  indeed  have  some  properties  peculiar  to  them- 
selves ; and  may  not,  in  their  present  form,  be  readily  accom- 
modated to  every  circumstance  belonging  to  the  possessive 
cases  of  nouns ; but  they  should  not,  on  this  slight  pretence, 
be  dispossessed  of  the  right  and  privilege,  which,  from  time 
immemorial,  they  have  enjoyed. 


SECTION  II. 


Of  the  Relative  Pronouns. 


Relative  Pronouns  are  such  as  relate,  in  general, 
to  some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  which  is  thence 
called  the  antecedent : they  are,  who,  which,  and 
that : as,  “ The  man  is  happy  ivho  lives  virtuously.”* 

What  is  a kind  of  compound  relative,  including 
both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is  equiva- 
lent to  that  which  : as,  “ this  is  what  1 wanted ; that 
is  to  say,  “ the  thing  which  I wanted.” 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  which  to  animals  and 
inanimate  things  : as,  “ He  is  a friend,  who  is  faithful 
in  adversity ;”  “ The  bird,  which  sung  so  sweetly,  is 
flown “ This  is  the  tree,  which  produces  no  fruit.” 

That,  as  a relative,  is  often  used  to  prevent  the  too 
frequent  repetition  of  who  and  which.  It  is  applied  to 
both  persons  and  things:  as,  “ il/e  that  acts  wisely 
deserves  praise ;”  “ Modesty  is  a quality  that  highly 
adorns  a woman.” 

Who  is  of  both  numbers,  and  is  thus  declined  : 


Singular  and  .Plural. 


JYominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


Who. 

Whose. 

Whom. 


* The  relative  pronoun,  when  used  interrogatively,  relates  to  a word  or  phrase,  which  is  not 
antecedent,  but  subsequent,  to  the  relative.  See  Note  under  the  VI.  Rule  of  Syntax. 


54 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Which^  that,  and  what,  are  likewise  of  both  numbers,  but 
they  do  not  vary  their  termination ; except  that  whose  is  some- 
times used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which : as,  “ Is  there  any 
other  doctrine  whose  followers  are  punished?’^ 

^ « the  fruit 

Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 

Brought  death.”  milton. 

“ Pure  the  joy  without  allay, 

Whose  very  rapture  is  tranquillity.”  toung. 

“ The  lights  and  shades,  whose  well  accorded  strife 

Gives  all  the  strength  and  colour  of  our  life.”  pope. 

“ This  is  one  of  the  clearest  characteristics  of  its  being  a religion  whose  origin 
is  divine.”  blair. 

By  the  use  of  this  license,  one  word  is  substituted  for  three  : 
as,  “ Philosophy,  lohose  end  is  to  instruct  us  in  the  knowledge 
of  nature,”  for  “ Philosophy,  the  end  of  which  is  to  instruct 
us,”  &c. 

Who,  which,  and  v:>hat,  have  sometimes  the  words  soever 
and  ever  annexed  to  them : as  lohosoever  or  whoever,  which- 
soever, or  whichever,  whatsoever  or  whatever ;”  but  they  are 
seldom  used  in  modern  style,  except  whoever  and  whatever. 

The  word  that  is  sometimes  a relative,  sometimes  a demon- 
strative pronoun,  and  sometimes  a conjunction.  It  is  a relative 
when  it  may  be  turned  into  who  or  which  without  destroying 
the  sense  : as  “ They  that  (who)  reprove  us,  may  be  our  best 
friends From  every  thing  that  (which)  you  see,  derive 
instruction.”  It  is  a demonstrative  pronoun  when  it  is  followed 
immediately  by  a substantive,  to  which  it  is  either  joined,  or 
refers,  and  which  it  limits  or  qualifies  : as,  “ That  boy  is  in- 
dustrious ;”  “ That  belongs  to  me  ;”  meaning,  that  book,  that 
desk,  &c.  It  is  a conjunction,  when  it  joins  sentences  together, 
and  cannot  be  turned  into  who  or  which,  without  destroying  the 
sense  : as,  ‘‘  Take  care  that  every  day  be  well  employed.” 
‘‘  I hope  he  will  believe  that  I have  not  acted  improperly.” 

Who,  which,  and  what,  are  called  Inter rogatives,  when  they 
are  used  in  asking  questions : as,  ^‘Who  is  he?”  “ Which  \s 
the  book?”  “ What  are  you  doing  ?” 

Whether  was  formerly  made  use  of  to  signify  interrogation : 
as,  “ Whether  of  these  shall  I choose  ?”  but  it  is  now  seldom 
used,  the  interrogative  which  being  substituted  for  it.  Some 
grammarians  think  that  the  use  of  it  should  be  revived,  as, 
like  either  and  neither  it  points  to  the  dual  number ; and  would 
contribute  to  render  our  expressions  concise  and  definite. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


55 


Some  writers  have  classed  the  interrogatives  as  a separate 
kind  of  pronouns : but  they  are  too  nearly  related  to  the  relative 
pronouns,  both  in  nature  and  form,  to  render  such  a division 
proper.  They  do  not,  in  fact,  lose  the  character  of  relatives, 
when  they  become  interrogatives.  The  only  difference  is,  that 
without  interrogation,  the  relatives  have  reference  to  a subject 
which  is  antecedent,  definite,  and  known  ; with  an  interrogation, 
to  a subject  which  is  subsequent,  indefinite  and  unknown,  and 
which  it  is  expected  that  the  answer  should  express  and  ascer- 
tain. 


SECTION,  in. 


Of  the  Adjective  Pronouns. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  of  a mixed  nature,  partici- 
pating the  properties  both  of  pronouns  and  adjec- 
tives. 

The  adjective  pronouns  may  be  subdivided  into 
four  sorts : namely,  the  possessive^  the  distributive^  the 
demonstrative^  and  the  indefinite. 

1.  The  possessive  are  those  which  relate  to  pos- 
session or  property.  There  are  seven  of  them ; viz. 
my,  his^  her^  our^  your^  their. 

Mine,  and  thine,  instead  of  my  and  thy,  were  formerly  used 
before  a substantive,  or  adjective,  beginning  with  a vowel,  or  a 
silent  h : as,  “ Blot  out  all  mine  iniquities.” 

The  pronouns,  his,  mine,  thine,  have  the  same  form,  whether 
they  are  possessive  pronouns,  or  the  possessive  cases  of  their 
respective  personal  pronouns.  See  Syntax,  Rule  x. 

A few  examples  will  probably  assist  the  learner,  to  distinguish 
the  possessive  pronouns  from  the  genitive  cases  of  their  corres- 
pondent personal  pronouns. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  possessive  pronouns, 
— ^^My  lesson  is  finished ; Thy  books  are  defaced ; He  loves  his 
studies;  She  performs  her  duty;  We  own  our  faults;  Your 
situation  is  distressing;  I admire  their  virtues.” 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  possessive  cases  of  the 
personal  pronouns.  “This  desk  is  mine;  the  other  is  thine  \ 
These  trinkets  are  his ; those  are  hers ; This  house  is  ours  ; and 
that  is  yours ; Theirs  is  very  commodious.” 

Some  grammarians  consider  its  as  a possessive  pronoun. 

The  two  words  own  and  self,  are  used  in  conjunction  with 


56 


ETYMOLOGY. 


pronouns.  Own  is  added  to  possessives,  both  singular  and  plural : 
as,  own  hand,  our  own  house.”  It  is  emphatical,  and  im- 
plies a silent  contrariety  or  opposition  : as,  “ I live  in  my  own 
house,”  that  is,  “ not  in  a hired  house.”  Self  is  added  to  posses- 
sives : as,  myself  yourselves : and  sometimes  to  personal  pro- 
nouns : as,  himself  itself,  themselves.  It  then,  like  own,  expresses 
emphasis  and  opposition : as,  “ I did  this  myself,”  that  is,  “ not 
another;”  or  it  forms  a reciprocal  pronoun:  as,  “We  hurt  our- 
selves by  vain  rage.” 

Himself,  themselves,  are  now  used  in  the  nominative  case, 
instead  of  himself,  theirselves : as,  “ He  came  himself ; “ He 
himself  shall  do  this  ; “ They  performed  it  themselves.” 

2.  The  distributive  are  those  which  denote  the  per- 
sons or  things  that  make  up  a number,  as  taken 
separately  and  singly.  They  are  each^  every^  either : 
as  , Each  of  his  brothers  is  in  a favourable  situa- 
tion Every  man  must  account  for  himself I 
have  not  seen  either  of  them.” 

Each,  relates  to  two  or  more  persons  or  things,  and  signifies 
either  of  the  two,  or  every  one  of  any  number  taken  separately.^ 

Every  relates  to  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies  each 
one  of  them  all  taken  separately.  This  pronoun  was  formerly 
used  apart  from  its  noun  ; but  it  is  now  constantly  annexed  to 
it,  except  in  legal  proceedings  : as,  in  the  phrase,  “ all  and  every 
of  them.” 

Either  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  taken  separately,  and 
signifies,  the  one  or  the  other.  To  say,  “ Either  of  the  three,” 
is  therefore  improper.  It  should  be,  “ any  of  the  three.” 

Neither  imports  “ not  either  that  is,  not  one  nor  the  other : 
as,  “ Neither  of  my  friends  was  there.”  If  more  than  two  are 
alluded  to,  it  should  be,  “ None  of  my  friends  was  there.” 

3.  The  demonstrative  are  those,  which  precisely 
point  out  the  subjects  to  which  they  relate : this  and 
that^  these  and  those^  are  of  this  class  : as,  This  is 
true  charity;  that  is  only  its  image.”  ' 

This  refers  to  the  nearest  person  or  thing,  and  that 
to  the  most  distant : as,  This  man  is  more  intelli- 
gent than  thatf  This  indicates  the  latter  or  last 
mentioned  ; that^  the  former,  or  first  mentioned  : as 

Both  wealth  and  poverty  are  temptations : that 
tends  to  excite  pride,  this^  discontent. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


57 


The  words  former  and  latter  may,  at  the  first  view,  appear 
to  have  the  nature  of  demonstrative  pronouns ; as  in  the  follow- 
ing example:  “ It  was  happy  for  the  state,  that  Fabius  continued 
in  the  command  with  Minucius : the  former’' s phlegm  was  a 
check  upon  the  latter^ s vivacity.”  But  these  words  are  to  be 
considered  as  adjectives  : and  in  the  example  just  given,  as  ad- 
jectives substantively  used.  ^ 

4.  The  indefinite  are  those,  which  express  their 
subjects  in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner.  The 
following  are  of  this  kind  : some^  other^  any^  one^  all^ 
such^  &c. 

Op  these  pronouns,  only  the  words  one  and  other  are  varied. 
One  has  a possessive  case,  which  it  forms  in  the  same  manner 
as  substantives : as,  o/ie,  onds.  This  Word  has  a general  sig- 
nification, meaning  people  at  large  ; and  sometimes  also  a pecu- 
liar reference  to  the  person  who  is  speaking : as,  “ One  ought 
to  pity  the  distresses  of  mankind.”  “ One  is  apt  to  love  onds 
self.”  This  word  is  often  used,  by  good  writers,  in  the  plural 
number : as,  “ The  great  ones  of  the  w’^orld ;”  The  boy 
wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole  the  young  ones “ My  wife 
and  the  little  ones  are  in  good  health.” 

Other  is  declined  in  the  following  manner : 


Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Other.  Others. 

Poss.  Otheds.  Others\ 

Obj.  Other.  Others. 


The  plural  others  is  only  used  when  apart  from  the  noun  to 
which  it  refers,  whether  expressed  or  understood  : as,  “ When 
you  have  perused  these  papers  I will  send  you  the  othei'sr 

‘‘  He  pleases  some,  but  he  disgusts  others.  When  this  pro- 
noun is  joined  to  nouns,  either  singular  or  plural,  it  has  no  vari- 
ation : as,  ‘‘  the  other  man,”  “ the  other  men.” 

The  following  phrases  may  serve  to  exemplify  the  indefinite 
pronouns.  “ Some  of  you  are  wise  and  good  “ A few  of  them 
w^ere  idle,  the  others  industrious ;”  Neither  is  there  any  that  is 
unexceptionable ;”  “ One  ought  to  know  onds  own  mind 
“ They  were  all  present ;”  “ Such  is  the  state  of  man,  that  he  is 
never  at  rest “ Some  are  happy,  while  others  are  miserable.” 

The  word  another  is  composed  of  the  indefinite  article  pre- 
fixed to  the  word  other. 

None  is  used  in  both  numbers  : as,  “ None  is  so  deaf  as  he 
that  will  not  hear ;”  “ None  of  those  are  equal  to  these.”  It 
seems  originally  to  have  signified,  according  to  its  derivation, 
not  one^  and  therefore  to  have  had  no  plural ; but  there  is  good 

VoL.  I.  10 


58 


ETYMOLOGY. 


authority  for  the  use  of  it  in  the  plural  number : as,  “ None  that 
go  unto  her  return  again.”  Prov,  ii.  19.  “ Terms'  Of  peace 

were  vouchsaf’d.”  Milton.  “ iVbne  of  them  are  varied 
to  express  the  gender.”  “ None  of  them  have  different  endings 
for  the  numbers.”  Lowth’s  Introduction.  “ None  of  their 
productions  are  extant.”  Blair. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  adjectivO 
pronouns,  and  to  distinguish  and  arrange  them  intelligibly ; 
but  it  is  difficult,  perhaps  impracticable,  to  define  and  divide 
them  in  a manner  perfectly  unexceptionable.  Some  of  them, 
in  particular,  may  seem  to  require  a different  arrangement. 
We  presume,  however,  that,  for  every  useful  purpose,  the 
present  classification  is  sufficiently  correct.  Ail  the  pronouns, 
except  the  personal  and  relative,  may  indeed,  in  a general 
view  of  them,  be  considered  as  definite  pronouns,  because 
they  define  or  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  common  name,  or 
general  term,  to  which  they  refer,  or  are  joined  ; but  as  each 
class  of  them  does  this,  more  or  less  exactly,  or  in  a manner 
peculiar  to  itself,  a division  adapted  to  this  circumstance  appears 
to  be  suitable  to  the  nature  of  things,  and  the  understanding  of 
learners. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  respectable  grammarians,  that  the 
words  this^  that,  any,  some,  such,  his,  their,  our,  (fee.  are  pro- 
nouns, when  they  are  used  separately  from  the  nouns  to  which 
they  relate  ; but  that,  when  they  are  joined  to  those  nouns,  they 
are  not  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  this  species  of  words ; 
because  in  this  association,  they  rather  ascertain  a substantive, 
than  supply  the  place  of  one.  They  assert  that,  in  the  phrases, 
“ give  me  thatr  “ this  is  John’s,”  and  ‘‘  such  were  some  of  you,” 
the  words  in  italics  are  pronouns : but  that,  in  the  following 
phrases,  they  are  not  pronouns  ; “ this  book  is  instructive,” 
“ some  boys  are  ingenious,”  “ my  health  is  declining,”  “ oiir 
hearts  are  deceitful,”  &c.  Other  grammarians  think,  that  all 
these  words  are  pure  adjectives,  and  that  none  of  them  can 
properly  be  called  pronouns:  as  the  genuine  pronoun  stands 
by  itself,  without  the  aid  of  a noun  expressed  or  understood. 
They  are  of  opinion,  that  in  the  expressions,  “ Give  me  that 
‘‘  this  is  John’s,”  &c.  the  noun  is  always  understood,  and  must 
be  supplied  in  the  mind  of  the  reader : as,  “ Give  me  that' hook 
“ this  hook  is  John’s “ and  such  persons  were  some  persons 
amongst  you.” 

Some  writers  are  of  opinion,  that  the  pronouns  should  be 
classed  into  substantive  and  adjective  pronouns.  Under  the 
former  they  include  the  personal  and  the  relative ; under  the 
latter,  all  the  others.  But  this  division,  though  a neat  one, 
does  not  appear  to  be  accurate.  All  the  relative  pronouns  will 
not  range  under  the  substantive  head. — We  have  distributed 


ETYMOLOGY. 


59 


these  parts  of  grammar,  in  the  mode  which  we  think  most  cor- 
rect and  intelligible : but,  for  the  information  of  students,  and 
to  direct  their  inquiries  on  the  subject,  we  state  the  different 
opinions  of  several  judicious  writers  on  Grammar. 

Some  grammarians  have  considered  the  articles,  and  all  the 
adjective  pronouns,  as  pure  adjectives.  Others  have  proceeded 
so  far  as  to  class  even  the  relative  pronouns,  or  some  of  them, 
among  the  adjectives.  Others,  again  have  placed  the  pronouns 
thisy  that^  other,  some,  any,  &c.  in  the  rank  of  articles.  It  would, 
indeed,  be  difficult  to  state,  within  a moderate  compass,  the 
various  opinions,  and  the  ingenious  discussions  in  support  of 
them,  which  grammarians  have  exhibited,  respecting  these  parts 
of  speech,  and  their  occasional  conformity  with  each  other. 
But  arrangements  of  this  kind,  are  not  likely  to  be  of  any 
use,  or  to  meet  with  general  approbation.  An  adherence  to 
the  established  terms  and  arrangement,  produces  many  advan- 
tages, and  occasions  no  material  inconvenience.  It  is  easy  to 
advance  plausible  objections  against  almost  every  definition, 
rule,  and  arrangement  of  grammar.  But  in  most  cases  of  this 
nature,  it  is  certainly  much  better,  to  supply  the  defects  and 
abridge  superfluities,  to  correct  errors,  and  suggest  improve- 
ments, by  occasional  notes  and  observations,  than  by  disor- 
ganizing, or  altering  a system  which  has  been  so  long  esta- 
blished, and  so  generally  approved.^ — See  pages  29,  30,  and 
Chapter  xi.  Section  I.  On  ‘‘ Derivation.  ’ 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OF  VERBS. 


SECTION  I. 

Of  the  nature  of  Verbs  in  general. 

A VERB  is  a word  w^hich  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to 
SUFFER : as,  I am,  I rule,  I am  ruled.” 

Verbs  are  of  three  kinds;  active,  .passive,  and 


* It  is  probable,  that  any  attempt  to  establish  a different  classification  of  the  parts  of  speech, 
from  that  which  is  commonly  received,  will  be  found  of  little  utility,  either  in  practice  or  in 
speculation.— Britannica, 


60 


ETYMOLOGY. 


NEUTER.  They  are  also  divided  into  regular,  ir- 
regular, and  DEFECTIVE. 

A Verb  Active  expresses  an  action,  and  neces- 
sarily implies  an  agent,  and  an  object  acted  upon, 
as,  to  love ; ‘‘  I love  Penelope.” 

A Verb  Passive  expresses  a passion,  or  a suffering, 
or  the  rceiving  of  an  action;  and  nececessarily  im- 
plies an  object  acted  upon,  and  an  agent  by  which 
it  is  acted  upon : as,  to  be  loved ; Penelope  is 
loved  by  me.” 

A Verb  neuter  expresses  neither  action  nor  pas- 
sion, but  being,  or  a state  of  being:  as,  am,  I 
sleep,  I sit.”^ 

The  verb  active  is  also  called  transitive^  because  the  action 
passes  over  to  the  object,  or  has  aa  effect  upon  some  other  thing : 
as,  The  tutor  instructs  his  pupils  ; ” ‘‘I  esteem  the  man.” 

Verbs  neuter  may  properly  be  denominated  intransitives,  be- 
cause the  effect  is  confined  within  the  subject,  and  does  npt  pass 
over  to  any  object : as,  “ I sit,  he  lives,  they  sleep.” 

Some  of  the  verbs  that  are  usually  ranked  among  neuters, 
make  a near  approach  to  the  nature  of  a verb  active  ; but  they 
may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  their  being  intransitive  : as,  to 
run,  to  walk,  to  fly,  &c.  The  rest  are  more  obviously  neuter, 
and  more  clearly  expressive  of  a middle  state  between  action 
and  passion  : as,  to  stand,  to  lie,  to  sleep,  &c. 

In  English,  many  verbs  are  used  both  in  an  active  and  a 
neuter  signification,  the  construction  only  determining  of  which 
kind  they  are  : as,  to  flatten,  signifying  to  make  even  or  level, 
is  a verb  active ; but  when  it  signifies  to  grow  dull  or  insipid,  it 
is  a verb  neuter. 

A neuter  verb,  by  the  addition  of  a preposition,  may  be- 
come a compound  active  verb.  To  smile  is  a nueter  verb  ; it 
cannot  therefore  be  followed  by  an  objective  case,  nor  be 
construed  as  a passive  verb.  We  cannot  say,  she  smiled  him, 

* Verbs  have  been  distinguished  by  some  writers  into  the  following  kinds. 

1st.  Active  transitive,  or  those  which  denote  an  action  that  passes  from  the  agent  to  some 
object:  as  Csesar  conquered  Pompey. 

2d.  Active  intransitive,  or  those*  which  express  that  kind  of  action,  which  has  no  effect  upon 
anything  beyond  the  agent  himself:  as,  Csesar  walked. 

3d.  PaB^ive,  or  those  which  express,  not  action,  but  passion,  whether  pleasing  or  painful:  as, 
Portia  was  loved  ; Pompey  was  conquered. 

4th.  Neuter,  or  those  which  express  an  attribute  that  consists  neither  in  action  nor  passion 
as,  Caesar  stood. 

This  appears  to  be  an  orderly  arrangement.  But  if  the  class  of  active-intransitivB  verbs 
were  admitted,  it  would  rather  perplex  than  assist  the  learner;  for  the  difference  between 
verbs  active  and  neuter,  as  transitive  and  intransitive,  is  easy  and  obvious : bm  the  differenc« 
between  verbs  absolutely  neuter  and  intransitively  active,  is  not  always  clear.  It  is,  indeed  often 
very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  be  ascertained. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


61 


or  he  was  smiled.  But  to  smile  on  being  a compound  active 
verb,  we  properly  say,  she  smiled  on  him  ; he  was  smiled  on  by 
fortune  in  every  undertaking. 

Auxiliary  or  helping  Verbs,  are  those  by  the  help 
of  which  the  English  verbs  are  principally  conju- 
gated. They  are,  </o,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  with 
their  variations  ; and,  let  and  must,  which  have  no 
variation.* 

In  our  definition  of  the  verb,  as  a part  of  speech  which 
signifies  ie  to  do,  ov  to  suffer,  &c.  we  have  included  every 
thing,  either  expressly  or  by  necessary  consequences,  that  is 
essential  to  its  nature,  and  nothing  that  is  not  essential  to  it. 

This  definition  is  w^arranted  by  the  authority  of  Dr.  Lowth, 
and  of  many  other  respectable  writers  on  grammar.  There 
are,  however,  some  grammarians,  who  consider  assertion  as 
the  essence  of  the  verb.  But  as  the  participle  and  the  infini- 
tive if  included  in  it,  would  prove  insuperable  objections  to 
their  scheme,  they  have,  without  hesitation,  denied  the  former 
a place  in  the  verb,  and  declared  the  latter  to  be  merely  an 
abstract  noun.  This  appears  to  be  going  rather  too  far  in 
support  of  an  hypothesis.  It  seems  to  be  incumbent  on  these 
grammarians  to  reject  also  the  imperative  mood.  What  part 
of  speech  would  they  make  the  verbs  in  the  following  sen- 
tence ? ‘‘Depart  instantly:  improve  your  time:  forgive  us 
our  sins.”  Will  it  be  said,  that  the  verbs  in  these  phrases  are 
assertions  ? 

In  reply  to  these  questions,  it  has  been  said,  that  “ Depart 
instantly;”  is  an  expression  equivalent  to,  “ I desire  you  to 
depart  instantly  and  that  as  the  latter  phrase  implies  affirma- 
tion or  assertion,  so  does  the  former.  But,  supposing  the 
phrases  to  be  exactly  alike  in  sense,  the  reasoning  is  not  con- 
clusive. 1st.  In  the  latter  phrase,  the  only  part  implying 
affirmation,  is,  “ I desire.”  The  words,  “ to  depart,”  are  in 
the  infinitive  mood,  and  contain  no  assertion  : they  affirm 
nothing.  2d.  The  position  is  not  tenable  that  “ Equivalence 
in  sense  implies  similarity  in  grammatical  nature.”  It  proves 
too  much,  and  therefore  nothing.  This  mode  of  reasoning 
would  confound  the  acknowledged  grammatical  distinction 
of  wordsi  A pronoun,  on  this  principle,  may  be  proved 
to  be  a noun  ; a noun,  a verb  ; an  adverb,  a noun  and 
preposition  ; the  superlative  degree,  the  comparative  ; the 

* Let,  as  a principle  verb,  has  lettest  and  letteth ; but  as  a helping  verb  it  admits  of  no 
variation. 


02 


ETYMOLOGY. 


imperative  mood,  the  indicative  ; the  future  tense,  the  present ; 
and  so  on  : because  they  may  respectively  be  resolved  into 
similar  meanings.  Thus  in  the  sentence,  “ I desire  you  to 
depart,”  the  words  to  depart,  may  be  called  a noun,  because 
they  are  equivalent  in  sense  to  the  noun  departure,  in  the 
following  sentence.  “ I desire  your  departure.”  The  wwds, 
“ Depart  instantly,”  may  be  proved  to  be,  not  the  imperative 
mood  with  an  adverb,  but  the  indicative  and  infinitive,  with  a 
noun  and  preposition ; for  they  are  equivalent  to,  “ I desire 
you  to  depart  in  an  instant.”  The  superlative,  degree  in  this 
sentence,  “ Of  all  acquirements  virtue  is  the  most  valuable,” 
may  pass  for  the  comparative,  because  it  conveys  the  same  senti- 
ment as,  ‘‘Virtue  is  more  valuable  than  every  other  acquirement.” 

We  shall  not  pursue  this  subject  any  further,  as  we  think  the 
reader  must  be  satisfied,  that  only  the  word  desire,  in  the 
equivalent  sentence,  implies  affirmation  ; and  that  two  phrases 
may  be  equivalent,  in  point  of  sense,  though,  in  their  grammat- 
ical nature , they  may  be  essentially  different. 

To  verbs  belong 


NUMBER,  PERSON,  MOOD,  AND  TENSE. 

SECTION  11. 

Of  JVumber  and  Person. 

Verbs  have  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and  the 
Plural  , as,  “ I run,  we  run,”  &c. 

In  each  number  there  are  three  persons  : as, 

Singular.  Plural. 

First  Person.  I love.  We  love. 

Second  Person.  Thou  lovest.  Ye  or  you  love. 

Third  Person.  He  loves.  T hey  love. 

Thus  the  verb,  in  some  parts  of  it,  varies  its  endings,  to 

express  or  agree  with,  different  persons  of  the  same  number  : 
as,  “ I love,  thou  lovest  ; he  loveth,  or  loves : and  also  to  ex- 
press different  numbers  of  the  same  person : as,  thou  lovest, 
ye  love  ; he  loveth,  they  Zoue.”  In  the  plural  number  of  the 
verb,  there  is  no  variation  of  ending  to  express  the  different 
persons  ; and  the  verb,  in  the  three  persons  plural,  is  the 


ETYMOLOGY. 


63 


same  as  it  is  in  the  first  person  singular.  Yet  this  scanty  pro- 
vision of  termination  is  sufficient  for  all  the  purposes  of  dis- 
course, and  no  ambiguity  arises  from  it ; the  verb  being  always 
attended  either  with  the  noun  expressing  the  subject  acting  or 
acted  upon,  or  with  the  pronoun  representing  it.  For  this 
reason  the  plural  termination  in  en,  they  loven,  they  weren,  for- 
merly in  use,  was  laid  aside  as  unnecessary,  and  has  long  been 
obsolete. ' 

SECTION  III. 

Of  Moods  and  Participles. 

Mood  or  Mode  is  a particular  form  of  the  verb, 
showing  the  manner  in  which  the  being,  action,  or 
passion  is  represented.  ^ * 

The  nature  of  a mood  may  be  more  intelligibly  explained  to 
the  scholar,  by  observing  that  it  consists  in  the  change  which 
the  verb  undergoes,  to  signify  various  intentions  of  the  mind, 
and  various  modifications  and  circumstances  of  action : which 
explanation,  if  compared  with  the  following  account  and  uses 
of  the  different  moods,  will  be  found  to  agree  with  and  illus- 
trate them. 

There  are  five  moods  of  verbs. 

THE  INDICATIVE,  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE, 

THE  IMPERATIVE,  AND 

THE  POTENTIAL,  THE  INFINITIVE. 

The  Indicative  Mood,  simply  indicates  or  declares 
a thing:  as,  “he  loves,  he  is  loved;”  or  it  asks  a 
question  : as.  Does  he  love  ?”  “ Is  he  loved  ?” 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  for  commanding, 
exhopting,  entreating,  or  permitting : as.  Depart 
thou ; mind  ye  ; let  us  stay ; go  in  peace.” 

Though  this  mood  derives  its  name  from  its  intimation  of 
command,  it  is  used  on  occasions  of  a very  opposite  nature, 
even  in  the  humblest  supplications  of  an  inferior  being,  to  one 
who  is  infinitely  his  superior : as.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily 
bread  ; and  forgive  us  our  trespasses.” 

The  Potential  Mood  implies  possibility  or  liberty, 
power,  will,  or  obligation  : as,  “ It  may  rain ; he  may 


64 


ETYMOLOGY. 


go  or  stay;  I can  ride;  he  would  walk ; they  should 
learn.” 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  represents  a thing  under 
a condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c. ; and  is 
preceded  by  a conjunction,  expressed  or  under- 
stood, and  attended  by  another  verb:  as,  “ I will 
respect  him,  though  he  chide  me;”  “ Were  he  good, 
he  would  be  happy:”  that  is,  “^he  were  good.” 

The  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  a thing  in  a general 
and  unlimited  manner,  without'  any  distinction  of 
number  or  person;  as,  “to  act,  ’to  speak,  to  be 
feared.” 

The  participle  is  a certain  form  of  the  verb,  and 
derives  its  name  from  its  participating,  not  only  of 
the  properties  of  a verb,  but  also  of  those  of  an  ad- 
jective : as,  “ I am  desirous  of  knowing  him  “ ad- 
mired and  applauded  he  became  vain ;”  “ Having 
finished  his  work,  he  submitted  it,”  &c. 

In  the  phrase,  “ An  admired  performance,”  the  word  admired 
has  the  form  of  the  imperfect  tense,  and  of  the  participle  pas- 
sive of  the  verb  to  admire;  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  denotes  a 
quality  of  the  snhsiwtxve  performance,  which  shows  it  to  be  an 
adjective. 

There  are  three  participles,  the  Present  or  Active, 
the  Perfect  or  Passive,  ahd  the  Compound  Perfect : 
as,  loving,  loved,  having  loved. 

Agreeably  to  the  general  practice  of  grammarians,  we 
have  represented  the  present  participle,  as  active ; and  the 
past  as  passive ; but  they  are  not  uniformly  so ; the  pres- 
ent is  sometimes  passive ; and  the  past  is  frequently  active. 
Thus,  “ The  youth  was  consuming  by  a slow  malady 
“ The  Indian  was  burning  by  the  cruelty  of  his  enemies 
“ The  number  is  augnwnting  daily “ Plutarch’s  Lives  are 
re-printing appear  to  be  instances  of  the  present  participle 
being  used  passively.  “He  has  instructed  me;”  “I  have 
gratefully  repaid  his  kindness are  examples  of  the  par- 
ticiple being  applied  in  an  active  sense.  We  may  also  ob- 
seiwe  that  the  present  participle  is  sometimes  associated  with 
the  past  and  future  tenses  of  the  verb ; and  the  past  participle 
connected  with  the  present  and  future  tenses. — The  most  un- 


ETYMOLOGY. 


65 


exceptionable  distinction  which  grammarians  make  between 
the  participles,  is,  that  the  one  points  to  the  continuation  of  the 
action,  passion,  or  state,  denoted  by  the  verb  ; and  the  other,  to 
the  completion  of  it.  Thus,  the  present  participle  signifies  im- 
perfect  action,  or  action  begun  and  not  ended  : as,  “ I am  writing 
a letter.”  The  past  participle  signifies  action  perfected,  or 
finished  : as,  “ I have  written  a letter “ The  letter  is  written^^ 

The  participle  is  distinguished  from  the  adjective  by  the 
former’s  expressing  the  idea  of  time,  and  the  latter’s  denoting 
only  a quality.  The  phrases,  “ loving  to  give  as  well  as  to 
receive,”  “ moving  in  haste,”  “ heated  wfith  liquor,”  contain 
principles  giving  the  idea  of  time  ; but  the  epithets  contained  in 
the  expressions,  “ a loving  child,”  “ a moving  spectacle,”  “ a 
heated  imagination,”  mark  simply  the  qualities  referred  to,  with- 
out any  regard  to  time ; and  may  properly  be  called  participial 
adjectives. 

Participles  not  only  convey  the  notion  of  time ; but  they  also 
signify  actions,  and  govern  the  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  in 
the  same  manner  as  verbs  do;  and  therefore  should  be  com- 
prehended in  the  general  name  of  verbs.  That  they  are  mere 
modes  of  the  verb  is  manifest,  if  our  definition  of  a verb  be 
admitted : for  they  signify  being,  doing,  or  suffering,  with  the 
designation  of  time  superadded.  But  if  the  essence  of  the  verb 
be  made  to  consist  in  affirmation  or  assertion,  not  only  the  par- 
ticiple will  be  excluded  from  its  place  in  the  verb,  but  the 
infinitive  itself  also  ; which  certain  ancient  grammarians,  of 
great  authority,  held  to  be  alone  the  genuine  verb,  simple  and 
unconnected  with  persons  and  circumstances. 

The  following  phrases,  even  when  considered  in  themselves, 
show  that  participles  include  the  idea  of  time : ‘‘  The  letter 
being  written,  or  having  been  written  ;”  “ Charles  being  writing, 
having  ivritten  or  having  been  writing.'^  But  v/hen  arranged  in 
an  entire  sentence,  which  they  must  be  to  make  a complete 
sense,  they  show  it  still  more  evidently ; as,  “ Charles  having 
written  the  letter,  sealed  and  dispatched  it.” — The  participle 
does  indeed  associate  with  different  tenses  of  the  verb  : as,  “ I 
am  writing,”  “I  was  writing,”  ‘T  shall  be  writing:”  but  this 
forms  no  just  objection  to  its  denoting  time.  If  the  time  of  it  is 
often  relative  time,  this  circumstance,  far  from  disproving,  sup- 
ports our  position,  f — See  Observations  under  Rule  13  o/*  Syntax, 


* When  this  rarticiple  is  joined  to  the  verb  to  have^  it  is  called  perfect  \ v^rhen  it  is  joined  to  the 
verb  to  be,  or  understood  with  it,  it  is  denominated 

t From  the  very  nature  of  time,  an  action,  may  bo  present  now,  it  may  have  been  presen  t 
formerly,  or  it  may  be  present  at  some  future  period— yei  who  ever  supposed  that  tlie  present  of 
the  indicative  doaotes  no  time? 

Encyclopoidia  Britannica. 

VoL.  I.  11 


66 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Participles  sometiaies  perform  the  office  of  substantives,  and 
are  used  as  such,  as  in  the  following  instances : “ The  begin^ 
ning “ a good  understanding “ excellent  writing  “ The 
chancellors  being  attached  to  the  king  secured  his  crown 
“ The  generafs  having  failed  in  this  enterprise  occasioned  his 
disgrace  “ John’s  having  been  writing  a long  time  had  wearied 
him.” 

That  the  words  in  italics  of  the  three  latter  examples,  per- 
form the  office  of  substantives,  and  may  be  considered  as  such, 
will  be  evident,  if  we  reflect,  that  the  first  of  them  has  exactly 
the  same  meaning  and  construction  as,  “ The  chancellor’s 
attachment  to  the  king  secured  his  crown and  that  the  other 
examples  will  bear  a similar  construction.  The  words  being 
attached^  govern  the  word  chancellor's  in  the  possessive  case,  in 
the  one  instance,  as  clearly  as  attachment  governs  it  in  that  case 
in  the  other : and  it  is  only  substantives,  or  words  and  phrases 
which  operate  as  substances,  that  govern  the  genitive  or 
possessive  case. 

The  following  sentence  is  not  precisely  the  same  as  the  above, 
either  in  sense  or  construction,  though,  except  the  genitive  case, 
the  words  are  the  same  : “The  chancellor,  being  attached  to  the 
king,  secured  his  crown.”  In  the  former,  the  words,  being 
attached,  form  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb,  and  are  stated 
as  the  cause  of  the  eflTect ; in  the  latter,  they  are  not  the  nom- 
inative case,  and  make  only  a circumstance  to  chancellor,  which 
is  the  proper  nominative.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  add 
another  form  of  this  sentence,  by  which  the  learner  may  better 
understand  the  peculiar  nature  and  foi^of  each  of  these  modes 
of  expression  : “ The  chancellor  being  atltached  to  the  king,  his 
crown  was  secured.”  This,  constitutes  what  is  properly  called, 
the  Case  Absolute  ; or,  the  Nominative  Ab^solute. 

SECTION  IV. 


Remarks  on  the  Potential  Mood. 

That  the  Potential  Mood  should  be  separated  from  the 
Subjunctive,  is  evident,  from  the  intricacy  and  confusion 
which  are  produced  by  their  being  blended  together,  and 
from  the  distinct  nature  of  the  two  moods;  the  former  of 
which  may  be  expressed  without  any  condition,  supposition, 
&:c.  as  will  appear  from  the  following  instances : “ They 
might  have  done  better;”  “We  may  always  act  uprightly;” 
“He  was  generous,  and  would  not  take  revenge  ;”  “ We  should 
resist  the  allurements  of  vice ;”  “ I could  formerly  indulge 
myself  in  things  of  wffiich  I cannot  now  think  but  with  pain.” 


ETYMOLOGY. 


67 


r 


Some  grammarians  have  supposed  that  the  Potential  Mood) 
as  distinguished  above  from  the  Subjunctive,  coincides  with  the 
Indicative.  But  as  the  latter  “ simply  indicates  or  declares  a 
thing, ’’  it  is  manifest  that  the  former,  v/hich  modifies  the  decla- 
ration, and  introduces  an  idea  materially  distinct  from  it,  must 
be  considerably  different.  “ I can  walk,”  “ I should  walk,” 
appear  to  be  so  essentially  distinct  from  the  simplicity  of  “ I 
walk,”  “ I walked,”  as  to  warrant  a correspondent  distinction 
of  moods.  The  Imperative  and  Infinitive  Moods,  which  are 
allowed  to  retain  their  rank,  do  not  appear  to  contain  such 
strong  marks  of  discrimination  from  the  Indicative  as  are  found 
in  the  Potential  Mood. 

There  are  other  writers  on  this  subject,  who  exclude  the 
Potential  Mood  from  their  division,  becase  it  is  formed,  not  by 
varying  the  principal  verb,  but  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  verbs 
may,  can,  might,  could,  would,  &c. : but  if  we  recollect,  that 
moods  are  used  “ to  signify  various  intentions  of  the  mind,  and 
various  modifications  and  circumstances  of  action,”  we  shall 
perceive  that  those  auxiliaries,  far  from  interfering  with  this 
design,  do,  in  the  clearest  manner,  support  and  exemplify  it. 
On  the  reason  alleged  by  these  writers,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Indicative  Mood  must  also  be  excluded  : as  but  a small  part  of 
it  is  conjugated,  without  auxiliaries.  The  Subjunctive  too  will 
fare  no  better ; since  it  so  nearly  resembles  the  Indicative,  and 
is  formed  by  means  of  conjunctions  expressed  or  understood, 
which  do  not  more  effectually  show  the  varied  intentions  of  the 
mind,  than  the  auxiliaries  do  which  are  used  to  form  the  Poten- 
tial Mood. 

Some  writers  have  given  our  moods  a much  greater  extent 
than  we  have  assigned  to  them.  They  assert  that  the  English 
language  may  be  said,  without  any  great  impropriety,  to  have 
as  many  moods  as  it  has  auxiliary  verbs ; and  they  allege,  in 
support  of  their  opinion,  that  the  compound  expressions  which 
they  help  to  form,  point  out  those  various  dispositions  and 
actions,  which  in  other  languages,  are  expressed  by  moods. 
This  would  be  to  multiply  the  moods  without  advantage.  It  is, 
however,  certain,  that  the  conjugation  or  variation  of  verbs,  in 
the  English  language,  is  effected,  almost  entirely,  by  the  means 
of  auxiliaries.  We  must,  therefore,  accommodate  ourselves  to 
this  circumstance  ; and  do  that  by  their  assistance,  which  has 
been  done  in  the  learned  languages,  (a  few  instances  to  the  con- 
trary excepted,)  in  another  manner,  namely,  by  varying  the 
form  of  the  verb  itself.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  set 
proper  bounds  to  this  business,  so  as  not  to  occasion  obscurity 
and  perplexity,  when  we  mean  to  be  simple  and  perspicuous. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  making  a separate  mood  for  every  aux- 
iliary verb,  and  introducing  moods,  Interrogative,  Optative,  Pro- 


68 


ETYMOLOGY. 


missive,  Hortative,  Precative,  &c.  we  have  exhibited  such  only 
as  are  obviously  distinct ; and  which,  whilst  they  are  calculated 
to  unfold  and  display  the  subject  intelligibly  to  the  learner, 
seem  to  be  sufficient,  and  not  more  than  sufficient,  to  answer 
all  the  purposes  for  which  moods  were  introduced. 

From  Grammarians  who  form  their  ideas,  and  make  their 
decisions  respecting  this  part  of  English  Grammar,  on  the  prin- 
ciples and  construction  of  languages,  which  in  these  points,  do 
not  suit  the  peculiar  nature  of  our  own,  but  differ  considerably 
from  it,  we  may  naturally  expect  grammatical  schemes  that  are 
not  very  perspicuous,  nor  perfectly  consistent,  and  which  will 
tend  more  to  perplex  than  inform  the  learner.  See  Sections  8 
and  9 of  this  Chapter : and  Note  8,  under  the  19th  Rule  of 
Syntax. 


SECTION  V. 

Of  the  Tenses. 

Tense,  being  the  distinction  of  time,  might  seem 
to  admit  only  of  the  present,  past,  and  future ; but 
to  mark  it  more  accurately,  it  is  made  to  consist 
of  six  variations,  viz. 

THE  PRESENT,  THE  PERFECT, 

THE  IMPERFECT,  THE  PLUPERFECT, 

AND 

THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  FUTURE  TENSES. 

The  Present  Tense  represents  an  action  or  events 
as  passing  at  the  time  in  which  it  is  mentioned  : as, 

I rule ; I am  ruled ; I think ; I fear.” 

The  present  tense  likewise  expresses  a character,  quality, 
&c.  at  present  existing : as,  “ He  is  an  able  man “ She  is 
an  amiable  woman.”  It  is  also  used  in  speaking  of  actions 
continued  with  occasional  intermissions  to  the  present  time : 
as,  “ He  frequently  rides  “ He  walks  out  every  morning 
“ He  goes  into  the  country  every  summer.”  We  sometimes 
apply  this  tense  even  to  persons  long  since  dead  : as,  “ Seneca 
reasons  and  moralizes  well;”  ‘‘Job  speaks  feelingly  of  his 
afflictions.” 

The  present  tense,  preceded  by  the  words,  token,  before,  of- 


ETYMOLOGY. 


69 


ter,  as  soon  as,  &c.  is  sometimes  used  to  point  out  the  relative 
time  of  a future  action  : as,  “ When  he  arrives  he  will  hear  the 
news  “ He  will  hear  the  news  before  he  arrives,  or  as  soon  as 
he  arrives,  or,  at  farthest,  soon  after  he  arrives  ; ” ‘‘  The  more 
she  improves,  the  more  amiable  she  will  be.” 

In  animated  historical  narrations  this  tense  is  sometimes 
substituted  for  the  imperfect  tense:  as,  “He  enters  the  terri- 
tory of  the  peaceable  inhabitants  : he  fghts,  and  conquers,  takes 
an  immense  booty,  which  he  divides  amongst  his  soldiers,  and 
returns  home  to  enjoy  a vain  and  useless  triumph.” 

Every  point  of  space  or  duration,  how  minute  soever  it  may 
be,  has  some  degree  of  extension.  Neither  the  present,  nor 
any  other  instant  of  time,  is  wholly  unextended.  Nay,  we 
cannot  conceive,  as  Dr.  Beattie  justly  observes,  an  unextend- 
ed instant : and  that  which  we  call  the  present,  may  in  fact 
admit  of  very  considerable  extension.  While  I write  a letter, 
or  read  a book,  I say,  that  I am  reading  or  writing  it,  though 
it  should  take  up  an  hour,  a day,  a week,  or  a month ; the 
whole  time  being  considered  as  present,  which  is  employed  in 
the  present  action.  So,  w^hile  I build  a house,  though  that 
should  be  the  work  of  many  months,  I speak  of  it  in  the  pres- 
ent time,  and  say  that  I arn  building  it.  In  like  manner,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  century  past,  and  that  which  is  to 
come,  we  may  consider  the  whole  space  of  a hundred  years 
as  time  present,  when  we  speak  of  a series  of  actions,  or  of  a 
state  of  existence,  that  is  co-extended  with  it ; as  in  the  fol- 
lowing example ; “ In  this  century  we  are  more  neglectful  of 
the  ancients,  and  we  are  consequently  more  ignorant  than  they 
were  in  the  last,  or  perhaps  they  will  be  in  the  next.”  Nay, 
the  entire  term  of  man’s  probationary  state  in  this  world, 
when  opposed  to  that  eternity  which  is  before  him,  is  con- 
sidered as  present  time  by  those  who  say,  “ In  this  state  we 
see  darkly  as  through  a glass  ; but  in  future  life,  our  faith  will 
be  lost  in  vision,  and  we  shall  know  even  as  we  are  known. 

The  inaperfect  tense  represents  the  action  or 
event,  either  as  past  and  finished,  or  as  remaining 
unfinished  at  a certain  time  past : as,  I loved  her 
for  her  modesty  and  virtue  ; ” They  were  travelling 
post  when  he  met  them.” 

The  first  example  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  shows  that 
the  action  was  past  and  finished,  though  the  precise  time  of  it 
was  not  defined.  In  this  point  of  view  the  tense  may  be  said 
to  be  imperfect : the  time  of  the  action  is  not  exactly  and  per- 


70 


ETYMOLOGY. 


fectly  ascertained.  In  the  second  instance,  the  action  is  rep- 
resented as  past,  but  not  finished  ; and  it  may  therefore,  with 
propriety,  be  denominated  imperfect. 

It  is  proper  to  observe,  on  this  occasion,  that  in  such  sen- 
tences as  the  following;  “He  wrote  to  him  yesterday;” 

“ They  behaved  themslves  at  that  period  very  properly  ; ” the 
precise  time  of  the  action  is  not  denoted  by  the  tense  of  the  verb 
itself,  but  by  the  addition  of  the  w^ords  yesterday^  and  at  that 
period, — See  the  last  paragraph  of  the  Seventh  Chapter  of 
Etymology,  on  the  subject  of  Adverbs. 

The  Perfect  Tense  not  only  refers  to  what  is  past, 
but  also  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present  time : 
as,  I have  finished  my  letter,”  I have  seen  the 
person  that  w-as  recommended  to  me.” 

In  the  former  example  it  is  signified  that  the  finishing  of 
the  letter  though  past,  was  at  that  period  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  present  time.  In  the  latter  instance  it  is  uncertain 
whether  the  person  mentioned  was  seen  by  the  speaker  a long 
or  short  time  before.  The  meaning  is,  “I  have  seen  him 
sometime  in  the  course  of  a period  which  includes,  or  comes 
to,  the  present  time.”  In  both  instances,  “ The  finishing  of, 
the  letter,”  and  “ The  seeing  of  the  person,”  comprehend 
periods,  each  of  which  extends  to  the  time  present.  We 
have  no  idea  of  any  certain  portion  of  time  intervening  be- 
tween the  time  of  action  and  the  time  of  speaking  it.  The 
sentence,  “I  have  written  a letter,”  implies  that  “ I have,  or 
possess,  the  finished  action  of  writing  a letter.”  Under  these 
views  of  the  subject,  it  appears  that  the  term  perfect  may  be 
properly  applied  to  this  tense  ; as,  the  action  is  not  only  fin- 
ished, but  the  period  of  its  completion  is  especially  referred  to 
and  ascertained. 

When  the  particular  time  of  any  occurrence  is  specified 
as  prior  to  the  present  time,  this  tense  is  not  used  ; for  it 
would  be  improper  to  say,  “ I have  seen  him  yesterday ; ” 
or,  ‘ I have  finished  my  work  last  week.”  In  these  cases 
the  imperfect  is  necessary  : as,  “ I saw  him  yesterday  ; ” “ I 
finished  my  work  lask  week.”  But  when  we  speak  indefinitely 
of  any  thing  past,  as  happening  or  not  happening  in  the  day, 
year,  or  age,  in  which  we  mention  it,  the  perfect  must  be  em- 
ployed : as,  “ I have  been  there  this  morning ; ” “I  have 
travelled  much  this  year:”  We  have  escaped  many  dangers 
through  life.”  In  referring,  however,  to  such  a division  of 
the  day  as  is  past  before  the  time  of  our  speaking,  we  use  the 


ETYMOLOGY. 


71 


imperfect:  as,  ^‘They  came  home  early  this  morning;”  “He 
was  with  them  at  three  o’clock  this  afternoon.” 

The  perfect  tense,  and  the  imperfect  tense,  both  denote  a 
thing  that  is  past ; but  the  former  denotes  it  in  such  a manner, 
that  there  is  still  actually  remaining  some  part  of  the  time  to 
slide  away,  wherein  w^e  declare  that  the  thing  has  been  done ; 
whereas  the  imperfect  denotes  the  thing  or  action  past,  in  such 
a manner,  that  nothing  remains  of  that  lime  in  which  it  was 
done.  If  we  speak  of  the  present  century,  we  say,  “Philosophers 
have  made  great  discoveries  in  the  present  century :”  but  if  we 
speak  of  the  last  century,  we  say,  “ Philosophers  made  great  dis- 
coveries in  the  last  century.”  “ He  has  been  much  afflicted  this 
year;”  ‘‘\have  this  week  read  the  king’s  proclamation;”  “I 
ftearrf  great  news  this  morning:”  in  these  instances,  “ He 
has  beenr  “ I have  read^^  and  “ heard^^  denote  things  that  are 
past ; but  they  occurred  in  this  year,  in  this  week,  and  to-day ; 
and  still  there  remains  a part  of  this  year,  week,  and  day, 
whereof  I speak. 

In  general,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  applied  wherever  the 
action  is  connected  with  the  present  time,  by  the  actual  exist- 
ence either  of  the  author  or  of  the  work,  though  it  may  have 
been  performed  many  centuries  ago ; but  if  neither  the  author 
nor  the  work  now  remains,  it  cannot  be  used.  We  may  say, 
“ Cicero  has  written  orations ;”  but  we  cannot  say,  “ Cicero  has 
written  poems ;”  because  the  orations  are  in  being,  but  the 
poems  are  lost.  Speaking  of  priests  in  general,  we  may  say, 
“ They  have  in  all  ages  claimed  great  powers ; because  the 
general  order  of  the  priesthood  still  exists : but  if  w^e  speak  of 
the  Druids  as  a particular  order  of  priests  which  does  not  now 
exist,  we  cannot  use  this  tense.  We  cannot  say,  “ The  Druid 
priests  have  claimed  great  powers  ;”  but  must  say,  “ The  Druid 
priests  claimed  great  powers;”  because  that  order  is  now 
totally  extinct.”* 

The  perfect  tense,  preceded  by  the  words,  when,  after,  as 
soon  as,  &c.  is  often  used  to  denote  the  relative  time  of  a future 
action  ; as,  “ When  I have  finished  my  letter,  I will  attend  to  his 
request ;”  “ I will  attend  to  the  business,  as  soon  as  I have  fin- 
ished my  letter.” 

The  Pluperfect  Tense  represents  a thing  not  only 
as  past,  but  also  as  prior  to  some  other  point  of  time 
specified  in  the  sentence : as  I had  finished  my 
letter  before  he  arrived.” 


See  Pickbourn  on  the  English  Verb : to  whose  ingenious  Dissertation  the  author  i 
• indebted  for  several  Observations  and  Examples  respecting  the  Tenses  of  our  Verbs. 


72 


ETYMOLOGY. 


The  term  used  to  designate  this  tense,  may,  in  some  degree 
at  least,  be  justified,  by  observing  that  the  time  of  the  action  or 
event  is  7noTe  than^  or  beyond^  the  time  of  some  other  action  or 
event  to  which  it  refers,  and  which  is  in  the  perfect,  or  the  im- 
perfect tense.  Thus,  in  the  sentences,  “ I ham  seen  him,  but  I 
had  written  to  him  before  ; “ Though  he  had  not  then  agreed  to 
the  proposal,  he  has  at  length  consented  to  it ; “I  saw  him  after 
I had  written  to  him  “ He  decided  indeed  very  culpably,  but 
he  had  been  vehemently  urged  to  it the  pluperfect  extends  not 
only  beyond,  and  precedent  to,  the  time  signified  in  the  perfect 
tense,  but  also  that  denoted  by  the  imperfect. 


The  First  Future  Tense  represents  the  action  as 
yet  to  come,  either  with  or  without  respect  to  the 
precise  time:  as,  The  sun  will  rise  to-morrow;” 

I shall  see  them  again.” 

The  Second  Future  intimates  that  the  action  will 
be  fully  accomplished  at,  or  before  the  time  of  another 
future  action  or  event : as,  I shall  have  dined  at  one 
o’clock  The  two  houses  will  have  finished  their 
business  when  the  king  comes  to  prorogue  them.” 


It  is  to  be  observed  that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  event 
being  spoken  of  under  a condition  or  supposition,  or  in  the  form 
of  a wish,  and  therefore  as  doubtful  and  contingent,  the  verb 
itself  in  the  present,  and  the  auxiliary  both  of  the  present  and 
past  imperfect  times,  often  carry  with  them  somewdiat  of  a future 
sense : as  “ If  he  come  to-morrow,  I may  speak  to  him  “ If  he 
should,  or  would  come  to-morrow,  I might,  would,  could,  or 
should  speak  to  him.”  Observe  also  that  the  auxiliaries  should 
and  would,  in  the  imperfect  times,  are  used  to  express  the  present 
and  future,  as  well  as  the  past : as,  “ It  is  my  desire  that  he 
should,  or  would,  come  now,  or  to-morrow  ; as  well  as  “ It  was 
my  desire,  that  he  should  or  w^ould  come  yesterday.”  So  that, 
in  this  mood,  the  precise  time  of  the  verb  is  very  much  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  and  drift  of  the  sentence. 

In  treating  of  the  tenses  there  are  two  things  to  which  attention 
ought  principally  to  be  turned : the  relation  w^hich  the  several 
tenses  have  to  one  another,  in  respect  of  time ; and  the  iiotice 
which  they  give  of  an  action’s  being  completed  or  not  completed. 

Thej  present,  past,  and  future  tenses  may  be  used  either 


ETYMOLOGY. 


73 


definitely  or  indefinitely^  both  with  respect  to  time  and  action. 
When  they  denote  customs  or  habits,  and  not  individual  acts, 
they  are  applied  indefinitely : as,  “ Virtue  promotes  happiness  f 
‘‘  the  old  Romans  governed  by  benefits  more  than  by  fear “ I 
shall  hereafter  employ  my  time  more  usefully.”  In  these  exam- 
ples, the  words,  promotes^  governed^  and  shall  employ^  are  used 
indefinitely,  both  in  regard  to  action  and  time ; for  they  are  not 
confined  to  individual  actions,  nor  to  any  precise  points  of  pres- 
ent, past,  or  future  time.  When  they  are  applied  to  signify 
particular  actions,  and  to  ascertain  the  precise  points  of  time  to 
which  they  are  confined,  they  are  used  definitely ; as  in  the  fol- 
lowing instances : ‘‘  My  brother  is  writing “ He  built  the 
house  last  summer,  but  did  not  inhabit  it  till  yesterday.”  “ He 
will  write  another  letter  to-morrow.” 

The  different  tenses  also  represent  an  action  as  complete  or 
perfect,  or  as  incomplete  or  imperfect.  In  the  phrases,  “ I am 
writing,”  “ I was  writing,”  I shall  be  writing,”  imperfect,  un- 
finished actions  are  signified.  But  the  following  examples,  “ I 
wrote,”  “ I have  written,”  “ I had  written,”  “ I shall  have  writ- 
ten,” all  denote  complete,  perfect  action. 

The  distinction  of  the  tenses  into  definite  and  indefinite  may 
be  more  intelligible  to  the  student,  by  the  following  explanation 
and  arrangement.”* 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

Indefinite,  This  form  of  the  present  tense  denotes  action  or 
being,  in  present  time,  without  limiting  it  with  exactness  to 
a given  point.  It  expresses  also  facts  which  exist  generally, 
at  all  times,  general  truths,  attributes  which  are  permanent, 
habits,  customary  actions,  and  the  like,  without  the  reference 
to  a specific  time  : as,  “ Hope  springs  eternal  in  the  human 
breast:  Virtue  happiness ; Man  is  imperfect  and 

dependent ; The  wicked  fiee  when  no  man  pursueth ; Plants 
rise  from  the  earth  ; Sometimes  he  works,  but  he  oiien  plays : 
Birds  Fishes 

Definite,  This  form  expresses  the  present  time  with  precision; 
and  it  usually  denotes  action  or  being,  which  corresponds  in 
time  with  another  action  : as,  “ He  is  meditating ; I am 
writing,  while  you  are  waiting^ 


Though  the  author  thinks  he  has,  in  the  Introduction  to  his  Grammar,  offered  a sufficient 
apology,  for  the  use  he  has  made  of  his  predecessors’  labours,  and  for  omitting  to  insert  their 
names ; yet  it  may  not  be  improper,  on  the  present  occasion,  to  observe,  that  the  following  de- 
tailed view  of  the  tenses  \xiio  definite  and  indfinite  is,  in  part,  taken  from  Webster’s  Grammar  ; 
and  that  a few  positions  and  illustrations,  amount  some  of  the  Syntactical  Notes  and  Observations, 
have  also  beefn  selected  from  this  grammarian,  mr  the  Octavo  Edition  of  the  Grammar. 

VoL.  I.  12 


74 


ETYMOLOGY. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Indefinite.  This  form  of  the  imperfect  tense  represents  action 
past  and  finished,  and  often  with  the  precise  time  undefined : 
as,  “ Alexander  conquered  the  Persians ; Scipio  was  as  vir- 
tuous as  brave.’^ 

Definite.  This  form  represents  an  action  as  taking  place  and 
unfinished,  in  some  specifiied  period  of  the  past  time ; as, 
I was  standing  at  the  door  when  the  procession  passed.” 

PERFECT  TENSE. 

Indefinite.  This  form  of  the  perfect  tense  represents  an  action 
completely  past,  and  often  at  no  great  distance,  but  not  speci- 
fied : as,  “ I have  accomplished  my  design “ I have  read 
the  History  of  England.” 

Definite.  This  form  represents  an  action  as  just  finished:  as, 
“ I have  been  reading  a history  of  the  revolution “ I have 
been  studying  hard  to  day.” 

PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 

Indefinite.  This  form  of  the  pluperfect  tense  expresses  an 
action  which  was  past  at  or  before  some  other  past  time 
specified : as,  “ He  had  received  the  news  before  the  messen- 
ger arrived.” 

Definite.  This  form  denotes  an  action  to  be  just  passed,  at  or 
before  another  past  time  specified : as,  “ I had  been  waiting 
an  hour,  when  the  messenger  arrived.” 

FIRST  FUTURE  TENSE. 

Indefinite.  ' This  form  of  the  first  future  simply  gives  notice  of 
an  event  to  happen  hereafter  : as,  “ Charles  will  go  to  Lon- 
don ‘‘  I think  we  shall  have  a fine  season. 

Definite.  This  form  expresses  an  action  which  is  to  take  place, 
and  be  unfinished,  at  a specified  future  time:  as,  ‘‘He  will  he 
preparing  for  a visit,  at  the  time  you  arrive.’” 

SECOND  FUTURE  TENSE. 

Indefinite^  This  form  of  the  second  future  denotes  an  action 
which  will  be  past  at  a future  time  specified : as,  “ They  will 
have  accomplished  their  purpose,  at  the  time  they  proposed.” 

Definite.  This  form  represents  an  action  which  will  be  just 
past  at  a future  specified  time  : as,  “ The  scholars  will  have 
been  studying  an  hour,  when  the  tutor  comes  to  examine 
them.” 


ETYMOLOGY. 


75 


The  student  will  observe,  that  in  this  scheme,  all  the  definite 
tenses  are  formed  by  the  participle  of  the  present  tense,  and  the 
substantive  verb  to  he. 

There  are  other  modes  of  expressing  future  time  : as,  “ I am 
going  to  write “ I am  about  to  write.”  These  have  been 
called  the  Inceptive  future,  as  they  note  the  commencement  of  an 
action,  or  an  intention  to  commence  an  action  without  delay. 

The  substantive  verb  followed  by  a verb  in  the  infinitive 
mood,  forms  another  method  of  indicating  future  time : as, 
“ Ferdinand  is  to  command  the  army.”  “ On  the  subject  of  style, 
I am  afterwards  to  discourse.^’  “ ^neas  went  in  search  of  the 
seat  of  an  empire,  which  was^  one  day  to  govern  the  world.” 
The  latter  expression  has  been  called  a future  past ; that  is, 
past  as  to  the  narrator  ; but  future  as  to  the  event,  at  the  time 
specified. 

From  the  preceding  representation  of  the  different  tenses,  it 
appears  that  each  of  them  has  its  distinct  and  peculiar  province  ; 
and  that  though  some  of  them  may  sometimes  be  used  promis- 
cuously, or  substituted  one  for  another,  in  cases  where  great 
accuracy  is  not  required,  yet  there  is  a real  and  essential  differ- 
ence in  their  meaning.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  English  lan- 
guage contains  the  six  tenses  which  we  have  enumerated. 
Grammarians  who  limit  the  number  to  two,  or  at  most  to  three, 
namely,  the  present,  the  imperfect,  and  the  future,  do  not  reflect 
that  the  English  verb  is  mostly  composed  of  principal  and  aux- 
iliary ; and  that  these  several  parts  constitute  one  verb.  Either 
the  English  language  has  no  regular  future  tense,  or  its  future  is 
composed  of  the  auxiliary  and  the  principal  verb.  If  the  latter 
be  admitted,  then  the  auxiliary  and  principal  united,  constitute 
a tense,  in  one  instance ; and  from  reason  and  analogy,  may 
doubtless  do  so,  in  others,  in  which  minuter  divisions  of  time 
are  necessary  or  useful.  What  reason  can  be  assigned  for  not 
considering  this  case,  as  other  cases,  in  which  a whole  is  re- 
garded as  composed  of  several  parts  or  principal  and  adjuncts? 
There  is  nothing  heterogeneous  in  the  parts:  and  precedent, 
analogy,  utility  and  even  necessity,  authorize  the  union. 

In  support  of  this  opinion,  we  have  the  authority  of  eminent 
grammarians:  in  particular  that  of  Dr.  Beattie.  “Some 
writers,”  says  the  doctor,  will  not  allow  any  thing  to  be  a tense, 
but  what,  in  one  inflected  word,  expresses  an  affirmation  with 
time ; for  that  those  parts  of  the  verb  are  not  properly  called 
tenses,  which  assume  that  appearance,  by  means  of  auxiliary 
words.  At  this  rate,  we  should  have,  in  English,  two  tenses 
only,  the  present  and  the  past  in  the  active  verb,  and  in  the 
passive  no  tenses  at  all.  But  this  is  a needless  nicety  ; and,  if 


76 


ETYMOLOGY. 


adopted,  would  introduce  confusion  into  the  grammatical  art. 
If  amaveram  be  a tense,  wliy  should  not  amatus  fueram  ? If  I 
heard,  be  a tense,  I did  hear,  I ham  heard,  and  I shall  hear^  must 
be  equally  entitled  to  that  appellation.” 

The  proper  form  of  a tense  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues, 
is  certainly  that  which  it  has  in  the  grammars  of  those  lan2;uages. 
But  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  grammars  we  uniformly  find,  that 
some  of  the  tenses  are  formed  by  variations  of  the  principal  verb ; 
and  others  by  the  addition  of  a helping  verb.  It  is,  therefore, 
indisputable,  that  the  principal  verb  or  rather  its  participle,  and 
an  auxiliary,  constitute  a regular  tense  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Languages.  This  point  being  established,  we  may,  doubtless, 
apply  it  to  English  verbs,  and  extend  the  principle  as  far  as  con- 
venience, and  the  idiom  of  our  language  require. 

If  it  should  be  said,  that  on  the  same  ground  that  a participle 
and  auxiliary  are  allowed  to  form  a tense,  and  the  verb  is  to  be 
conjugated  accordingly,  the  English  noun  and  pronoun  ought  to 
be  declined  at  large,  with  articles  and  prepositions ; we  must 
object  to  the  inference.  Such  a mode  of  declension  is  not 
adapted  to  our  language.  This  we  think  has  been  already 
proved.*  It  is  also  confessedly  inapplicable  to  the  learned  lan- 
guages. Where  then  is  the  grammatical  inconsistency,  or 
the  want  of  conformity  to  the  principles  of  analogy,  in  making 
some  tenses  of  the  English  verb  to  consist  of  principal  and 
auxiliary;  and  the  cases  of  English  nouns,  chiefly  in  their 
termination?  The  argument  from  analogy,  instead  of  militating 
against  us,  appears  to  confirm  and  establish  our  position. 
See  pages  66—68.  Section  8 and  9 of  this  chapter,  and 
the  19th  Rule  of  Syntax — Note  8. 

We  shall  close  these  remarks  on  the  tenses,  with  a few  obser- 
vations extracted  from  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  They 
are  worth  the  student’s  attention,  as  a part  of  them  applies,  not 
only  to  our  views  of  the  tenses,  but  to  many  other  parts  of  the 
work. — Harris  [by  v/ay  of  hypothesis]  has  enumerated  no 
fewer  than  twelve  tenses.  Of  this  enumeration  we  can  by  no 
means  approve ; for,  without  entering  into  a minute  examination 
of  it,  nothing  can  be  more  obvious,  inceptive  present, 

‘I  am  going  to  write,’  is  a future  tense  ; and  his  completive pre^- 
sent,  ‘ I have  written,’  a past  tense.  But,  as  was  before  observed 
of  the  classification  of  words,  we  cannot  help  being  of  opinion, 
that,  to  take  the  tenses  as  they  are  commonly  received,  and 
endeavour  to  ascertain  their  nature  and  their  differences,  is  a 
much  more  useful  exercise,  as  well  as  more  proper  for  a wwk 


♦See  pages  44,  45. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


77 


of  this  kind,  than  to  raise,  as  might  easily  be  raised,  new  theories 
on  the  subject.”* 


SECTION  VI. 

The  Conjugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  to  have,  and  to  be. 
The  Conjugation  of  a verb,  is  the  regular  com- 
bination and  arrangement  of  its  several  numbers, 
persons,  moods,  and  tenses. 

The  Conjugation  of  an  active  verb  is  styled  the 
ACTIVE  voice;  and  that  of  a passive  verb,  the  passive 

VOICE. 

The  auxiliary  and  active  verb  to  have,  is  con- 
jugated in  the  following  manner. 

To  Have. 

Indicative  Mood. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  Pers.  I have. 

2.  Pers.  Thou  hast. 

3.  Pers,  He,  she,  or  it 

hath  or  has.f 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  have. 

2.  Ye  or  you  have. 

3.  They  have. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I had. 

2.  Thou  hadst. 

3.  He,  &c.  had. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


PLURAL. 

We  had. 

Ye  or  you  had. 
They  had. 


PERFECT  TENSE.J 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I have  had. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  have  had. 


* The  following  criticism  affords  an  additional  support  to  the  author’s  system  of  the  tenses,  &c. 
“ Under  the  head  of  Etymology,  the  author  of  this  grammar  judiciously  adheres  to  the 
natural  simplicity  of  the  English  language,  without  embarrassing  the  learner  with  distinctions 
peculiar  to  the  Latin  tongue.  The  difficult  subject  of  the  Tenses,  is  clearly  explained ; and  with 
less  incumbrance  of  technical  phraseology,  than  in  most  other  grammars.” 

Analytical  Review. 

t Hath  is  now  used  only  in  poetry,  and  on  very  serious  occasions.  Ye  is  nearly  obsolete, 
t See  next  page— note  marked  thus  [*]. 


78 


ETYMOLOGY. 


2. '  Thou  hast  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  had. 

3.  He  has  had.  3.  They  have  had. 


PLUPERFECT  TENSE.^ 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I had  had. 

2.  Thou  hadst  had. 

3.  He  had  had. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  had  had. 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  had. 

3.  They  had  had. 


FIRST  FUTURE  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I shall  or  will  have. 

2.  Thou  shall  or  wilt  have. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  or  will  have. 

2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  have. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  have. 


SECOND  FUTURE  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I shall  have  had. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  had. 

3.  He  will  have  had. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  have  had. 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  had. 

3.  They  will  have  had. 


Imperative  Mood. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  Let  me  have. 

2.  Have  or  have  thou,  or  do 

thou  have. 

3.  Let  him  have. 


PLURAL. 

1.  Let  us  have. 

2.  Have,  or  have  ye,  or  do  ye 

or  you  have. 

3.  Let  them  have. I 


The  imperative  mood  is  not  strictly  entitled  to  three  per- 
sons. The  command  is  always  addressed  to  the  second  per- 
son, not  to  the  first  or  third.  For  when  we  say,  “Let  me 
have,”  “Let  him,  or  let  them  have,”  the  meaning  and  con- 
struction are,  do  thou,  or  do  ye,  let  me,  him,  or  them  have. 
In  philosophical  strictness,  both  number  and  person  might  be 
entirely  excluded  from  every  verb.  They  are,  in  fact,  the 


* The  terms  which  we  have  adopted,  to  designate  the  three  past  tenses,  may  not  be  exactly 
significant  to  their  nature  and  distinctions.  But  as  they  are  used  by  grammarians  in  general, 
and  have  an  established  authority ; and,  especially,  as  the  meaning  attached  to  each  of  them, 
and  their  different  significations,  have  been  carefully  explained  ; we  presume  that  no  solid  ob- 
jections can  be  made  to  the  use  of  terms,  so  generally  approved,  and  so  explicitly  defined, 
f3ce  Pages  30,  31. 

tlf  such  sentences  should  be  rigorously  examined,  the  Imperative  will  appear  to  Consist 
merely  in  the  word  let,  Wee  Directions  for  Parsing. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


79 


properties  of  substantives,  not  a part  of  the  essence  of  a verb. 
Even  the  name  of  the  imperative  mood,  does  not  always  cor- 
respond to  its  nature  ; lor  it  sometimes  petitions  as  well  as 
commands.  But,  with  respect  to  all  these  points,  the  practice 
of  our  grammarians  is  so  uniformly  fixed,  and  so  analogous  to 
the  languages,  ancient  and  modern,  which  our  youth  have  to 
study,  that  it  would  be  an  unwarrantable  degree  of  innovation, 
to  deviate  from  the  established  terms  and  arrangements.  See 
the  advertisement  at  the  end  of  the  Introduction  ; and  also 
pages  30,  31. 

Potential  Mood. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

I 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I may  or  can  have. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  mayor  can  have. 

2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have. 

3.  They  may  or  can  have. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could 
would,  or  should  have. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have. 


PERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I may  or  can  have  had. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have 
had, 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  had. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  may  or  can  have  had,- 

2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  canhave 
had. 

3.  They  may  or  can  have  had. 


PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 


SIGULAR. 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  had. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have 
had. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  had. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  have  had. 


80 


ETYMOLOGY. 


3.  He  mighty  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  had.  or  should  liave  had.* 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


1.  If  I have. 

2.  If  thou  have.f 

3.  If  he  have.J 


1.  If  we  have. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  If  they  have. 


The  remaining  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  are,  in 
every  respect  similar  to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indi- 
cative mood  ; with  the  addition  to  the  verb,  of  a conjunction, 
expressed  or  implied,  denoting  a condition,  motive,  wish, 
supposition,  &c.  It  will  be  proper  to  direct  the  learner  to 
repeat  all  the  tenses  of  this  mood,  with  a conjunction  prefixed 
to  each  of  them.  See,  on  this  subject,  the  observations  in 
Section  8 of  this  chapter,  and  the  notes  on  the  nineteenth  rule, 
of  Syntax. 

Infinitive  Mood. 

Present.  To  have.  Perfect.  To  have  had. 


PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT  OR  ACTIVE  Having. 
perfect  Had. 

compound  perfect.  Having  had. 

As  the  subjunctive  mood,  in  English,  has  no  variation,  in 
the  form  of  the  verb,  from  the  indicative,  (except  in  the  pres- 
ent tense,  and  the  second  future  tense,  of  verbs  generally, 
and  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  of  the  verb  to  be,)  it 
would  be  superfluous  to  conjugate  it  in  this  work,  through 

* Shall  and  will,  when  they  denote  inclination,  resolution,  promise,  may  be  considered,  as 
well  as  their  relations  should  and  loould,  as  belonging  to  the  potential  mood.  But  as  they  gene- 
rally signify  futurity,  they  have  been  appropriated,  as  helping  verbs,  to  the  formation  of  the 
future  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods. 


t Grammarians,  in  general,  conjugate  the  present  of  the  auxiliary,  in  this  manner.  But  -we 
presume  that  this  is  the  form  of  the  verb,  considered  as  a principal,  not  as  an  auxiliary  verb. 
See  Rule  19,  Note  5. 


t We  miLSt  except  the  second  and  third  -persons,  singular  and  plural,  of  the  second  future 
tense.  These  require  the  auxiliary  shal^  instead  of  wHt,  will.  Thus,  “He  wUl  have 

completed  the  work  by  midsummer,”  is  the  indicative  form  ; but  the  subjunctive  is,  “ If  he 
shall  have  completed  the  work  by  midsummer. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


81 


every  tense.  But  all  the  other  moods  and  tenses  of  the  verbs, 
both  in  the  active  and  passive  voices,  are  conjugated  at  large, 
that  the  learners  may  have  no  doubts  or  misapprehensions 
respecting  their  particular  forms.  They  to  whom  the  subject 
of  grammar  is  entirely  new%  and  young  persons  especially,  are 
much  more  readily  and  effectually  instructed,  by  seeing  the 
part  of  a subject  so  essential  as  the  verb,  unfolded  and  spread 
before  them,  in  all  their  varieties,  than  by  being  generally  and 
cursorily  informed  of  the  manner  in  which  they  may  be  ex- 
hibited. The  time  employed  by  the  scholars,  in  consequence 
of  this  display  of  the  verbs^  is  of  small  moment,  compared 
with  the  advantages  which  they  will  probably  derive  from  the 
plan. 

It  may  not,  however,  be  generally  proper  for  young  persons 
beginning  the  study  of  grammar,  to  commit  to  memory  all  the 
tenses  of  the  verbs.  If  the  simple  tenses,  namely  the  present 
and  the  imperfect^  together  with  the  first  future  tense,  should, 
in  the  first  instance,  be  committed  to  memory,  and  the  rest 
carefully  perused  and  explained,  the  business  will  not  be  tedious 
to  the  scholars,  and  their  progress  will  be  rendered  more 
obvious  and  pleasing.  The  general  view  of  the  subject,  thus 
acquired  and  impressed,  may  afterwards  be  extended  with  ease 
and  advantage. 

It  appears  to  be  proper,  for  the  information  of  the  learners, 
to  make  a few  observations  in  this  place,  on  some  of  the  ten- 
ses, &c.  The  first  is,  that  in  the  potential  mood,  some  gram- 
marians confound  the  present  with  the  imperfect  tense  ; and 
the  perfect  with  the  pluperfect.  But  that  they  are  really 
distinct,  and  have  an  oppropriate  reference  to  time,  corres- 
pondent to  the  definitions  of  those  tenses,  will  appear  from  a 
few  examples : ‘‘  I wished  him  to  stay,  but  he  would  not 
I could  not  accomplish  the  business  in  time  “ It  was  my 
direction  that  he  should  submit;”  ‘‘He  was  ill,  but  I thought 
he  might  live  ; “ I may  have  misunderstood  him  “ He  cannot 
have  deceived  me  “ He  might  havxi  finished  the  work  sooner 
but  he  could  not  have  done  it  better.” — It  must,  however,  be 
admitted,  that  on  some  occasions,  the  auxiliares  might,  could, 
w^ould,  and  should,  refer  also  to  present  and  to  future  time. 
See  pages  71,  72. 

The  next  remark  is,  that  the  auxiliary  will,  in  the  first  per- 
son singular  and  plural  of  the  second  future  tense  ; and  the 
auxiliary  shall,  in  the  second  and  third  persons  of  that  tense, 
in  the  indicative  mood,  appear  to  be  incorrectly  applied. 
The  impropriety  of  such  associations  may  be  inferred  from  a 
few  examples : “ I will  have  had  previous  notice  whenever 
the  event  happens  ;”  “ Thou  shalt  have  served  thy  appren- 
ticeship before  the  end  of  tlie  year ; “ He  shall  have 

VoL.  I.  13 


82 


ETYMOLOGY. 


completed  his  business  when  the  messenger  arrives.”  I shall 
have  had  : thou  wilt  have  served  : he  will  have  completed,” 
&c.  would  have  been  correct  and  applicable.  The  peculiar 
import  of  these  auxiliaries,  as  explained  in  Section  7 of  this 
chapter,  seems  to  account  for  their  impropriety  in  the  applica- 
tions just  mentioned. 

Some  writers  on  Grammar,  object  to  the  propriety  of  admit- 
ting the  second  future,  in  both  the  indicative  and  subjunctive 
moods ; but  that  this  tense  is  applicable  to  both'moods,  will  be 
manifest  from  the  following  examples.  John  will  have 
earned  his  wages  the  next  new-year’s  day^”  is  a simple  de- 
claration, and  therefore  in  the  indicative  mood : If  he  shall 
have  finished  his  work  when  the  bell  rings,  he  will  be  entitled 
to  the  reward,”  is  conditional  and  contingent,  and  is  therefore 
in  the  subjunctive  mood. 

We  shall  conclude  these  detached  observations,  with  one 
remark  which  may  be  useful  to  the  yoiing  scholar,  namely, 
that  as  the  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the  subjunctive, 
by  the  expression  of  a condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c. 
being  superadded  to  it ; so  the  potential  mood  may,  in  like 
manner,  be  turneddnto  the  subjunctive,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
following  examples:  “ If  I could  deceive  him,  I should  abhor  it 
‘ Though  he  should  increase  in  wealth,  he  would  not  be  charit- 
able ;”  “ Even  in  prosperity  he  would  gain  no  esteem,  unless  he 
should  conduct  himseljf  better.” 

The  auxiliary  and  neuter  verb  To  be^  is  conjugated 
as  follows : 


To  Be. 


Indicative  Mood. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL, 


1.  I am. 

2.  Thou  art. 

3.  He,  she,  or  it  is. 


1.  We  are. 

2.  Ye  or  you  are. 

3.  They  are. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


1.  I was. 

2.  Thou  wast. 

3.  He  was. 


1.  We  were. 

2.  Ye  or  you  were. 

3.  They  were. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


83 


PERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been. 

3.  He  hath  or  has  been. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  have  been, 

2.  Ye  or  you  have  been. 

3.  They  have  been. 


PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been. 

3.  He  had  been. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  had  been. 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  been. 

3.  They  had  been. 


FIRST  FUTURE  TENSE. 


. SINGULAR. 

1.  I shall  or  will  be. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  will  be. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 


SECOND  FUTURE  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have  been. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been. 

3.  They  will  have  been. 


Imperative  Mood. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  Let  me  be. 

2.  Be  thou  or  do  thou  be. 

3.  Let  him  be. 


PLURAL 

1.  Let  us  be. 

2.  Be  ye  or  you,  or  do  ye  be. 

3.  Let  them  be. 


Potential  Mood. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I may  or  can  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  mayor  can  be. 

2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be. 

3.  They  may  or  can  be. 


84 


ETYMOLOGY. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR, 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be. 

2.  Thou  mighst,  couldst, 

wouldst  or  shouldst  be, 

3.  He  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

would  or  should  be. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would 
or  should  be. 


PERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I mayor  can  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have 
been. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  been. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  may  or  can  have  been. 

2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
been. 

3.  They  may  or  can  have 
been. 


PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I might,  could,  would  or 

should  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have 
been. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  been. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could 

would,  or  should  have 
been. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  been. 


Subjunctive  Mood. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  If  I be. 

2.  If  thou  be. 

3.  If  he  be. 


PLURAL. 

1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  be. 

3.  If  they  be. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  If  I were. 

2.  If  thouwer®. 

3.  If  he  were. 


PLURAL. 

1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  were. 

3.  If  they  were. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


85 


The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood,  are,*  in  general,  similar  to 
the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.  See  pages  80, 
81,  93,  94,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth  rule  of  Syntax. 

Infinitive  Mood. 

PRESENT  TENSE.  To  be.  PERFECT.  To  have  been. 

Participles. 

PRESENT.  Being.  perfect.  Been. 

COMPOUND  PERFECT.  Having  been. 

SECTION  \TI.  ^ 

The  Auxiliary  Verbs  conjugated  in  their  simple  form  ; with  ob- 
servations on  their  peculiar  nature  and  force. 

The  learner  will  perceive  that  the  preceding  auxiliary  verbs, 
to  have  and  to  be,  could  not  be  conjugated  through  all  the  moods 
and  tenses,  without  the  help  of  other  auxiliary  verbs ; namely, 
may,  can,  will,  shall,  and  their  variations. 

That  auxiliary  verbs,  in  their  simple  state,  and  unassisted  by 
others,  are  of  a very  limited  extent ; and  that  they  are  chiefly 
useful,  in  the  aid  which  they  afford  in  conjugating  the  principal 
verbs ; will  clearly  appear  to  the  scholar,  by  a distinct  conju- 
gation of  each  of  them,  uncombined  with  any  other.  They  are 
exhibited  for  his  inspection;  not  to  be  committed  to  memory. 


To  Have. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I have.  2.  Thou  hast.  3.  He  hath  or  has. 

Plur.  1.  We  have.  2.  Ye  or  you  have.  3.  They  have. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I had.  2.  Thou  hadst.  3.  He  had. 

Plur.  1.  We  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  had.  3.  They  had. 

PERFECT.  I have  had,  &c.  pluperfect.  I had  had,  &c. 

PARTICIPLES. 


PRESENT.  Having. 


PERFECT.  Had. 


86 


ETYMOLOGY. 


To  JBe. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I am.  2.  Thou  art.  3.  He  is. 

Plur.  1.  We  are.  2.  Ye  or  You  are.  3.  They  are. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I was.  2.  Thou  wast.  3.  He  was. 

Plur.  1.  We  were.  2.  Ye  or  you  were.  3.  They  were. 

t 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESEMT.  Being.  perfect.  Been. 


Shall. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I shall.*  2.  Thou  shalt.  3.  He  shall. 

Plur.  1.  We  shall.  2.  Ye  or  you  shall.  3.  They  shall. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I should.  2.  Thou  shouldst.  3.  He  should. 

Plur.  1.  We  should.  • 2.  Ye  or  you  should.  3.  They  should. 


Will. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I will.  2.  Thou  wilt.  3.  He  will. 

Plur.  1.  We  will.  2.  Ye  or  you  will.  3.  They  will. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Sing.  I.  I would.  2.  Thou  wouldst.  3.  He  would. 

Plur.  I.  We  would.  2.  Ye  or  you  would.  3.  They  would. 


* Shall  is  here  properly  used  in  the  present  tense,  having  the  same  analogy  to  should^  that  can 
has  to  could^  may  to  mighty  and  will  to  would. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


87 


May. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I may.  8.  Thou  mayst.  3.  He  may.  ^ 

Plur.  1.  We  may.  2.  Ye  or  you  may.  3.  They  may. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I might.  2.  Thou  mightst.  3.  He  might. 

Fiur.  1.  We  might.  2.  Ye  or  you  might.  3.  They  might. 


Can. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

Sing.  1.  I can.  2.  Thou  canst.  3.  He  can. 

P/ur.  1.  We  can.  2.  Ye  or  you  can.  3.  They  can. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Sing.  I.  I could  2.  Thou  couldst.  3.  He  could. 

Plur.  2.  We  could.  2.  Ye  or  you  could.  3.  They  could. 


Sing.  I.  I do. 
Plur.  I.  We  do. 


Sing.  I.  I did. 
Plur.  We  did. 


To  Do. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

2.  Thou  dost.  3.  He  doth  or  does. 
2.  Ye  dr  you  do.  3.  They  do. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


2.  Thou  didst. 

2.  Ye  or  you  did. 


3.  He  did. 

3.  They  did. 


PARTICIPLES. 


PRESENT.  Doinff. 


PERFECT.  Done. 


The  verbs  /lave,  he,  will  and  do,  when  they  are  unconnected 
with  a principal  verb,  expressed  or  understood,  are  not  auxilia* 


88 


ETYMOLOGY. 


ries,  but  principal  verbs : as,  “ We  have  enough  “ I am  grate- 
ful “ He  wills  it  to  be  so  f “They  do  as  they  please,”  In  this 
view  they  have  also  their  auxiliaries : as,  “ I shall  have  enough 
“ I will  be  grateful,”  &c. 

The  peculiar  force  of  the  several  auxiliaries  will  appear  from 
the  following  account  of  them. 

Do  and  did  mark  the  action  itself,  or  the  time  of  it,  with  great- 
er energy  and  positiveness;  as,  “I  do  speak  truth;”  “I  did 
respect  him  ;”  “ Here  am  I,  for  thou  didst  call  me.”  They  are 
of  great  use  in  negative  sentences : as,  “I  do  not  fear ;”  “ I did 
not  write.”  They  are  almost  universally  employed  in  asking 
questions : as,  “ Does  he  learn  ?”  “ Did  he  not  write  ?”  They 
sometimes  also  supply  the  place  of  another  verb,  and  make  the 
repetiton  of  it,  in  the  same  or  a subsequent  sentence,  unneces- 
sary: as,  “ You  attend  not  to  your  studies  as  he  does;’^^  (i.  e.  as 
he  attends,  &c.)  “ I shall  come  if  I can  ; but  if  I do  not,  please 
to  excuse  me ;”  (i.  e,  if  1 come  not.) 

Let,  not  only  expresses  permission,  but  entreating,  exhorting, 
commanding:  as,  “Let  us  know  the  truth ;”  “Let  me  die  the 
death  of  the  righteous;”  “Let  not  your  hearts  be  too  much  elated 
with  success;”  “Ldt  your  inclinations  submit  to  your  duty.” 

May  and  might  express  the  possibility  or  liberty  of  doing  a 
thing  ; can  and  could  the  power : as,  “ It  may  rain ;”  “ I may 
write  or  read  ;”  “ He  might  have  improved  more  than  he  has 
“ He  can  write  much  better  than  he  could  last  year.” 

Must  is  sometimes  called  in  for  a helper,  and  denotes  neces- 
sity : as,  “ We  must  speak  the  truth,  whenever ’we  do  speak,  and 
we  must  not  prevaricate.” 

Will,  in  the  first  person  singular  and  plural,  intimates  resolu- 
tion and  promising : in  the  second  and  third  person,  only  fore- 
tels  ; as,  “ I will  reward  the  good  and  will  punish  the  wicked.” 
“ We  will  remember  benefits  and  be  grateful ;”  “ Thou  wilt,  or 
he  will,  repent  of  that  folly ;”  “ You  or  they  will  have  a pleasant 
walk.” 

Shall,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  first  person,  simply  foretels ; 
in  the  second  and  third  persons,  promises,  commands,  or  threat- 
ens : as,  “ I shall  go  abroad ;”  “ We  shall  dine  at  home ;” 
“Thou  shalt,  or  you  shall,  inherit  the  land;”  “Ye  shall  do 
justice  and  love  mercy ;”  “ They  shall  account  for  their  mis- 
conduct.” The  following  passage  is  not  translated  according  to 
the  distinct  and  proper  meaning  of  the  words  shall  and  will : 
“ Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of 
my  life ; and  I will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  for  ever.” 
It  ought  to  be,  “ Will  follow  me,”  and  “ I shall  dwell.” — The 
foreigner  who,  as,  it  is  said,  fell  into  the  Thames,  and  cried 
out : “ I will  be  drowned,  nobody  shall  help  me  ;”  made  a 
sad  misapplication  of  these  auxiliaries. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


89 


These  observations  respecting  the  import  of  the  verbs,  will 
and  shall  must  be  understood  of  explicative  sentences  ; for 
when  the  sentence  is  interrogative,  just  the  reverse,  for  the 
most  part,  takes  place  ; thus,  “ I shall  go  ; you  will  go  ex- 
press event  only  : but,  “ will  you  go?”  imports  intention  : and 
“ shall  I go  ?”  refers  to  the  will  of  another.  But,  “ He  shall 
go,”  and  “ shall  he  go  ?”  both  imply  will  ; expressing  or  refer- 
ring to  a command. 

When  the  verb  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  meaning  of 
these  auxiliaries  likewise  undergoes  some  alteration  ; as  the 
learner  will  ready  perceive  by  a few  examples  : He  shall  pro- 
ceed,” “ If  he  shall  proceed  “ You  shall  consent,”  “ If  you 
shall  consent.”  These  auxiliaries  are  sometimes  interchanged, 
in  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods,  to  convey  the  same 
meaning  of  the  auxiliary  : as,  “ He  will  not  return,”  If 
he  shall  not  return  ;”  “ He  shall  not  return,”  If  he  will  not 
return.” 

Would,  primarily  denotes  inclination  of  will ; and  should, 
obligation  ; but  they  both  vary  their  import,  and  are  often  used 
to  express  simple  event. 

Were  is  frequently  used  for  would  he,  and  had  for  would  have  ; 
as,  ‘‘It  were  injustice  to  deny  the  execution  of  the  law  to  any 
individual  :”  that  is,  “ it  would  he  injustice.”  “ Many  acts 
which  had  been  blameable  in  a peaceable  government, were 
employed  to  detect  conspiracies  ;”  thst  is,  “ which  would  have 
been  blameable.” 

Sometimes  that  form  of  the  auxiliary  verbs,  shall,  will,  &c. 
which  is  generally  conditional,  is  elegantly  used  to  express  a 
very  slight  assertion,  with  a modest  diffidence.  Thus  we  say, 
“ I should  think  it  would  be  proper  to  give  up  the  point  ;”  that 
is,  “ I am  rather  inclined  to  think.” 

Some  WTiters  still  use  shall  and  will,  should  and  would,  as 
they  were  formerly  used ; that  is,  in  a sense  quite  contrary  to 
that  in  which  they  are  generally  used  at  present.  The  follow- 
ing expressions  are  instances  of  this  incorrect  practice  : “ We 
would  have  been  wanting  to  ourselves,  if  w^e  had  complied  with 
the  demand  ;”  W e shoidd  “We  will  therefore  briefly  un- 
fold our  reasons  ;”  “ We  shall  He  imagined,  that  by  play- 
ing one  party  against  the  other,  he  would  easily  obtain  the  vic- 
tory over  both  ;”  “ He  should  easily,”  &c. 

In  several  familiar  forms  of  expression,  the  word  shall  still 
retains  its  original  signification,  and  does  not  mean,  to  pro- 
mise, threaten,  or  engage,  in  the  third  person,  but  the  mere 
futurition  of  an  event : as,  “ This  is  as  extraordinary  a thing  as 
one  shall  ever  hear  of.” 

VoL.  I. 


14 


90 


ETYMOLOGY. 


SECTION  VIII. 

The  conjugation  of  regular  Verbs. 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs  Active  are  called  Regular,  when  they  form 
their  imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and 
their  perfect  participle,  by  adding  to  the  verb  ec?,  or 
d only  when  the  verb  ends  in  e:  as. 


Present.  Imperfect.  Per.  Particip. 

I favour.  I favoured.  Favoured. 

I love.  I loved.  Loved. 

A Regular  Active  Verb  is  conjugated  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : 

To  Love. 


Indicative  Mood. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I love.*  1.  We  love. 

2.  Thou  lovest.  2.  Ye  or  you  love. 

3.  He,  she,  or  it  loveth,  or  loves.f  3.  They  love. 

* In  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  we  use  a different  form  of  the  verb,  when  we  mean  to 
express  energy  and  positiveness  : as,  “ I do  love  j thou  dost  love  ; he  does  love  ; I did  love ; 
thou  didst  love  ; he  did  love. 

t Dr.  Coote  justly  observes  that  this  termination  of  the  third  person  singular  in  eth  is  now  very 
rarely  used,  cs,  or  s being  substituted  for  it.  This  practice  is  disapproved  by  Addison,  as 
“ multiplying  a letter  which  was  before  too  frequent  in  the  English  tongue ; and  adding  to 
that  hissing  in  our  language  which  is  taken  so  much  notice  of  by  foreigners.”  Notwith- 
standing this  reproach,  it  has  been  aptly  observed,  that  no  passage  in  English  prose  or  verse, 
exhibits,  within  an  equal  space,  such  a repetition  of  the  sibilant  letter,  as  the  blowing  quotation 
from  Horace : 


Res  Italas  armis  tuteris,  moribus  ornes, 
Legibus  emendes. 


V 


91 


IMI>fi»P^T  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I loved. 

2.  Thou  lovedst. 

3.  He  loved. 


/O 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  loved. 

1.  Ye  or  you  loved. 
3.  They  loved. 


PERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I have  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  loved. 

3.  He  hath  or  has  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  have  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  have  loved. 

3.  They  have  loved. 


PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I had  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved. 

3.  He  had  loved. 


PLURAL. 

L We  had  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  loved. 

2.  They  had  loved. 


FIRST  FUTURE  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I shall  or  will  love. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  or  will  love. 

2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  love. 


SECOND  FUTURE  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  loved. 

3.  They  will  have  loved. 


Those  tenses  are  called  simple  tenses,  which  are  formed  of 
the  principal,  without  an  auxiliary  verb : as,  “ I love,  I loved.” 
The  compound  tenses  are  such  as  cannot  be  formed  without 
an  auxiliary  verb : as,  I have  loved  ; I had  loved  ; I shall  or 
will  love  ; I may  love ; I may  he  loved  ; I may  have  been  loved.” 
&c.  These  compounds  are,  however,  to  be  considered  as  only 
different  forms  of  the  same  verb. 


✓ 


92 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Imperative  Mood. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  Let  me  love. 

2.  Love,  or  love  thou,  or  do 

thou  love. 

3.  Let  him  love. 


PLURAL. 

1.  Let  us  love. 

2.  Love,  or  love  ye  or  you,  or 

do  ye  love. 

3.  Let  them  love. 


Potential  Mood. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I may  or  can  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  love. 

3.  He  may  or  can  love. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  may  or  can  love. 

2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  love. 

3.  They  may  or  can  love. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I might,  could,  w^ould,  or 
should  love. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 
w^ouldst,  or  shouldst  love. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or 
or  should  love. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  love. 

2.  Ye  or  you,  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  love. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  love. 


PERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I may  or  can  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have 
loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  may  or  can  have  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
loved.  ^ 

3.  Theymayorcan  have  loved. 


PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have 
loved. 

3.  He  might,  could  would,  or 
or  should  have  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

would,  or  should  have 
loved. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would 
or  should  have  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


93 


Subjunctive  Mood. 


PRESENT  TENSE.* 


SINGULAR. 

1.  If  I love. 

2.  If  thou  love. 

3.  If  he  love. 


PLURAL. 

1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  love. 

3.  If  they  love. 


The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood,  are,  in  general,  similar 
to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.  See 
pages  76,  94,  95. 

It  may  be  of  use  to  the  scholar,  to  remark  in  this  place,  that 
though  only  the  conjunction  if  is  affixed  to  the  verb,  any  other 
conjunction  proper  for  the  subjunctive  mood,  may,  with  equal 
propriety,  be  occasionally  annexed.  The  instance  given  is  suf- 
ficient to  explain  the  subject : more  would  be  tedious,  and  tend 
to  embarrass  the  learner. 


Infinitive  Mood. 

PRESENT  TENSE.  To  love.  PERFECT.  To  havc  loved. 

Participles. 


PRESENT.  Loving.  PERFECt.  Lovod. 

COMPOUND  PERFECT.  Having  lovcd. 

The  active  verb  may  be  conjugated  differently,  by  adding 
its  present  or  active  participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  to  he, 
through  all  its  moods  and  tenses : as,  instead  of,  ‘‘  I teach, 
thou  teachest,  he  teaches,”  &c. ; we  may  say,  “ I am  teaching 
thou  art  teaching,  he  is  teaching,”  &c. : and  instead  of,  I 
taught,”  &c.  “ I was  teaching,”  &c.  and  so  on  through  all 
the  variations  of  the  auxiliary.  This  mode  of  conjugation,  has, 
on  particular  occasions,  a peculiar  propriety ; and  contributes 
to  the  harmony  and  precision  of  the  language.  These  forms 
of  expression  are  adapted  to  particular  acts,  not  to  general 
habits  or  affections  of  the  mind.  They  are  very  frequently 
applied  to  neuter  verbs : as,  “ I am  musing ; he  is  sleeping.f ” 


On  the  propriety  of  denominating  this  the  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  see  the 
note  near  the  end  of  the  19th  Rule. 

t As  the  participle,  in  this  mode  of  conjugation,  performs  the  office  of  a verb  through  all 
the  moods  and  tenses  ; and  as  it  implies  the  idea  of  time,  and  governs  the  objective  case  of 


94 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Some  grammarians  apply,  what  is  called  the  conjunctive  ter* 
mination^  to  the  persons  of  the  principle  verb,  and  to  its  aux- 
iliaries, through  all  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  But 
this  is  certainly  contrary  to  the  practice  of  good  writers. 
Johnson  applies  this  termination  to  the  present  and  perfect 
tenses  only.  Lowth  restricts  it  entirely  to  the  present  tense : 
and  Priestly  confines  it  to  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses. 
This  diflierence  of  opinion  amongst  grammarians  of  such  emi- 
nence, may  have  contributed  to  that  diversity  of  practice,  so 
observable  in  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  Uniformity 
in  this  point  is  highly  desirable.  It  would  materially  assist 
both  teachers  and  learners ; and  would  constitute  consider- 
able improvement  in  our  language.  On  this  subject  we  adopt 
the  opinion  of  Dr.  Lowth  ; and  conceive  we  are  fully  warrant- 
ed by  his  authority,  and  that  of  the  most  correct  and  elegant 
writers,  in  limiting  the  conjunctive  termination  of  the  principal 
verb,  to  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present 
tense. 

Grammarians  have  not  only  differed  in  opinion,  respecting 
the  extent  and  variations  of  the  subjunctive  mood  ; but  a few 
of  them  have  even  doubted  the  existence  of  such  a mood  in 
the  Engligh  language.  These  writers  assert  that  the  verb  has 
no  variation  from  the  indicative  ; and  that  a conjunction  added 
to  the  verb,  gives  it  no  title  to  become  a distinct  mood  ; or,  at 
most,  no  better  than  it  Vv^ould  have  if  any  other  particle  were 
joined  to  it.  To  these  observations  it  may  be  replied  ; 1st.  It 
is  evident,  on  inspection,  that  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
present  tense  of  the  principal  verbs,  the  present  and  imperfect 
tenses  of  the  verb  to  he^  and  the  second  and  third  persons,  in 
both  numbers,  of  the  second  future  tense  of  all  verbs;*  require 
a variation  from  the  forms  which  those  tenses  have  in  the  indi- 
cative mood.  So  much  difference  in  the  form  of  the  verb, 
would  warrant  a correspondent  distinction  of  mood,  though  the 
remaining  parts  of  the  subjunctive  were,  in  all  respects,  similar 
to  those  of  the  indicative.  In  other  languages,  a pinnciple  of 
this  nature  has  been  admitted,  both  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs, 
and  the  declension  of  nouns.  2d,  There  appears  to  be  as  much 
propriety  in  giving  a conjunction  the  power  of  assisting  to  form 
the  subjuncive  mood,  as  there  is  in  allowing  the  particle  to  to 
have  an  effect  in  the  formation  of  the  infinitive  mood.f 

nouns  and  pronouns,  in  the  same  manner  as  verbs  do ; is  it  not  manifest  that  it  is  a spe- 
cies or  form  of  the  verb,  and  that  it  cannot  be  properly  considered  as  a distinct  part  of 
epoech? 

* \Ve  think  it  has  been  proved,  that  the  auxiliary  is  a constituent  part  of  the  verb  of  which 
it  relates  ; that  the  principal  and  its  auxiliary  form  but  one  verb. 

t Conjunctions  have  an  influence  on.  the  mood  of  the  follotving  verb.  Dr.  Beattie. 

Conjunctions  have  sometimes  a government  of  moods.  Dr.  Lowth. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


95 


3d.  A conjunction  added  to  the  verb,  shows  the  manner  of 
being,  doing,  or  suffering,  which  other  particles  cannot  show  ; 
they  do  not  coalesce  with  the  verb,  and  modify  it  as  conjunc- 
tions do.  4th.  It  may  be  said,  “ If  contingency  constitutes  the 
subjunctive  mood,  then  it  is  the  sense  of  a phrase,  and  not  a 
conjunction  that  determines  this  mood.”  But  a little  reflection 
will  show,  that  the  contingent  sense  lies  in  the  meaning  and 
force  of  the  conjunction,  expressed  or  understood. 

This  subject  may  be  farther  illustrated  by  the  following  ob- 
servations.— Moods  have  a foundation  in  nature.  They  show 
what  is  certain ; what  is  possible  ; what  is  conditional ; what  is 
commanded.  They  express  also  other  conceptions  and  viola- 
tions ; all  signifying  the  manner  of  being,  doing  or  suffering. 
But  as  it  would  tend  to  obscure,  rather  than  elucidate  the  sub- 
ject, if  the  moods  were  particularly  enumerated,  grammarians 
have  very  properly  given  them  such  combinations  and  arrange- 
ments, as  serve  to  explain  the  nature  of  this  part  of  language, 
and  to  render  the  knowledge  of  it  easily  attainable. 

The  grammars  of  some  languages  contain  a greater  number 
of  the  moods  than  others,  and  exhibit  them  in  different  forms. 
The  Greek  and  Roman  tongues  denote  them,  by  particular 
variations  in  the  verb  itself.  This  form,  however,  was  the 
effect  of  ingenuity  and  improvement ; it  is  not  essential  to  the 
nature  of  the  subject.  The  moods  may  be  as  effectually  desig- 
nated by  a plurality  of  words,  as  by  a change  in  the  appearance 
of  a single  word ; because  the  same  ideas  are  denoted,  and  the 
same  ends  accomplished,  by  either  manner  of  expression. 

On  this  ground,  the  moods  of  the  English  verb,  as  well  as 
the  tenses,  are  with  great  propriety  formed  partly  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb  itself,  and  partly  by  the  assistance  which  that  verb 
derives  from  other  words.  For  further  observations,  relative 
to  the  views  and  sentiments  here  advanced,  see  pages  66 — 68, 
75 — 77.  Section  9 of  this  chapter,  and  Note  8 of  the  19th 
Rule  of  Syntax. 


PASSIVE. 


Verbs  Passive  are  called  regular,  when  they  form 
their  perfect  participle  by  the  addition  of  d or  ed  to 
the  verb;  as,  from  the  verb  To  love;”  is  formed 
the  passive,  I am  loved,  I was  loved,  I shall  be 
loved,”  &c. 


96 


ETYMOLOGY. 


A passive  verb  is  conjugated  by  adding  the  per- 
fect participle  to  the  auxiliary  to  be^  through  all  its 
changes  of  number,  person,  mood,  and  tense,  in  the 
following  manner. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


1. 

2 

3. 


To  Be  Loved. 

Indicative  Mood. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

SINGULAR. 

I am  loved. 

Thou  art  loved. 

He  is  loved. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  are  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  are  loved. 

3.  They  are  loved. 


SINGULAR. 

I was  loved. 

Thou  wast  loved. 

He  was  loved. 

PERFECT 

SINGULAR. 

I have  been  loved. 

Thou  hast  been  loved. 

He  hath  or  has  been  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  were  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  were  loved. 

3.  They  were  loved. 

TENSE. 

PLURAL. 

1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  have  been  loved. 

3.  They  have  been  loved. 


PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

I have  been  loved. 
Thou  had  been  loved. 
He  had  been  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  been  loved. 

3.  They  had  been  loved. 


FIRST  FUTURE  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

I shall  or  will  be  loved. 
Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be 
loved. 

He  shall  or  will  be  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be 

loved. 

3.  They  shallorwill  be  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


97 


SECOND  FUTURE  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been 

loved. 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been 

loved. 

3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 


Imperative  Mood. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  Let  me  be  loved.  1.  Let  us  be  loved. 

2.  Be  thou  loved,  or  do  thou  2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved,  or  do 

be  loved.  ye  be  loved. 

3.  Let  him  be  loved.  3.  Let  them  be  loved. 


Potential  Mood. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I may  or  can  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be 

loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  may  or  can  be  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be 

loved. 

3.  They  may  or  can  be  loved. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mighst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  be 
loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 

would,  or  should  be  loved. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be  loved. 


PERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I may  or  can  have  been 
loved. 

Vol.  I. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  may  or  can  have  been 
loved. 

15 


98 


ETYMOLOGY. 


2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 

been  loved.  been  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  been  3.  They  may  or  can  have  been 

loved.  loved. 

PLUPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  rnighst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  have 
been  loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  might  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been  loved. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might  could, 

would  or  should  have  been 
loved. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  have  been  loved, 


Subjunctive  Mood. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  If  I be  loved. 

2.  If  thou  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  they  be  loved. 


IMPERFECT  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  If  I were  loved. 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved. 


PLURAL. 

1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  ye  or  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  they  were  loved. 


The  remaing  tenses  of  this  mood,  are,  in  general,  similar  to 
the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  Indicative  mood.  See  pages, 
80,  81,  94,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth  rule  of  syntax. 


Infinitive  Mood. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

To  be  loved. 


PERFECT. 

To  have  been  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


99 


PARTICIPLES. 

Being  loved. 

Loved. 

Having  been  loved. 

When  an  auxiliary  is  joined  to  the  participle  of  the  principal 
verb,  the  auxiliary  goes  through  all  the  variations  of  person  and 
number,  and  the  participle  itself  continues  invariably  the  same. 

When  there  are  two  or  more  auxiliaries  joined  to  the  parti- 
ciple, the  first  of  them  only  is  varied  according  to  person  and 
number.  The  auxiliary  must  admits  of  no  variation. 

The  neuter  verb  is  conjugated  like  the  active : but  as  it  par- 
takes somewhat  of  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits,  in  many 
instances,  of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the  neuter  significa- 
tion : as,  “ I am  arrived  “ I was  gone “ I am  grown.”  The 
auxiliary  verb  am^  was,  in  this  case,  precisely  defines  the  time 
of  the  action  or  event,  but  does  not  change  the  nature  of  it ; 
the  passive  form  still  expressing,  not  properly  a passion,  but  only 
a state  or  condition  of  being. 


PRESENT. 

PERFECT  OR  PASSIVE. 
COMPOUND  PERFECT. 


SECTION  IX. 


Observations  on  Passive  Verbs, 

Some  writers  on  grammar  assert,  that  there  are  no  Passive 
Verbs  in  the  English  language,  because  we  have  no  verbs  of 
this  kind  with  a particular  termination,  all  of  them  being  formed 
by  the  different  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  to  be,  joined  to  the  passive 
participle  of  the  verb.  This  is,  however,  to  mistake  the  true 
nature  of  the  English  verb ; and  to  regulate  it,  not  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  our  own  tongue,  but  on  those  of  foreign  languages. 
The  conjugation,  or  the  variation  of  the  English  verb,  to  answer 
all  the  purposes  of  verbs,  is  accomplished  by  the  means  of  auxil- 
iaries ; and  if  it  be  alleged  that  we  have  no  passive  verbs,  because 
we  cannot  exhibit  them  without  having  recourse  to  helping 
verbs,  it  may  with  equal  truth  be  said,  that  we  have  no  perfect, 
pluperfect,  or  future  tense,  in  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  mood ; 
since  these,  as  well  as  some  other  parts  of  the  verb  active,  are 
formed  by  auxiliaries. 


100 


ETYxMOLOGY. 


Even  the  Greek  and  Latin  passive  verbs  require  an  aux- 
iliary to  conjugate  some  of  their  tenses : namely,  the  former, 
in  the  preterit  of  the  optative  and  subjunctive  moods ; and 
the  latter,  in  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the  indicative, 
the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future,  of  the  subjunctive  mood, 
and  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  The  deponent  verbs,  in  Latin, 
require  also  an  auxiliary  to  conjugate  several  of  their  tenses. 
This  statement  abundantly  proves,  that  the  conjugation  of  a 
verb,  in  the  learned  languages,  does  not  consist  solely  in  varying 
the  form  of  the  original  verb.  It  proves  that  these  languages, 
like  our  own  language,  sometimes  conjugate  with  an  auxiliary, 
and  sometimes  without  it.  There  is,  indeed,  a difference. 
What  the  learned  languages  require  to  be  done,  in  some 
instances,  the  peculiar  genius  of  our  own  tongue  obliges  us  to 
do,  in  active  verbs  principally,  and  in  passive  ones  universally. 
In  short,  the  variation  of  the  verb,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  is  gen- 
erally accomplished  by  prefixes,  or  terminations,  added  to  the 
verb  itself;  in  English,  by  the  addition  of  auxiliaries. 

The  English  tongue  is,  in  many  respects,  materially  different 
from  the  learned  languages.  It  is,  therefore,  very  possible  to 
be  mistaken  ourselves,  and  to  mislead  and  perplex  others,  by  an 
undistinguishing  attachment  to  the  principles  and  arrangement 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Grammarians.  Much  of  the  confusion 
and  perplexity,  which  we  meet  with  in  the  writings  of  some 
English  Grammarians,  on  the  subject  of  verbs,  moods,  and  con- 
jugations, has  arisen  from  the  misapplication  of  names.  We 
are  apt  to  think,  that  the  old  names  must  always  be  attached  to 
the  identical  forms  and  things,  to  w^hich  they  were  anciently 
attached.  But  if  we  rectify  this  mistake,  and  properly  adjust 
the  names  to  the  peculiar  forms  and  nature  of  the  things  in  our 
own  language,  we  shall  be  clear  and  consistent  in  our  ideas : 
and  consequently,  better  able  to  represent  them  intelligibly  to 
those  whom  we  wish  to  inform. 

The  observations  which  we  have  made  under  this  head,  and 
on  the  subject  of  the  moods  in  another  place,  will  not  apply  to 
the  declension  and  cases  of  nouns,  so  as  to  require  us  to  adopt 
names  and  divisions  similar  to  those  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages ; for  w^e  should  then  have  more  cases  than  there  are 
prepositions  in  connexion  with  the  article  and  noun : and  after 
all,  it  would  be  a useless,  as  well  as  an  unwieldy  apparatus : 
since  every  English  preposition  points  to,  and  governs,  but  one 
case,  namely  the  objective ; which  is  also  true  with  respect  to 
our  governing  verbs  and  participles.  But  the  conjugation  of  an 
English  verb  in  form,  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  by  means 
of  auxiliaries,  so  far  from  being  useless  or  intricate,  is  a beautiful 
and  regular  display  of  it,  and  indispensably  necessary  to  the 
language. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


101 


Some  grammarians  have  alleged,  that  on  the  same  ground 
that  the  voices,  moods,  and  tenses,  are  admitted  into  the 
English  tongue,  the  forms  for  which  we  have  contended,  we 
should  also  admit  the  dual  number,  the  paulo  post  future  tense, 
the  middle  voice,  and  all  the  moods  and  tenses  which  are  to  be 
found  in  Greek  and  Latin.  But  this  objection,  though  urged 
with  much  reliance  on  its  weight,  is  not  well  founded.  If  the 
arrangement  of  the  moods,  tenses,  &c.  which  we  have  adopted, 
is  suited  to  the  idiom  of  our  tongue  ; and  the  principle,  on  which 
they  are  adopted,  is  extended  as  far  as  use  and  convenience  re- 
quire ; where  is  the  impropriety  in  arresting  our  progress,  and 
fixing  our  forms  at  the  point  of  utility  ? A principle  may  be 
warrantably  assumed,  and  carried  to  a precise  convenient  ex- 
tent, without  subjecting  its  supporters  to  the  charge  of  incon- 
sistency, for  not  pursuing  it  beyond  the  line  of  use  and  pro- 
priety. ^ 

The  importance  of  giving  the  ingenious  student  clear  and  just 
ideas  of  the  nature  of  our  verbs,  moods,  and  tenses,  will  apol- 
ogize for  the  extent  of  the  Author’s  remarks  on  these  subjects, 
both  here  and  elsewhere,  and  for  his  solicitude  to  simplify  and 
explain  them. — He  thinks  it  has  been  proved,  that  the  idiom  of 
our  tongue  demands  the  arrangement  he  has  given  to  the  Eng- 
lish verb ; and  that,  though  the  learned  languages,  with  respect 
to  voices,  moods,  and  tenses,  are,  in  general,  differently  con- 
structed from  the  English  tongue,  yet,  in  some  respects,  they 
are  so  similar  to  it,  as  to  warrant  the  principle  which  he  has 
adopted.  See  pages  66 — 68 ; 75 — 77  ; 94 — 95  : and  Note  8 
under  the  19th  rule  of  Syntax. 

SECTION  X. 

Of  Irregular  Verbs. 

Irregular  Verbs  are  those,  which  do  not  form 
their  imperfect  tense,  and  their  perfect  participle,  by 
the  addition  of  d or  ed  to  the  verb  : as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

I begin.  I began.  begun. 

I know.  I knew.  known. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS  ARE  OF  VARIOUS  SORTS. 

1.  Such  as  have  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses,  and  perfect 
participle  the  same : as, 


102 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Cost,  cost,  cost. 

Put,  put,  put. 

2.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  participle 
the  same : as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Abide,  abode,  abode. 

Sell,  sold,  sold. 

3.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  participle, 
different : as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Arise,  arose,  arisen. 

Blow,  blew,  blown. 

Many  verbs  become  irregular  by  contraction : as,  “ feed, 
fed  ; leave,  left others,  by  the  termination  en  : as,  ‘‘  fall,  fell, 
fallen others,  by  the  termination  ght : as,  “ buy,  bought : 
teach,  taught,’’  &c. 

The  following  list  of  the  irregular  verbs  will,  it  is  presumed, 
be  found  both  comprehensive  and  accurate. 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Abide, 

^ abode. 

abode. 

Am, 

was. 

been. 

Arise, 

arose. 

arisen. 

Awake, 

awoke,  r. 

awaked. 

Bear,  to  bring  forth, 

bare. 

born. 

Bear,  to  carry, 

bore. 

borne. 

Beat, 

beat. 

beaten,  beat. 

Begin, 

began. 

begun. 

Bend, 

bent. 

bent. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

besought. 

besought. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade. 

bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

bound. 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit. 

bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled. 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew. 

blown. 

Break, 

broke. 

broken. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


103 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought. 

Build, 

built, 

built. 

Burst, 

burst. 

burst. 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught,  R. 

caught,  R. 

Chide, 

chid, 

"^chidden,  chid. 

Choose, 

chose. 

chosen. 

Cleave,  to  stick  or  ) 
adhere^  ) 

REGULAR. 

Cleave,  to  split, 

clove,  or  cleft. 

cleft,  cloven. 

Cling, 

clung. 

clung. 

Clothe, 

clothed. 

clad,  R. 

Come, 

came. 

come. 

Cost, 

cost. 

cost. 

Crow, 

crew,  R. 

crowed. 

Creep, 

crept. 

crept. 

Cut, 

cut. 

cut. 

Dare,  to  venture. 

durst. 

dared. 

Dare,  r,  to  challengt 

Deal, 

dealt,  R. 

dealt,  R. 

Dig, 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Do, 

did. 

done. 

Draw, 

drew. 

drawn. 

Drive, 

drove. 

driven. 

Drink, 

drank. 

drunk. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  R. 

dwelt. 

Eat, 

eat,  or  ate. 

eaten. 

Fall, 

fell. 

fallen. 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Feel, 

felt. 

felt. 

Fight, 

fought. 

fought. 

Find, 

found. 

found. 

Flee, 

fled. 

fled. 

Fling, 

flung. 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew. 

flown. 

104 

Present. 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hang, 

Hear, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

Lay, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie,  to  lie  down. 
Load, 

Lose, 

Make, 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect. 

forgot, 

forsook, 

froze, 

got, 

gilt,  R. 

girt,  R. 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 

had, 

hung,  R. 

heard, 

hewed, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurt, 

kept, 

knit,  R. 

knew, 

laded, 

laid, 

led, 

left, 

lent, 

let, 

lay, 

loaded, 

lost, 

made. 


Perf.  or  Pass.  Part, 
forgotten,  forgot, 
forsaken.* 
frozen, 
got.t 

gilt,  R. 
girt,  R. 
given, 
gone, 
graven,  r. 
ground, 
grown, 
had. 

hung.  R. 

heard. 

hewn  R. 

hid,  hidden. 

hit. 

held. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knit. 

known. 

laden. 

laid. 

led. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

laden,  r. 

lost. 

made. 


Walker  observes,  that  Milton  has  availed  himself  of  the  license  of  his  art,  (an  art  as  apt  to 
corrupt  grammar,  as  it  is  to  raise  and  adorn  language,)  to  use  the  preterit  of  this  verb  for  the 
participle : 

“ Th’  immortal  mind  that  had  forsook 
Her  mansion,” 

t Gotten  is  nearly  obsolete  Its  forgotten  is  still  in  good  use. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


105 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown,  R, 

Pay. 

paid. 

paid. 

Put, 

put. 

put. 

Read, 

read. 

read. 

Rend, 

rend. 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode. 

rode,  ridden.^ 

Ring, 

rung,  rang, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose. 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived. 

riven. 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed. 

sawn,  R. 

Say, 

said. 

said. 

See, 

saw. 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Sell, 

sold. 

sold. 

Sent, 

sent. 

sent. 

Set, 

set. 

set. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped. 

shaped,  shapen. 

Shave, 

shaved. 

shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

sheared. 

shorn. 

Shed, 

shed. 

shed. 

Shine, 

shonCy  R. 

shone,  r. 

Show, 

showed. 

shown. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot. 

shot. 

Shrink, 

shrunk, 

shrunk.  ' 

Shred, 

shred. 

shred. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang. 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk,  sank. 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat. 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew. 

slain. 

* Ridden  is  nearly' obsolete. 

16 


VOL.  I. 


106 

Present,^ 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak, 

Speed, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit,  ' 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow,  or  StreWj 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, 

Tear, 


ETYMOLOGY 

Imperfect, 
slept, 
slid, 
slung, 
slunk, 
slit,  R. 
smote, 
sowed, 
spoke, 
sped, 
spent, 
spilt,  R. 
spun, 
spit,  spat, 
split, 
spread, 

sprung,  sprang, 
stood, 
stole, 
stuck, 
stung, 
stunk, 

strode  or  strid, 
struck, 
strung, 
strove, 

strowed  or  strewed 

swore, 
swet,  R. 
swelled, 
swum,  swam, 
swung, 
took, 
taught, 
tore, 


Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

slept. 

slidden. 

slung. 

slunk. 

slit,  or  slitten, 
smitten, 
sown.  R. 
spoken, 
sped, 
spent, 
spilt,  R. 
spun. 

spit,  spitten.* 

split. 

spread. 

sprung. 

stood. 

stolen. 

stuck, 

stung. 

stunk. 

stridden. 

struck,  or  stricken. 

strung. 

striven. 

strown,  strowed 
strewed, 
sworn, 
swet,  R. 
swollen, 
swum, 
swung, 
taken, 
taught, 
torn. 


Spitten  is  newly  obsolete. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


107 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Think, 

thought. 

thought. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r. 

thriven. 

Throw, 

threw. 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust. 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod. 

trodden. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen,  r. 

Wear, 

wore. 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove. 

woven. 

Weep, 

wept, 

wept. 

Win, 

won. 

won. 

Wind, 

wound. 

wound. 

Work, 

wrought. 

wrought  or  worked. 

Wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

Id  the  preceding  list,  some  of  the  verbs  will  be  found  to  be 
conjugated  regularly,  as  well  as  irregularly;  and  those  which 
admit  of  the  regular  form  are  marked  with  an  r.  There  is  a 
preference  to  be  given  to  some  of  these,  which  custom  and 
judgment  must  determine.  Those  preterits  and  participles 
which  are  first  mentioned  in  the  list,  seem  to  be  the  most  eli- 
gible. The  Compiler  has  not  inserted  such  verbs  as  are 
irregular  only  in  familiar  writing  or  discourse,  and  which  are 
improperly  terminated  by  t,  instead  of  ed:  as,  learnt,  spelt, 
spilt,  &c.  These  should  be  avoided  in  every  sort  of  com- 
position. It  is,  however,  proper  to  observe,  that  some  con- 
tractions of  ed  into  are  unexceptionable  ; and  others,  the 
only  established  forms  of  expression  : as  crept,  dwelt,  gilt,  &:c. : 
and  lost,  felt,  slept,  &c.  These  allowable  and  necessary  con- 
tractions must  therefore  be  carefully  distinguished  by  the 
learner,  from  those  that  are  exceptionable.  The  words  which 
are  obsolete  have  also  been  omitted,  thcit  the  learner  might  not 
be  induced  to  mistake  them  for  words  in  present  use.  Such 
are  wreathen,  drunken,  holpen,  molten,  gotten,  holden,  bounden, 
4&C. : and  swang,  wrang,  slank,  strawed,  gat,  brake,  tare, 
ware,  &c. 


108 


ETYMOLOGY. 


SECTION  XI. 

Of  Defective  Verbs  ; and  of  the  different  ways  in  which  verbs 
are  conjugated. 

Defective  Verbs  are  those  which  are  used  only 
in  some  of  their  moods  and  tenses. 

The  principal  of  them  are  these  : 

Imperfect,  Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

could,  

might,  

should,  

would,  

must,  

ought,  

quoth,  

That  the  verbs  must  and  ought  have  both  a present  and  past 
signification,  appears  from  the  following  sentences : “ I must 
now  own  that  I was  to  blame  “He  must  at  that  time,  have 
been  mistaken “We  ought  to  do  our  duty,  and  leave  the 
consequences  ; “ They  spoke  things  which  they  ought  not  to 
have  spoken.” 

If  it  should  be  objected  that  the  words  must  and  ought,  in  the 
preceding  sentences,  are  all  in  the  present  tense,  on  the  ground, 
that  the  expression,  He  must,  at  that  time,  have  been  mis- 
taken,” implies,  “ It  is  necessary,  it  is  certain,  he  was  at  that 
time  mistaken and  that  the  sentence,  “ They  spoke  things 
which  they  ought  not  then  to  have  spoken,”  signifies  that, 
“ They  spoke  things  which  it  is  a duty  incumbent  upon  them, 
not  then  to  have  spoken we  may  reply  that,  on  this  principle, 
the  true  grammatical  constructions  of  sentences  may  be  often 
strangely  perverted.  From  a similar  mode  of  reasoning,  the 
words  may,  might,  could,  in  the  following  sentences,  may  be 
considered  as  in  the  present  tense  ; “ I may,  at  that  time,  have 
been  mistaken ;”  “ He  might  have  decided  better ;”  “ They 
could  have  finished  the  work  sooner  : since  may,  might,  could, 
may  be  coverted  into,  “ It  is  possible  that  I was,  at  that  time, 
mistaken  ;”  “ It  is  possible  for  him  to  have  decided  better ;”  “ It 
is  possible  for  them  to  have  finished  the  work  sooner.” — We 
have  shown  at  pages  61,  62,  of  this  work,  that  one  phrase  may, 
in  point  of  sense,  be  equivalent  to  another,  though  its  gram- 
matical  nature  is  essentially  different. 


Present. 

Can, 

Mav, 

Shall, 

Will, 

Must, 

Ought, 


ETYMOJLOOY. 


109 


If  it  be  further  objected,  that  the  expression,  “ He  must  have 
been  deceived,”  is  as  incorrect  and  absurd  as  the  phrase,  “ He 
intended  to  have  written,”  we  presume  that  the  objection  is 
wholly  destitute  of  foundation.  As  the  word  musty  in  the  sen- 
tence in  question,  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  verb,  there  appears  to 
be  no  impropriety  in  connecting  it  With  the  subsequent  form  of 
the  verb.  It  is  as  justifiable  and  regular  as  the  helping  verbs 
and  their  connexions  are,  in  the  following  sentences : “ He  may 
have  been  deceived “He  have  done  better;”  could 
not  have  done  worse  ;” — With  regard  to  the  phrase,  “ He  ought, 
when  the  officer  appeared,  to  have  surrendered  himself ;”  we 
observe  that  when  we  use  this  verb  ought,  this  is  the  only  pos- 
sible way  to  distinguish  the  past  from  the  present.  See  the 
thirteenth  rule  of  Syntax. 

To  attempt  the  support  of  the  preceding  objections,  if  that 
could  support  them,  by  a partial  construction  of  the  English  verb, 
and  considering  it,Nin  no  part  of  its  formation,  as  composed  of 
the  participle  and  its  auxiliary,  would  be  to  take  that  for  granted 
which  is  disputed ; to  resort  to  an  hypothesis  which,  we  pre- 
sume, has  already  been  sufficiently  controverted,  and  shown  to 
be  untenable. 

In  most  languages,  there  are  some  verbs  which  are  defective 
with  respect  to  persons.  These  are  denominated,  impersonal 
verbs.  They  are  only  used  in  the  third  person,  because  they 
refer  to  a subject  peculiarly  appropriated  to  that  person  : as,  “ It 
rains,  it  , snows,  it  hails,  it  lightens,  it  thunders.”  But  as  the 
word  impersonal  implies  a total  absence  of  persons,  it  is  im- 
properly applied  to  those  verbs  which  have  a person : and  hence 
it  is  manifest,  that  there  is  no  such  thing  in  English,  nor  indeed, 
in  any  language,  as  a sort  of  verbs  really  impersonal.* 

The  whole  number  of  verbs  in  the  English  language,  regular 
and  irregular,  simple  and  compounded,  taken  together,  is  about 
4300.  The  number  of  irregular  verbs,  the  defective  included, 
is  about  177. 

Some  grammarians  have  thought  that  the  English  verbs,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other  languages, 
might  be  classed  into  several  conjugations ; and  that  the  three 
different  terminations  of  the  participle  might  be  the  distinguishing 


* The  plea  urged  to  prove  the  existence  of  Impersonal  Verbs,  is,  in  substance,  as  follows  ; and 
the  reader  will  perceive  that  it  is  not  wholly  destitute  of  plausibility.— There  are  certain  verbs 
which  do  not  admit  for  their  subject  any  thing  that  has  life,  or  any  thing  that  is  strictly  definable: 
such  as,  ‘‘  It  snows  it  hails,  it  freezes,  it  rains,  it  lightens,  it  thunders.”  In  this  point  of  view,  and 
with  this  explanation,  it  is  supposed,  by  some  grammarians,  that  our  language  contains  a few  Im- 
personal Verbs  ; that  is,  verbs  which  declare  the  existence  of  some  action  or  state,  but  which  do 
not  refer  to  any  animate  being,  or  any  determinate  particular  subject. 


no 


ETYMOLOGY. 


characteristics.  They  have  accordingly  proposed  three  conju- 
gations ; namely,  the  first  to  consist  of  verbs,  the  participles  of 
which  end  in  ed^  or  its  contraction  the  second  of  those  ending 
\nght;  and  the  third  of  those  in  en.  But  as  the  verbs  of  the 
first  conjugation,  would  so  greatly,  exceed  in  number  those  of 
both  the  others,  as  may  be  ^een  by  the  preceding  account  of 
them ; and  as  those  of  the  third  conjugation  are  so  various  in 
their  form,  and  incapable  of  being  reduced  to  one  plain  rule ; it 
seems  better  in  practice,  as  Dr.  Lowth  justly  observes,  to  con- 
sider the  first  in  ed  as  the  only  regular  form,  and  the  other  us 
deviations  from  it ; * after  the  example  of  the  Saxon  and  German 
Grammarians. 

Before  we  close  this  section,  it  may  afford  instruction  to  the 
learners,  to  be.  informed,  more  particularly  than  they  have  been, 
that  different  nations  have  made  use  of  different  contrivances 
for  making  the  tenses  and  moods  of  their  verbs.  The  Greeks 
and  Latins  distinguish  them,  as  well  as  the  cases  of  their  nouns, 
adjectives,  and  participles,  by  varying  the  termination,  or  other- 
wise changing  the  form,  of  the  word  ; retaining,  however,  those 
radical  letters,  which  prove  the  inflexion  to  be  of  the  same  kind- 
red with  its  root.  The  modern  tongues,  particularly  the  English, 
abound  in  auxiliary  words,  which  vary  the  meaning  of  the  noun, 
or  the  verb,  without  requiring  any  considerable  varieties  of  in- 
flection. Thus,  I do  love,  I did  loye^  I have  loved,  I had  loved, 
I shall  love,  have  the  same  import,  as  amo,  ainaham,  amavi,  am- 
averam,  amabo.  It  is  obvious,  that  a language,  like  the  Greek 
and  Latin,  which  can  thus  comprehend  in  one  word  the  meaning 
of  two  or  three  words,  must  have  some  advantages  over  those 
which  are  not  so  comprehensive.  Perhaps,  indeed,  it  may  not 
be  more  perspicuous ; but  in  the  arrangement  of  ^words,  and 
consequently  in  harmony  and  energy,  as  well  us  in  conciseness, 
it  may  be  much  more  elegant. 


, SECTION  XII. 


Theory  respecting  the  Inflections  of  language. 

In  our  modern  verbs  and  nouns,  says  Dr.  Beattie,  the 
variety  of  auxiliary  words,  is  much  greater  thari  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Greece  or  Rome.  The  northern  nations  who  over- 
turned the  Roman  Empire,  and  established  themselves  in  the 
conquered  provinces,  being  an  unlettered  race  of  men,  would 
not  take  the  trouble,  either  to  impart  their  own  language  to 
the  Romans,  or  to  learn  theirs  with  any  degree  of  exactness ; 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Ill 


but,  blending  words  and  idioms  of  their  own  with  Latin  words 
inaccurately  acquired,  or  imperfectly  remembered,  and  find- 
ing it  too  great  labour  to  master  all  the  inflections  of  that 
language,  fell  upon  a simpler,  though  less  elegant,  artifice,  of 
supplying  the  place  of  cases,  moods,  and  tenses,  with  one  or 
more  auxiliary  words,  joined  to  nouns,  verbs,  and  participles. 
And  hence,  in  the  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French 
languages,  the  greater  part  of  the  words  are  Latin ; (for  the 
conquered  were  more  in  number  than  the  conquerors  ;)  but  so 
disguised  are  those  words,  by  the  mixture  of  northern  idioms, 
and  by  the  slovenly  expedient  now  hinted  at,  as  to  have  become 
at  once  like  the  Latin,  and  very  different  from  it. — The  ancient 
Greek,  compared  with  the  modern,  is  found  to  have  undergone 
alterations  somewhat  similar,  but  not  so  great.  For  with  the 
northern  invaders  the  Greeks  were  never  so  thoroughly  incor- 
porated, as  were  the  Europeans  of  the  West:  and,  when  con- 
quered by  the  Turks,  they  maintained  their  religion,  and  so 
preserved  their  language  from  total  deprivation,  though  they 
could  not  prevent  its  debasement. 

On  many  topics,  it  is  easier  to  propose  than  to  solve  diffi- 
culties ; and  to  ask  questions,,  than  to  answer  them.  What 
is  hinted  in  the  last  paragraph,  may  be  thought  to  account  for 
the  multitude  of  auxiliary  words  that  belong  to  the  verbs  and 
nouns  of  modern  Europe.  But,  for  the  multitude  of  Inflections, 
that  are  found  in  the  nouns  and  verbs  of  the  ancient  languages, 
how  are  we  to  account  ? Why  did  not  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans abound  in  auxiliary  words  as  much  as  we  ? 

Was  it  because  their  languages,  like  regular  towns  and  forti- 
fications, were  made  hy  men  of  learning ; who  planned  them 
before  they  existed,  with  a view  of  the  renown  of  the  poets, 
philosophers,  and  orators,  who  were . to  compose  in  them,  as 
well  as  to  the  convenience  of  the  people,  who  were  to  speak 
them : while  the  modern  tongues,  like  poor  villages  that  extend 
their  bounds  irregularly,  are  the  rude  work  of  a barbarous 
people,  who,  without  looking  before  or  behind  them,  on  the 
right  hand,  or  on  the  left,  threw  their  coarse  materials  together, 
with  no  other  view,  than  just  to  answer  the  exigency  of  the 
present  hour  ? — This  theory  is  ag-reeable  to  the  ideas  of  some 
learned  authors.  But  if  we  pay  any  regard  to  history,  or  believe 
that  human  exertions  are  proportioned  to  human  abilities,  and 
that  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  like  other  men,  we  cannot 
acquiesce  in  it. 

They  who  first  spoke  Greek  and  Latin  were  certainly  not 
less  ignorant,  nor  less  savage,  than  were  those  moderns,  among 
whom  arose  the  Italian,  the  ’ Spanish,  the  French,  and  the 
English  languages.  If  these  last  were  formed  gradually,  and 


112 


ETYMOLOGY. 


’Without  pkn  or  method,  why  should  we  believe,  that  the 
Classic  tongues  were  otherwise  formed  ? Are  they  more  reg- 
ular than  the  moderns  ? In  some  respects  they  may  be  so ; 
and  it  is  allowed  that  they  are  more  elegant : for  of  two  towns 
that  are  built  without  a plan,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine,  that 
the  one  may  be  more  convenient  and  more  beautiful  than  the 
other.  But  every  polite  tongue  has  its  own  rules ; and  the 
English  that  is  according  to  rule  is  not  less  regular  than  the 
Greek  that  is  according  to  rule ; and  a deviation  from  the 
established  use  of  the  language,  is  as  much  an  irregularity  in 
the  one  as  in  the  other : nor  are  the  modes  of  the  Greek 
tongue  more  uniform  in  Xenophen  and  Plato,  or  of  the  Latin 
in  Cicero  and  Caesar,  than  those  of  the  English  are  in  Addison 
and  Swift,  or  those  of  the  French  in  Rolin,  Vertot,  and  Fene- 
lon. 

But  why  should  the  Inflections  of  language  be  considered, 
as  a proof  of  refinement  and  art,  and  the  substitution  of  auxil- 
iary words,  as  the  work  of  chance  and  of  barbarism  ? Nay, 
what  evidence  can  be  brought  to  show,  that  the  Inflections  of 
the  Classic  tongues  were  not  origipally  formed  out  of  absolute 
auxiliary  words  prefixed  or  subjoined  to  nouns  and  verbs,  or 
otherwise  incorporated  with  their  radical  letters  ? some  learned 
men  are  of  opinion,^  that  this  was  actually  the  case.  And  though 
the  matter  does  not  now  admit  of  a direct  proof,  the  analogy  of 
other  languages,  ancient  as  well  as  modern,  gives  plausibility  to 
the  conjecture. 

The  inflections^  of  Hebrew  nouns  and  verbs  may,  upon  this 
principle,  be  accounted  for.  ^The  cases  of  the  former,  are 
marked  by  a change  made  in  the  beginning*  of  the  word ; and 
this  change  is  nothing  more  than  a contracted  preposition 
prefixed,  answering  to  the  English  of,  to,  from  ; as  if  instead 
of  animal,  of  animal,  to  animal,  from  animal,  we  were  to  pro- 
nounce and  write  animal,  f animal,  tanimal,  franimal : which, 
if  we  were  accustomed  to  speak  so,  would  be  as  intelligible 
to  us,  as  animal,  animalis,  animali,  were  to  the  Romans. — 
Of  the  Hebrew  verb,  in  like  manner,  the  persons  are  marked 
by  contracted  pronouns  subjoined  or  prefixed  to  the  radical 
letters.  Thus,  masar,  he  delivered  ; masartha,  thou  deliveredst, 
from  masar,  the  root,  and  atha,  thou  ; masartlii,  I delivered, 
from  masar,  and  aothi,  me,  &c.  And  in  Erse,  a very  ancient 
species  of  Celtic,  most  of  the  inflections  of  the  nouns  and 
verbs  may,  if  I am  not  misinformed,  be  analysed  in  a way 
somewhat  similar. 

If  the  English  and  other  modern  tongues,  had  been  spoken 
for  ages  before  they  were  written,  (which  we  have  reason  to 
think  was  the  case  with  the  Greek  and  Latin,)  it  is  probable 


ETYMOLOGY. 


113 


many  of  our  auxiliaries  would  have  been  shortened  and  soften- 
ed ; and  at  length  incorporated  with  the  radical  words,  so  as  to 
assume  the  form  of  initial  or  final  inflections.  For  it  is  while 
they  are  only  spoken,  and  not  written,  that  languages  are  most 
liable  to  alterations  of  this  kind  ; as  they  become,  in  some  de- 
gree, stationary  from  the  time  they  begin  to  be  visited  in 
writing.  But  we  know  that  writing  was  practised  in  many,  and 
perhaps  in  most  European  nations,  previously  to  the  very  ex- 
istence of  the  modern  languages:  from  which  we  may  infer, 
that  attempts  would  be  made  to  write  those  laiiguages  almost 
as  soon  as  to  speak  them.  And  if  thus  our  auxiliary  words 
were  kept  distinct  in  the  begining,  and  marked  as  such  by  our 
first  writers,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  should  have  remained 
distinct  ever  since. 

Had  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  been  ascertained  by 
writing,  at  as  early  a period  of  their  existence,  their  fate  would 
perhaps  have  been  similar ; and  their  inflections  might  now, 
like  those  of  the  Hebrew,  have  been  easily  analysed ; and 
found  to  be  auxiliary  words  shortened  and  softened  by  collo- 
quial use,  and  gradually  incorporated  with  the  radical  part  of 
the  original  nouns  and  verbs.  But  it  was  the  misfortune  of 
the  modern  languages,  (if  it  can  be  called  a misfortune,)  that 
their  form  was,  in  some  measure,  fixed  before  it  became  so 
complete  as  it  might  have  been  ; that  without  passing  through 
the  intermediate  stages  of  childhood  and  youth,  they  rose  at 
once  (if  I may  so  speak)  from  infancy  to  premature  manhood  : 
and  in  regard  to  the  classic  tongues,  it  was  a fortunate  circum- 
stance that  their  growth  advanced  more  gradually,  and  that 
their  form  was  not  established  by  writing,  till  after  it  had  been 
variously  rounded  and  moulded  by  the  casual  prounciation  of 
successive  ages.  Hence  if  there  be  any  truth  in  these  con- 
jectures, (for  tliey  lay  claim  to  no  higher  character,)  it  will  fol- 
low that  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  are  for  this  reason  pecu- 
liarly elegant,  because  they  who  first  spoke  them  Were  long  in 
a savage  state  ; and  that  the  modern  languages  are  for  this 
reason  less  elegant,  because  the  nations  among  whom  they 
took  their  rise  were  not  savage.  This  looks  very  like  a para- 
dox. And  yet,  it  is  not  more  probable  than  any  thing  which 
can  be  advanced  in  favour  of  that  contrary  supposition,  adopt- 
ed by  some  learned  men,  that  the  Classsic  tongues  were  planned 
by  philosophers,  and  the  modern  languages  jumbled  rudely  into 
form  by  barbarians  ? 

The  preceding  theory  of  Dr.  Beattie,  though  modestly  ofi 
fered  by  him  as  conjecture  only,  appears  to  be  well  founded, 
and  entitled  to  considerable  respect  and  attention.  It  is  a cu- 
rious discussion  ; and  well  adapted  to  lead  the  student  to  crit- 

VoL.  I.  17 


114 


ETYMOLOGY. 


ical  reflections,  and  to  further  inquiries  respecting  the  nature 
and  origin  of  the  Inflections  of  language. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


OF  ADVERBS, 

An  Adverb  is  a part  of  speech  joined  to  a verb, 
an  adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another  adverb,  to 
express  some  quality  or  circumstance  respecting  it: 
as,  He  reads  ivell  ‘‘A  truly  good  man:” 
writes  very  correctly 

Some  adverbs  are  compared  thus : Soon,  sooner, 
soonest ; ” often,  oftener,  oftenest Those  ending 
in  /y,  are  compared  by  more  and  77105/:  as,  Wisely, 
more  wisely,  most  wisely.” 

Adverbs  seem  originally  to  have  been  contrived  to  express 
compendiously  in  one  word,  what  must  otherwise  have  required 
two  or  more  : as,  “ He  acted  wisely,  for,  he  acted  with  wis- 
dom : “prudently”  for,  with  prudence;  “He  did  it  here,” 
for  he  did  it  in  this  place  ; “exceedingly,”  for,  to  a great  de- 
gree; “often  and  seldom,”  for  many,  and  for  few  times; 
“very,”  for,  in  an  eminent  degree,  &c. — Phrases  which  do 
the  office  of  adverbs  may  properly  be  termed  adverbial  phra- 
ses, as,  “ He  acted  in  the  best  manner  possible.”  Here,  the 
words  in  the  best  manner  possible^  as  they  qualify  the  verb  acted^ 
may  be  called  an  adverbial  phrase. 

There  are  many  words  in  the  English  language,  that  are 
sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  and  sometimes  as  adverbs  : as, 
“ More  men  than  women  were  there  ; ” or,  “ I am  more  dili- 
gent than  he.”  In  the  former  sentence  more  is  evidently  an 
adjective,  and  in  the  latter,  an  adverb.  There  are  others  that 
are  sometimes  used  as  substantives,  and  sometimes  as  adverbs ; 
as,  “ To-day’s  lesson  is  longer  than  yesterday’s;”  here  to-day 
and  yesterday  are  substantives,  because  they  are  words  that 
make  sense  of  themselves,  and  admit  besides  of  a genitive  case : 
but  in  the  phrase,  “ He  came  home  yesterday,  and  sets  out 
again  to  -day,  ” they  are  adverbs  of  time  ; because  they  answer 
to  the  question  when.  The  adverb  much  is  used  as  all  three  : 
as,  “ Where  much  is  given,  much  is  required ; ” “ Much  money 


ETYMOLOGY. 


115 


has  been  expended  ‘‘  It  is  much  better  to  go  than  to  stay/^ 
In  the  first  of  these  sentences,  much  is  a substantive  ; in  the 
second,  it  is  an  adjective  ; and  in  the  third  an  adverb.  In  short, 
nothing  but  the  sense  can  determine  what  they  are. 

Adverbs,  though  very  numerous,  may  be  reduced  to  certain 
classes,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  Number,  Order,  Place, 
Time,  Quantity,  Manner  or  Quality,  Doubt,  Affirmation,  Nega- 
tion, Interrogation,  and  Comparison. 

1.  Of  number  : as,  “ Once,  twice,  thrice,”  &c. 

2.  Oi  order : as,  “First,  secondly, ’thirdly,  fourthly,  fifthly, 
lastly,  finally,  &c. 

3.  Oi place:  as,  “ Here,  there,  where,  elsewhere,  anywhere, 
somevv^here,  nowhere,  herein,  whither,  hither,  thither,  upward, 
downward,  forward,  backward,  whence,  hence,  thence,  whith- 
ersoever,” &c. 

4.  Oi  time. 

Of  time  present : as,  “ Now,  to-day,”  &c. 

Of  time  past : as,  “ Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday,  here- 
tofore, hitherto,  long  since,  long  ago,  &c. 

Of  time  to  come : as,  “ To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter,  hence- 
forth, henceforward,  by  and  by,  instantly,  presently,  imme- 
diately, straightways,  &c. 

Of  time  indefinite:  as,  “Oft,  often,  oft-times,  often-times, 
sometimes,  soon,  seldom,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly,  alw'ays, 
when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,”  &c. 

Of  quantity : as,  “ Much,  little,  sufficiently,  how  much,  how 
great,  enough,  abundantly,”  &c. 

6.  Oi  manner  or  quality : “Wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  un- 

justly, quickly,  slowly,”  &c.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  the  most 
numerous  kind  ; and  they  are  generally  formed  by  adding  the 
termination  ly  to  an  adjective  or  participle,  or  changing  le  into 
ly : as,  “Bad,  badly;  cheerful,  cheerfully;  able,  ably;  admi- 
rable, admirably.” 

7.  Of  doubt : as,  “ Perhaps,  peradventure,  possibly,  per- 
chance.” 

8.  Of  affirmation  : as,  “ Verily,  trul}^  undojibtedly,  doubtless, 
certainly,  yea,  yes,  surely,  indeed,  really,”  &;c. 

9.  Of  negation : as,  “ Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not  at  all, 
in  no  wise,”  &c. 

10.  Of  interrogation  : as,  “ How,  why,  wherefore,  whether,” 
&c. 

11.  Of  comparison:  as,  “More,  most,  better,  best,  worse, 
worst,  less,  least,  very,  almost,  little,  alike,”  &c. 

Besides  the  adverbs  already  mentioned,  there  are  many 
which  are  formed  by  a combination  of  several  of  the  prepo- 
sitions with  the  adverbs  of  place  here  there  and  where : as, 


116 


ETYMOLOGY. 


“ Hereof,  thereof,  whereof;  hereto,  thereto,  whereto ; hereby^ 
thereby,  whereby;  herewith,  therewith,  wherewith;  herein^ 
therein,  wherein;  therefore,  (i.  e.  there-for,)  wherefore,  (i.  e. 
where-for,)  hereupon,  or  hereon,  thereupon,  or  thereon,  where- 
upon, or  whereon,”  &c.  Except  therefore^  these  are  seldom 
used. 

In  some  instances  the  preposition  suffers  no  change,  but 
becomes  an  adverb  merely  by  its  application : as  when  we  say, 
he  rides  about “ he  was  near  falling ;”  “ but  do  not  after 
lay  the  blame  on  me.” 

There  are  also  some  adverbs,  which  are  composed  of  nouns, 
and  the  letter  a u?ed  instead  of  at^  on,  &c. : as,  “ Aside,  athirst, 
afoot,  ahead,  asleep,  aboard,  ashore,  abed,  aground,  afloat,”  &c. 

The  words  when  and  where,  and  all  others  of  the  same  na- 
ture, such  as,  whence,  whither,  ivhenever,  wherever,  &c.  may  be 
properly  called  adverbial  conjunctions,  because  they  participate 
the  nature  both  of  adverbs  and  conjunctions  : of  conjunctions, 
as  they  conjoin  sentences  ; of  adverbs,  as  they  denote  the  attri- 
butes either  of  time  or  of  place. 

It  may  be  particularly  observed,  with  respect  to  the  word 
therefore,  that  it  is  an  adverb  when,  without  joining  sentences, 
it  only  gives  the  sense  of,  for  that  reason.  When  it  gives  that 
sense,  and  also  connects,  it  is  a conjunction : as,  “ He  is  good, 
therefore  he  is  happy.”  The  same  observation  may  be  extended 
to  the  words  consequently,  accordingly,  and  the  like.  When 
these  are  subjoined  to  and,  or  joined  to  if,  since,  &c.  they  are 
adverbs,  the  connexion  being  made  without  their  help : when 
they  appear  single  and  unsupported  by  any  other  connective, 
they  may  be  called  conjunctions. 

The  inquisitive  scholar  may  naturally  ask,  what  necessity 
there  is  for  adverbs  of  time,  when  verbs  are  provided  with  tenses 
to  show  that  circumstance.  The  answer  is,  though  tenses  may 
be  sufficient  to  denote  the  greater  distinctions  of  time,  yet  to 
denote  them  all  by  the  tenses  would  be  a perplexity  without 
end.  What  a variety  of  forms  must  be  given  to  the  verb,  to 
denote  yesterday,  to-day,  to-morrow,  formerly,  latelely,  just  now, 
now,  immediately,  presently,  soon,  hereafter,  &c.  It  was  this 
consideration  that  made  the  adverbs  of  time  necessary,  over 
and  above  the  tenses. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


117 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one 
another,  and  to  show  the  relation  between  them. 
They  are  for  the  most  part,  put  before  nouns  and 
pronouns:  as  “He  went  from  London  to  York;” 
“ She  is  above  disguise “ They  are  instructed  by 
him.” 


The  following  is  a list  of  the  principal  prepositions  : 


Of 

into 

above 

at 

off 

to 

within 

below 

near 

on  or  upon 

for 

without 

between 

up 

among 

by 

over 

beneath 

down 

after 

with 

under 

from 

before 

about 

in 

through 

beyond 

behind 

against. 

Verbs  are  often  compounded  of  a verb  and  preposition  : 
as,  to  uphold,  to  invest,  to  overlook  ; and  this  composition 
sometimes  gives  a new  sense  to  the  verb ; as,  to  understand, 
to  withdraw,  to  forgive.  But  in  English,  the  preposition  is 
more  frequently  placed  after  the  verb  ; and  separately  from  it, 
like  an  adverb  ; in  which  situation  it  is  not  less  apt  to  afl’ect 
the  sense  of  it,  and  to  give  it  a new  meaning ; and  may  still 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  verb,  and  as  a part  of  it. 
As,  to  cast,  is  to  throw ; but  to  cast  up,  or  to  compute  an  ac- 
count, is  quite  a different  thing : thus,  to  fall  on,  to  bear  out, 
to  give  over,  &c.  So  that  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  and  the 
propriety  of  the  phrase,  depend  on  the  preposition  subjoined. 
As  the  distinct  component  parts  of  these  words  are,  how- 
ever, no  guide  to  the  sense  of  the  whole,  this  circumstance 
contributes  greatly  towards  making  our  language  peculiarly 
difficult  to  foreigners. 

In  the  composition  of  many  words,  there  are  certain  sylla- 
bles employed,  which  grammarians  have  called  inseparable 
prepositions : as,  he,  con,  mis,  &c.  in  bedeck,  conjoin,  mistake  ; 
but  as  they  are  not  words  of  any  kind,  they  cannot  properly  be 
called  a species  of  preposition. 

One  great  use  of  prepositions  in  English,  is  to  express 
those  relatives,  which,  in  some  languages,  are  chiefly  marked 
by  cases  or  the  different  endings  of  nouns.  See  page  44. 
The  necessity  and  use  of  them  will  appear  from  the  following 
examples.  If  tvo  say  “he  writes  a pen,”  “they  ran  the 


118 


ETYMOLOGY. 


river,”  “the  tower  fell  the  Greeks,”  “Lambeth  is  Westmin- 
ster-abbey,”  there  is  observable  in  each  of  these  expressions, 
either  a total  want  of  connexion,  or  such  a connexion  as  pro- 
duces falsehood  or  nonsense  : and  it  is  evident,  that,  before 
they  can  be  turned  into  sense,  the  vacancy  must  be  filled  up 
by  some  connecting  word  : as  thus,  “ He  writes  with  a pen 
“ they  ran  towards  the  river “ the  tower  fell  upon  the 
Greeks  “ Lambeth  is  over  against  Westminster-abbey.” 
We  see  by  these  instances,  how  prepositions  may  be  necessary 
to  connect  those  wx)rds,  which  in  their  signification  are  not 
naturally  connected. 

Prepositions,  in  their  original  and  literal  acceptation,  seem 
to  have  denoted  relations  of  place  ; but  they  are  now  used 
figuratively  to  express  other  relations.  For  example,  as  they 
who  are  above  have,  in  several  respects,  the  advantage  of  such 
as  are  heloiv,  prepositions  expressing  high  and  low  places,  are 
used  for  superiority  and  inferiority  in  general : as,  “ He  is 
above  disguise w^e  serve  under  a good  master :”  “ he  rules 
over  a willing  people:”  “we  should  do  nothing  beneath  our 
character.” 

The  importance  of  the  prepositions  will  be  further  perceived 
by  the  explanation  of  a few  of  them. 

Of  denotes  possession  or  belonging,  an  effect  or  consequence, 
and  other  relations  connected  with  these : as,  “ The  house  of 
my  friend  ;”  that  is,  “ the  house  belonging  to  my  friend  “ He 
died  of  a fever  that  is,  “ in  consequence  of  a fever.” 

To  or  unto  is  opposed  to  from  : as,  “ He  rode  from  Salis- 
bury to  Winchester.” 

For  indicates  the  cause  or  motive  of  any  action  or  circum- 
stance, &c.:  as,  “He  loves  hcr/or  (that  is  on  account  of)  her 
amiable  qualities.” 

By  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  the  cause,  agent, 
means,  &c. : as,  “ He  was  killed  by  a fall  ;”  that  is,  “ a fall  was 
the  cause  of  his  being  killed  ;”  “ This  house  was  built  by  him 
that  is,  “ he  was  the  builder  of  it.” 

With  denotes  the  act  of  accompanying,  uniting,  &:c. : as, 
“ We  will  go  with  you  ;”  “They  are  on  good  term.s  with  each 
other.” — With  also  alludes  to  the  instrument  or  means : as, 
“ He  was  cut  with  a knife.” 

In  relates  to  time,  place,  the  state  or  manner  of  being  or  act- 
ing, &c. : as,  “He  was  born  in  (that  is  during)  the  year  1720 ;” 
“He  dwells  in  the  city;”  “She  lives  in  affluence.” 

Into  is  used  after  verbs  that  imply  motion  of  any  kind  ; as, 
“He  retired  into  the  country;”  “Copper  is  converted  into 
brass.” 

Within  relates  to  something  comprehended  in  any  place  or 


ETYMOLOGY. 


119 


time:  as,  “They  are  within  the  house;’*  “He  began  and 
finished  his  work  within  the  limited  time.” 

The  signification  of  without  is  opposite  to  that  of  within : as^ 
“ She  stands  without  the  gate  But  it  is  more  frequently  op- 
posite to  with  : as,  “You  may  go  without  me.” 

The  import  and  force  of  the  remaining  prepositions  will  be 
readily  understood,  without  a particular  detail  of  them.  We 
shall  therefore  conclude  this  head  with  observing,  that  there  is  a 
peculiar  propriety  in  distinguishing  the  use  of  the  prepositions 
by  and  with ; which  is  observable  in  sentences  like  the  following  r 
“ He  walks  with  a staff  hy  moonlight ;”  “ He  was  taken  hyi 

stratagem,  and  killed  with  a^sword.”  Put  the  one  proposition  for 
the  other,  and  say,  “ He  walks  hy  a staff  with  moonlight ;”  “ he 
was  taken  with  stratagem,  and  killed  hy  a sword  and  it  will 
appear,  that  they  differ  in  signification  more  than  one,  at  first 
view,  would  be  apt  to  imagine. 

Some  of  the  prepositions  have  the  appearance  and  effect  of 
conjunctions  : as,  “ After  their  prisons  were  thrown  open,”  &c. 
“ Before  I die  f “ They  made  haste  to  be  prepared  against  their 
friends  arrived ;”  but  if  the  noun  time,  which  is  understood  be 
added,  they  will  lose  their  conjunctive  form:  as,  “After,  [the 
time  when]  their  prisons,”  &c. 

The  prepositions  after,  before,  above,  beneath,  and  several 
others,  sometimes  appear  to  be  adverbs,  and  may  be  so  con- 
sidered: as,  “They  had  their  reward  soon  after  f “He  died 
not  long  before ;”  “ He  dwells  above but  if  the  nouns  time 

place  be  added,  they  will  lose  their  adverbial  form:  as, 
“He  died  not  \ougbefore  that  time,'’  &c. 

Prepositions,  as  well  as  some  other  species  of  words,  have  a 
variety  of  significations.  It  will  both  gratify  and  instruct  the 
inquisitive  learner,  to  examine  some  of  the  various  meanings 
which  are  attached  to  the  preposition  for.  He  will  find,  that 
each  of  the  phrases  denoting  these  meanings,  may,  with  pro- 
priety, be  substituted  for  the  preposition. 


1.  It  signifies,  because  of:  as,  “ Let  me  sing  praises  for  his 
mercies  and  blessings. 

2.  With  regard  to,  with  respect  to : as.  For  me,  no  other  happi- 
ness I own.” 

3.  In  the  character  of:  as,  “Let  her  go  for  an  ungrateful 
woman.” 

4.  By  means  of ; by  interposition  of : as,  “ If  it  were  not  for 
Divine  Providence,  the  world  would  be  a scene  of  con- 
fusion.” 

5.  For  the  sake  of : as,  “ He  died  for  those  who  knew  him  not.” 

9.  Conducive  to:  as  “ It  is  for  the  general  good.” 


120 


ETYMOLOGY. 


7.  Wish  intention  of  going  to  a certain  place : as,  ‘‘  We  sailed 
from  Peru  for  China  ” 

8.  In  expectation  o/*:  as,  ‘^He  waited  long  for  the  return  of 
his  friend.” 

9.  Instead  of : as,  “ We  take  a falling  meteor  ybr  a star.” 

10.  In  search  of:  as,  “ He  went  far  back  for  arguments.” 

11.  In  favour  of : as,  “One  party  was  forihe  king,  the  other 
for  the  people.” 

12.  Becoming:  as,  “It  were  more /or  his  honour  to  submit  on 
this  occasion.^^ 

13.  Notwithstanding:  as,  ^^For  any  thing  we  know  to  the  con- 
trary, the  design  may  be  accomplished.” 

14.  To  preserve:  as,  “I  cannot  for  my  life  comply  with  the 
proposal.” 

15.  In  proportion  to:  as,  “ He  is  not  very  tallj^  yet/or  his  years 
he  is  tall.” 

16.  For  the  purpose  of : as,  “It  was  constructed /or  sailing  in 
rough  weather.” 

17.  To  be : as,  “ No  one  ever  took  him  for  a very  prudent 
man.” 

18.  In  illustration  of:  as,  “Thus  much /or  the  first  point  under 
consideration.” 

19.  In  exchange  for : as,  “ They  received  gold  for  their  glass 
beads.” 

20.  During:  as,  “ He  was  elected  to  the  office /or  his  life.” 

21.  In  recompense  of:  as,  “ For  his  great  and  numerous  services, 
they  voted  him  a statue.” 

22.  After  O,  it  denotes  an  expression  of  desire:  as,  “O, /or 
better  times  :”  “0,/or  a place  of  rest  and  peace. 

Before  the  conclusion  of  this  chapter,  we  shall  present  the 
reader  with  a list  of  Prepositions,  v/hich  are  derived  from  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages  and  which  enter  into  the  composition 
of  a great  number  of  our  words.  If  their  signification  should 
be  carefully  studied  by  the  learner,  he  will  be  the  better  qualified 
to  understand,  with  accuracy,  the  meaning  of  a numerous  class 
of  words,  in  which  they  form  a material  part. 


The  Latin  prepositions  used  in  the  composition  of  English 

words,  are  the  following : a,  abs,  ad^  ante,  &c. 

A,  AB,  ABs, — signify /rom  or  away : as,  to  avert,  to  turn  from  ; to 
abstract,  to  draw  away. 

AD — signifies  to  or  at : as,  to  adhere,  to  stick  to ; to  admire  to 
wonder  at. 

ANTE — means  before : as,  antecedent,  going  before  : to  antedate, 
to  date  before. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


121 


ciRCUM — means  round,  about;  as  to  circumnavigate,  to  sail 
round. 

CON,  COM,  CO,  COL — signify  together ; as,  to  conjoin,  to  join  to- 
gether ; to  compress,  to  press  together ; to  co-operate,  to 
work  together  ; to  collapse,  to  fall  together. 

against : as,  to  contradict,  to  speak  against. 

DE — signifies down  ; as,  to  depart,  to  retire  from  ; to  de- 
ject, to  cast  down, 

m — asunder ; as,  dilaccrate,  to  tear  asunder. 

BIS — reverses  the  meaning  of  the  word  to  which  it  is  prefixed 
as,  to  disagree,  to  dispossess. 

E,  EX — out : as,  to  eject,  to  throw  out ; to  exclude,  to  shut  out. 

EXTRA — beyond : as,  extraordinary,  beyond  the  ordinary 
course. 

IM — before  an  adjective,  like  un,  signifies  privation  : as,  inde- 
cent, not  decent  ; before  a verb  it  has  its  simple  meaning  ; 
as,  to  infuse,  to  pour  in  ; to  infix,  to  fix  in. 

-INTER — between  : as,  to  intervene,  to  come  between  ; to  inter- 
pose, to  put  between. 

INTRO — into,  inwards  : as,  to  introduce,  to  lead  into  : to  intro- 
vert, to  turn  inwards. 

OB — denotes  opposition  : as,  to  object,  to  oppose  ; to  obstruct, 
to  block  up  ; obstacle,  something  standing  in  opposition. 

PER — through  : as,  to  perambulate,  to  walk  through  : to  perfo- 
rate, to  bore  through. 

POST — after : as  post  meridian,  afternoon  ; Postcript,  written 
after,  that  is,  after  the  letter. 

FRJE — bef  ore : as,  to  pre-exist,  to  exist  before  ; to  prefix,  to  fix 
before. 

FRO— for^th,  or  forwards:  as,  to  pretend,  to  stretch  forth;  to 
project,  to  shoot  forwards. 

PRiETER — past,  or  beyond:  as,  preterperfect,  pastperfect  ; pre- 
ternatural, beyond  the  course  of  nature. 

RE — again,  or  back : as,  to  reprint,  to  print  again  ; to  retrace, 
to  trace  back. 

RETRO — backwards  : as,  retrospective,  looking  backwards  ; retro- 
grade, going  backwards. 

SE — aside,  apart : as,  to  seduce,  to  draw  aside  ; to  secrete,  to 
put  aside. 

SUB — under : as,  subterranean,  lying  under  the  earth  ; to  sub- 
scribe, to  subsign,  to  write  under. 

VoL.  I.  18 


122 


ETYBIOLOGY. 


suBTER — under : as  subterfluous,  flowing  under. 

SUPER — above,  or  over : as,  superscribe,  to  write  above  ; to 
supervise,  to  overlook. 

TRANS — over,  beyond,  from  one  place  to  another:  as,  to  trans- 
port,  to  carry  over:  to  transgress,  to  pass  beyond  ; to 
transplant,  to  remove  from  one  soil  to  another. 

The  Greek  prepositions  and  particles  used  in  the  composition 

of  English  words,  are  the  following  : a,  amphi,  anti,  hyper^ 

&c. 

A — signifies  privation  : as,  anonymous,  without  name. 

AMPHI — both,  or  the  two  : as,  amphibious,  partaking  of  both,  or 
of  two  natures. 

ANTI — against : as,  antimonarchial,  against  government  by  a 
single  person  ; antiministerial,  against  the  ministry. 

HYPER — over  and  above  : as,  hypercritical,  over,  or  too  critical. 

HYPO — under,  implying  concealment,  or  disguise  : as,  hypocrite, 
one  disembling  his  real  character. 

META — denotes  change  or  transmutation : as,  to  metamorphose, 
to  change  the  shape. 

PERI — round  about : as,  periphrasis,  circumlocution. 

SYN,  SYM.^together  : as,  synod,  a meeting  or  coming  together : 
sympathy,  fellow-feeling,  feeling  together. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


123 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

A CONJUNCTION  is  a part  of  speech  that  is  chiefly 
used  to  connect  sentences  ; so  as,  out  of  two  or  more 
sentences,  to  make  but  one.  It  sometimes  connects 
only  words. 

Conjunctions  are  principally  divided  into  two  sorts, 
the  COPULATIVE  and  the  disjunctive. 

The  Conjunctive  Copulative  serves  to  connect  or 
to  continue  a sentence,  by  expressing  an  addition,  a 
supposition,  a cause,  &c. : as,  “Hcawi/  his  brother 
reside  in  London  “ I will  go  if  he  will  accompany 
me;”  “ You  are  happy,  because  you  are  good.” 

The  Conjunction  Disjunctive  serves,  not  only  to 
connect  and  continue  the  sentence,  but  also  to 
express  opposition  of  rpeaning  in  different  degrees: 
as,  “ Though  he  was  frequently  reproved,  yet  he  did 
not  reform;”  “ They  came  with  her,  6^/  they  went 
away  without  her.”  , 

The  foUowing  is  a list  of  the  principal  conjunctions. 

The  Copulative,  And,  if,  that,  both,  then,  since,  for,  because, 
therefore,  wherefore. 

The  Disjunctive,  But,  or,  nor,  than,  lest,  though,  unless, 
either,  neither,  yet,  notwithstanding. 

The  same  w^ord  is  occasionally  used  both  as  a conjunction 
and  as  an  adverb ; and  sometimes  as  a preposition.  ‘‘  I rest 
then  upon  this  argument then  is  here  a conjunction  : in  the 
following  phrase  it  is  an  adverb : “ He  arrived  then  and  not  be- 
fore.” “I  submitted  ; for  it  was  in  vain  to  resist in  this  sen- 
tence,/br  is  a conjunction : in  the  next  it  is  a preposition  : “ He 
contended  for  victory  only.”  In  the  first  of  the  following  sen- 
tences since  is  a conjunction ; in  the  second  it  is  a preposition  ; 
and  in  the  third,  an  adverb : ^‘Since  we  must  part,  let  us  do  it 
peaceably ‘‘  I have  not  seen  him  since  that  time Our 
friendship  commenced  long  since^ 


124 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Relative  pronouns,  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  to  con- 
nect sentences ; as,  Blessed  is  tlie  man  who  feareth  the  Lord, 
and  keepeth  his  commandments.’’ 

A relative  pronoun  possesses  the  force  both  of  a pronoun 
and  a connective.  Nay,  the  union  by  relatives  is  rather  closer 
than  that  by  mere  conjunctions.  The  latter  may  form  two  or 
more  sentences  into  one  ; but,  by  the  former,  several  sentences 
may  incorporate  in  one  and  the  same  clause  of  a sentence. 
Thus,  “ thou  seest  a man,  and  he  is  called  Peter,”  is,  a sentence 
consisting  of  two  distinct  clauses,  united  by  the  copulative  and : 
but,  the  man  whom  thou  seest  is  called  Peter,*’  is  a sentence 
of  one  clause,  and  not  less  comprehensive  than  the  other, 

Conjunctions  very  often  unite  sentences,  when  they  appear 
to  unite  only  words ; as  in  the  following  instances : “ Duty 
and  interest  forbid  vicious  indulgences;”-  ^‘Wisdom  or  folly 
governs  us.”  Each  of  these  forms  of  expression  contains  two 
sentences,  namely  ; ‘‘  Duty  forbids  vicious  indulgences ; inte- 
rest forbids  vicious  indulgences  “ Wisdom  governs  us,  or  folly 
governs  us.” 

Though  the  conjunction  is  commonly  used  to  connect  senten- 
ces together,  yet,  on  some  occasions,  it  merely  connects  words, 
not  sentences:  as,  “The  king  and  queen  are  an  amiable  pair;” 
where  the  aflirmation  cannot  refer  to  each  : it  being  absurd  to 
say,  that  the  king  or  the  queen  only^  is  an  amiable  pair.  So  in 
the  instances,  “two  and  two  are  four;”  “the  fifth  and  sixth 
volumes  will  complete  the  set  of  books.”  Prepositions  also,  as 
before  observed,  connect  words;  but  they  do  it  to  show  the 
relation  which  the  connected  words  have  to  each  other ; con- 
junctions when  they  unite  words  only,  are  designed  to  show  the 
relations,  which  those  words,  so  united,  have  to  other  parts  of 
the  sentence. 

As  there  are  many  conjunctions  and  connective  phrases  ap- 
propriated to  the  coupling  of  sentences,  that  are  never  employed 
in  joining  the  members  of  a sentence,  so  there  are  several  con- 
junctions appropriated  to  the  latter  use,  which  are  never  em- 
ployed in  the  former;  and  some  that  are  equally  adapted  to 
both  those  purposes : as,  again,  f urther,  besides,  &c.  of  the  first 
kind  ; than,  lest,  unless,  that,  so  that,  &c.  of  the  second  ; and  hut, 
and,  for,  therefore,  &c.  of  the  last. 

We  shair  close  this  chapter  with  a few  observations  on  the 
peculiar  use  and  advantage  of  the  conjunction  ; a subject  which 
will  doubtless,  give  pleasure  to  the  ingenious  student,  and  expand 
his  view  of  the  importance  of  his  grammatical  studies.  The 
observations  are  taken  from  Dr.  Beattie. 

Conjunctions  are  those  parts  of  language,  which  by  joining 
sentences  in  various  ways,  mark  the  connexions,  and  various 


ETYMOLOGY. 


125 


dependences,  of  human  thought.  And  therefore,  if  our  thoughts 
be  really  connected  and  mutually  dependent,  it  is  most  likely, 
(as  every  man  in  speaking  and  writing  wishes  to  do  justice  to 
his  ideas,)  that  conjunctions  will  be  employed,  to  make  that 
connexion,  and  those  dependences,  obvious  to  ourselves,  and 
to  others.  And  where  there  is,  in  any  discourse,  a remarkable 
deficiency  of  connecting  particles,  it  may  be  presumed,  either 
that  there  is  a want  of  connexion,  or  that  sufficient  pains  have 
not  been  taken  to  explain  it. 

The  style  of  the  best  authors  of  Greece  and  Rome  abounds 
in  conjunctions,  and  other  connecting  words.  Take  any  page 
in  Cicero,  especially  where  he  speaks  in  his  own  person,  and 
in  the  way  of  investigation,  as  in  his  books  of  Moral  Duties  ; 
and  you  shall  hardly  see  a sentence  that  has  not,  in  or  near  the 
beginning,  a hiiU  besides,  for,  however,  therefore,  or  some  other 
connective ; by  which  we  may  instantly  discover  the  relation, 
which  the  present  sentence  bears  to  what  went  before  ; as  an 
inference,  an  objection,  an  illustration,  a continuation,  a con- 
cession, a condition,  or  simply  as  one  sentiment  subjoined  to 
another  by  a copulative.  The  style  of  Seneca,  on  the  other 
hand,  and  that  of  Tacitus,  are  in  this  respect  deficient.  Their 
sentences  are  short,  and  their  connectives  few  ; so  that  the 
mutual  dependence  of  their  thoughts  is  rather  left  to  the  con- 
jecture of  the  reader,  than  expressed  by  the  author.  And 
hence  we  are  told  it  was,  that  the  emperor  Caligula  remarked, 
(though  we  can  hardly  suppose  Caligula  to  have  been  capable 
of  saying  so  good  a thing,)  that  the  style  of  Seneca  was,  sand 
without  lime  ; meaning,  that  matter  or  sense  was  not  wanting, 
but  that  there  was  nothing  to  cement  that  matter  into  one  uni- 
form and  solid  mass. 

This  uncemented  composition  has  of  late  becoine  fashiona- 
ble among  the  French  and  their  imitators.  One  of  the  first 
who  introduced  it  was  Montesquieu,  an  author  of  great  learn- 
ing and  extraordinary  penetration  ; who,  as  he  resembled  Ta- 
citus in  genius,  seems  to  have  admired  his  manner  and  copied 
his  style.  Like  him,  and  like  Florus,  of  whom  also  he  was  an 
admirer,  he  affects  short  sentences,  in  the  way  of  aphorism  ; 
full  of  meaning  indeed,  but  so  concise  in  the  expression  as  to 
be  frequently  ambiguous ; and  so  far  from  having  a regular 
connexion,  that  their  place  might  often  be  changed  without  in- 
convenience. This,  in  philosophical  writing,  has  a disagreeable 
effect,  both  upon  the  memory,  and  upon  the  understanding  of 
the  reader. 

First,  upon  his  memory.  Nothing  tends  more  to  impress 
the  mind  with  a distinct  idea  of  a complex  object,  than  a strict 
and  natural  connexion  of  the  parts.  And  therefore,  when  a 
discourse  is  not  well  connected,  the  sentiments,  however  just, 


126 


ETYMOLOGY. 


are  easily  forgotten ; or,  if  a few  be  remembered,  yet  their 
general  scope  and  tendency,  having  never  been  clearly  appre- 
hended, is  not  remembered  at  all. 

Secondly,  upon  his  understanding.  To  read  a number  of 
detached  thoughts,  although  it  may  amuse  the  fancy,  does  not 
Sufficiently  exercise  the  rational  faculties.  Of  sucir  thoughts, 
that  only  which  is  present  is  attended  to;  and  if  we  under- 
stand it,  we  do  all  that  is  required  of  us.  But  when  we  pe- 
Tuse  a regular  investigation,  wherein  many  sentiments  are  em- 
ployed to  illustrate  or  evince  One  leading  point  of  doctrine,  we 
must  attend,  both  to  the  present  thought  and  to  that  which 
went  before,  that  we  may  perceive  the  connexion  ; we  must 
also  compare  the  several  ideas  together,  in  order  to  discern 
their  agreement  or  disagreement,  as  well  as  the  influence  of  all 
the  premises  in  establishing  the  conclusion.  This  is  a most 
wholesome  intellectual  exercise.  It  puts  all  our  rational  pow- 
ers in  motion,  and  inures  us  to  a methodical  way  of  thinking 
and  speaking : and  so  quickens  attention,  strengthens  memory, 
and  gives  direction  and  vigour  to  our  inventive  powers. 

As  the  fashionable  mode  of  unconnected  composition  is  less 
improving  to  the  mind  of  the  reader,  so  it  promotes  a habit  of 
inaccuracy  and  negligence  in  a writer.  One  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  in  v/riting  is,  to  give  a right  arrangement  to  the  sev- 
eral thoughts  and  parts,  of  which  a discourse  is  made  up;  and 
that  arrangement  is  the  best,  in  which  the  several  parts  throw 
most  light  upon  one  another.  But  when  an  author  thinks 
himself  at  liberty  to  write  without  connexion,  he  is  at  little 
pains  to  arrange  his  ideas,  but  sets  them  down  just  as  they  oc- 
cur ; sometimes  taking  up  a subject  in  the  middle,  and  some- 
times at  the  end ; and  often  quilting  one  point  before  he  has 
discussed  it,  and  recurring  to  it  again  when  he  ought  to  be 
engaged  in  something  else.  In  a word,  he  is  apt  to  be  more 
intent  upon  the  brilliancy  of  particular  thoughts,  than  upon 
their  coherence : which  is  not  more  wise  in  an  author,  than  it 
would  be  in  an  architect  to  build  a house  rather  of  round, 
smooth,  and  shining  pebbles,  than  of  stones  of  more  homely 
appearance,  hewn  into  such  figures  as  would  make  them  easily 
and  firmly  incorporate. 

Relatives  are  not  so  useful  in  language  as  conjunctions. 
The  former  make  speech  more  concise  ; the  latter  make  it 
more  explicit.  Relatives  comprehend  the  meaning  of  a pro- 
noun, and  conjunction  copulative;  conjunctions  while  they 
couple  sentences,  may  also  express  opposition,  inference,  and 
many  other  relations  and  dependences. 

Till  men  began  to  think  in  a train,  and  to  carry  their  rea- 
sonings to  a considerable  length,  it  is  not  probable  that  they 


ETYMOLOGY. 


127 


would  make  much  use  of  conjunctions,  or  of  any  other  con- 
nectives. Ignorant  people,  and  children,  generally  speak  in 
short  and  separate  sentences.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  barba- 
rous nations  : and  hence  uncultivated  languages  are  not  well 
supplied  with  connecting  particles.  The  Greeks  were  the 
greatest  reasoners  that  ever  appeared  in  the  world  ; and  their 
language,  accordingly,  abounds  more  than  any  other  in  con- 
nectives. 

Conjunctions  are  not  equally  necessary  in  all  sorts  of  writing. 
In  poetry,  where  great  conciseness  of  phrase  is  required,  and 
every  appearance  of  formality  avoided,  many  of  them  would 
have  had  a bad  effect.  In  passionate  language  too,  it  may  be 
proper  to  omit  them  ; because  it  is  the  nature  of  violent  passion, 
to  speak  rather  in  disjointed  sentences,  than  in  the  way  of  in- 
ference and  argument.  Books  of  aphorisms,  like  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon,  have  fev/  connectives  ; because  they  instruct, 
not  by  reasoning,  but  in  detached  observations.  And  narrative 
will  sometimes  appear  very  graceful,  when  the  circumstances 
are  plainly  told,  with  scarcely  any  other  conjunction  than  the 
simple  copulative  and;  which  is  frequently  the  case  in  the 
historical  parts  of  Scripture. — When  narration  is  full  of  images 
or  events  the  omission  of  connectives  may,  by  crowding  the 
principal  words  upon  one  another,  give  a sort  of  picture  of 
hurry  and  tumult,  and  so  heighten  the  vivacity  of  description. 
But  when  facts  are  to  be  traced  down  through  their  conse- 
quences, or  upwards  to  their  causes  ; when  the  complicated 
designs  of  mankind  are  to  be  laid  open,  or  conjectures  offered 
concerning  them  ; when  the  historian  argues  either  for  the 
elucidation  of  truth,  or  in  order  to  state  the  pleas  and 
principles  of  contending  parties  ; there  will  be  occasion 
for  every  species  of  connective,  as  much  as  in  philosophy 
itself.  In  fact,  it  is  in  argument,  investigation,  and  science,  that 
this  part  of  speech  is  peculiarly  and  indespensably  necessary. 

We  have  observed  above,  (page  124,)  that  a relative  pro- 
noun possesses  the  force  both  of  a pronoun  and  a connective. 
This  is  a more  artificial  and  refined  construction  than  that  in 
which  the  common  connective  is  simply  made  use  of.  In  some 
very  ancient  languages,  as  the  Hebrew,  which  have  been  em- 
ployed chiefly  for  expressing  plain  sentiments  in  the  plainest 
manner,  without  aiming  at  any  elaborate  length  or  harmony  of 
periods,  this  pronoun  occurs  not  so  often  as  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
and  those  other  tongues,  which  have  been  embellished  by 
the  joint  labours  of  the  philosopher  and  the  rhetorician.  When 
we  read  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  we  perceive,  that  this 
subjunctive  pronoun,  as  it  may  be  called,  occurs  but  seldom  ; 
the  sentence  being  short,  particularly  towards  the  beginning, 
and  joined  for  the  most  part  by  the  connective.  The  same 


128 


ETYMOLOGY. 


simplicity  of  composition,  as  we  before  observed,  is  frequent 
in  Scripture  ; which  in  that  Divine  book  is  a great  beauty, 
and  an  evidence  both  of  its  truth  and  of  its  antiquity.  For 
had  the  diction  been  more  elaborate,  it  would  have  had  too  much 
the  air  of  human  contrivance,  and  the  arts  of  later  times.  But 
in  other  compositions,  the  same  unadorned  simplicity  would  not 
always  be  agreeable  : for  we  are  not  displeased  to  find  human 
decorations  in  a work  of  human  art.  Besides,  the  sentiments 
of  inspiration  support  themselves  by  their  intrinsic  dignity; 
whereas  those  of  men  must  often  be  supported  and  recom- 
mended by  the  graces  of  language.  The  inspired  author  com- 
mands our  attention,  and  has  a right  to  it:  but  other  writers 
must  sooth  and  amuse,  in  order  to  prevail  with  us  to  attend. 
The  same  ornaments,  which  we  admire  in  a private  apartment, 
are  unseemly  in  a temple  ; and  that  rhetorical  art  which  in 
Virgil  and  Cicero  is  delightful,  would  be  quite  unsuitable  to  the 
majesty  of  Scripture. 


CHAPTER  X. 

OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  a sentence,  to  express  the  passions  or  emo- 
tions of  a speaker  ; as,  Oh ! I have  alienated  my 
friend  : alas  ! I fear  for  life;”  O virtue  ! how  amia- 
ble thou  art !” 

The  English  interjections,  as  well  as  those  of  other  languages, 
are  comprised  within  a small  compass.  They  are  of  different 
sorts,  according  to  the  different  passions  which  they  serve  to 
express.  Those  which  intimate  earnestness  or  grief,  are,  O ! 
oh ! ah  ! alas  ! Such  as  are  expressive  of  contempt,  are,  pish  ! 
tush ! of  wonder,  heigh  I really  ! strange  ! of  calling,  hem  ! 
ho  ! soho!  of  aversion  or  disgust,  foh  ! jie!  away  ! of  a call  of 
the  attention,  lo ! iehold ! hark  ! of  requesting  silence,  hush  / 
hist ! of  salutation,  welcome ! hail ! all  hail  ! Besides  these, 
many  others,  often  in  the  mouths  of  the  multitude,  might  be 
enumerated.  But  we  have  perhaps  mentioned  a sufficient 
number  of  them.  Any  word  or  phrase  may  indeed  become 
an  interjection,  or,  at  least,  it  may  be  used  as  such,  when 
it  is  expressed  with  emotion,  and  in  an  unconnected 


ETYMOLOGY. 


129 


manner : as,  behold  ! peace  ! strange  ! ungrateful  creature  ! 
folly  in  the  extreme  ! 

Interjections  are  not  so  much  the  signs  of  thought,  as  of  feel- 
ing. That  a creature  so  inured  to  articulate  sound  as  man  is, 
should  acquire  the  habit  of  uttering,  without  reflection,  certain 
vocal  sounds,  when  he  is  assaulted  by  any  strong  passion,  or 
becomes  conscious  of  any  intense  feeling,  is  natural  enough. 
Indeed,  by  continual  practice,  this  habit  becomes  so  powerful, 
that,  in  certain  cases,  we  should  find  it  difficult  to  resist  it,  even 
if  we  wished  to  do  so.  When  attacked  by  acute  pain,  it  is  hardly 
possible  for  us  to  refrain  from  saying  oh ! ah ! &c. : and  when 
we  are  astonished  at  any  narrative  or  event,  the  words,  strange ! 
prodigious  ! indeed ! break  from  us,  without  any  effort  of  the 
will. 

Interjections,  though  frequent  in  discourse,  do  not  often 
occur  in  elegant  composition.  Unpractised  writers,  however, 
are  apt  to  abound  in  the  use  of  them,  in  order,  as  they  imagine 
to  give  pathos  to*  their  style  : which  is  nearly  the  same  as  if,  with 
the  view  of  rendering  conversation  witty  or  humorous,  one  were 
to  interrupt  it  with  frequent  peals  of  laughter.  The  appearance 
of  violent  emotion  in  others,  does  not  always  raise  violent  emo- 
tion in  us : our  hearts,  for  the  most  part,  are  more  effectually 
subdued,  by  a sedate  and  simple  utterance,  than  by  strong  inter- 
jections and  theatrical  gesture.  At  any  rate,  composure  is  more 
graceful  than  extravagance  : and  therefore,  a multitude  of  these 
passionate  words  and  particles  will  generally,  at  least  on  common 
occasions,  savour  more  of  levity  than  of  dignity,  of  want  of 
thought  than  of  keen  sensation.  This  holds  in  common  dis- 
course, as  well  as  in  writing.  They  who  wish  to  speak  often, 
and  have  little  to  say,  are  apt  to  abound  in  exclamations ; imn- 
derful,  amazing^  prodigious,  O dear,  dear  me,  surprising,  aston- 
ishing, and  the  like : and  hence  the  too  frequent  use  of  such 
words  tends  to  breed  a suspicion  that  one  labours  under  a scant- 
iness of  ideas.  Interjections  denoting  imprecation  and  those  in 
which  the  Divine  Name  is  irreverently  mentioned,  are  always 
offensive  to  a pious  mind ; and  the  writer  or  speaker,  who  con- 
tracts a habit  of  introducing  them,  may,  without  breach  of 
charity,  be  suspected  of  profaneness. 


VOL^I. 


19 


130 


ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XL 

OF  DERIVATION. 


SECTION  I. 

Of  the  different  ways  in  which  words  are  derived  from  one 

another. 

Having  treated  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  and  their 
various  modifications,  which  is  the  first  part  of  Etymology,  it  is 
now  proper  to  explain  the  methods  by  which  one  word  is  derived 
from  another. 

Words  are  derived  from  one  another  in  various  ways,  viz. 

1.  Substantives,  are  derived  from  verbs. 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and  some- 
times from  adverbs. 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives. 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

5.  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

1.  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs  : as,  from  “to  love,” 
comes  “lover;”  from  “ to  visit,  visiter;”  from  “to  survive, 
surviver,”  &c. 

In  the  following  instances,  and  in  many  others,  it  is  difficult  to 
determine,  whether  the  verb  was  deduced  from  the  noun,  or  the 
noun  from  the  verb,  viz.  “ Love,  to  love  ; hate,  to  hate  ; fear, 
to  fear ; sleep,  to  sleep ; walk,  to  walk  ; ride,  to  ride  ; act,  to 
act,”  &c. 

2.  Verbs  arc  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and  some- 
times from  adverbs  ; as,  from  the  substantive  salt,  comes,  “ to 
salt ;”  from  the  adjective  warm,  “ to  warm  ;”  and  from  the  adverb 
forward,  “ to  forward.”  Sometimes  they  are  formed  by  lengthen- 
ing the  vowel,  or  softening  the  consonant : as  from  “ grass,  to 
graze;”  sometimes  by  adding  en:  as,  from  “length,  to  lengthen;” 
especially  to  adjectives:  as,  from  “short,  to  shorten,”  “bright,  to 
brighten.” 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives,  in  the  following 
manner  : Adjectives  denoting  plenty  are  derived  from  substan- 
tives by  adding  y : as,  from  “ Health,  healthy  ; wealth,  wealthy; 
might,  mighty,”  &c. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


131 


Adjectives  denoting  the  matter  out  of  which  any  thing  is 
made,  are  derived  from  substantives  by  adding  en : as,  from 
“ Oak,  oaken  ; wood,  wooden  ; wool,  woollen,”  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  abundance  are  derived  from  substantives, 
by  adding  ful : as,  from  “ Joy,  joyful ; sin,  sinful ; fruit,  fruit- 
ful,”&c. 

Adjectives  denoting  plenty,  but  with  some  kind  of  diminu- 
tion, are  derived  from  substantives,  by  adding  some : as,  from 

Light,  lightsome  ; trouble,  troublesome  ; toil,  toilsome,”  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  want  are  derived  from  substantives,  by 
adding  Z655:  as,  from  “Worth,  worthless;”  from  “care,  care- 
less ; joy,  joyless,”  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  likeness  are  derived  from  substantives, 
by  adding  ly  : as,  from  “ Man,  manly ; earth,  earthly  ; court, 
courtly,”  &c. 

Some  adjectives  are  derived  from  other  adjectives,  or  from 
substantives,  by  adding  ish  to  them  ; which  termination,  w=^hen 
added  to  adjectives,  imports  diminution,  or  lessening  the  quality: 
as,  “ White,  whitish  ;”  i.  e.  somewhat  white.  When  added  to 
substantives,  it  signifies  similitude  or  tendency  to  a character : 
as,  “ Child,  childish,  thief,  thievish.” 

Some  adjectives  are  formed  from  substantives  or  verbs,  by 
adding  the  termination  able  : and  those  adjectives  signify  capa- 
city : as,  “ answer,  answerable  ; to  change,  changeable.” 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives,  sometimes  by 
adding  the  termination  ness : as,  “ White,  whiteness  ; swift, 
swiftness ;”  sometimes  by  adding  th  or  Z,  and  making  a small 
change  in  some  of  the  letters  : as,  “ Long,  length  ; high, 
height.” 

5.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  derived  from  adjectives,  by  adding 
Zy,  or  changing  le  into  ly ; and  denote  the  same  quality  as  the 
adjectives  from  which  they  are  derived  : as,  from  “ base,”  comes 
“ basely  ;”  from  “ slow,  slowly  ;”  from  “ able,  ably.” 

There  are  so  many  other  w^ays  of  deriving  words  from  one 
another,  that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult,  and  nearly  impos- 
sible to  enumerate  them.  The  primitive  words  of  any  language 
are  very  few  ; the  derivatives  form  much  the  greater  number. 
A few  more  instances  only  can  be  given  here. 

Some  substantives  are  derived  from  other  substantives,  by 
adding  the  termination  hood  or  head,  ship,  ery,  wick,  rick,  dom, 
ian,  ment,  and  age. 

Substantives  ending  in  hood  or  head,  are  such  as  signify  char- 
acter, or  qualities  : as,  “ Manhood,  knighthood,  falsehood,”  &c. 

Substantives  ending  in  ship,  are  those  that  signify  office, 
employment,  state,  or  condition ; as,  “ Lordship,  ^cwardship, 


132 


ETYMOLOGY. 


partnership,”  &c.  Some  substantives  in  ship,  are  derived  from 
adjectives  : as,  “ Hard,  hardship,”  &c. 

Substantives  which  end  in  ery,  signify  action  or  habit : as, 
“ Slavery,  foolery,  prudery,”  &c.  Some  substantives  of  this 
sort  come  from  adjectives  : as,  “ Brave,  bravery,”  &c. 

Substantives  ending  in  wick,  rick,  and  dom,  denote  dominion, 
jurisdiction  or  condition : as,  ‘‘  Bailiwick,  bishoprick,  kingdom, 
dukedom,  freedom,”  &c. 

Substantives  which  end  in  ian,  are  those  which  signify  pro- 
fession : as,  “ Physician,  musician,”  &c.  Those  that  end  in 
merit  and  age,  come  generally  from  the  French,  and  commonly 
signify  the  act  or  habit : as,  Commandment,  usage.” 

Some  substantives  ending  in  ard,  are  derived  from  verbs  or 
adjectives,  and  denote  character  or  habit : as,  “ Drunk,  drunk- 
ard ; dote,  dotard.” 

Some  substantives  have  the  form  of  diminutives  ; but  these 
are  not  many.  They  are  formed  by  adding  the  terminations, 
kin,  ling,  ing,  ock,  el,  and  the  like  : as,  “ Lamb,  lambkin  ; 
goose,  gosling ; duck,  duckling ; hill,  hillock ; cock,  cocker- 
el,”  &c. 

That  part  of  derivation  which  consists  in  tracing  English 
words  to  the  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other  languages,  must 
be  omitted,  as  the  English  scholar  is  not  supposed  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  these  languages.  The  best  English  Dictionaries 
will,  however,  furnish  some  information  on  this  head,  to  those 
who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  it.  The  learned  Horne  Tooke, 
in  his  “ Diversions  of  Purley,”  has  given  an  ingenious  account 
of  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  many  of  the  adverbs,  conjunc- 
tions, and  prepositions:  and  as  the  student  will  doubtless  be 
amused,  by  tracing  to  their  Saxon  origin  some  of  these  words, 
we  shall  present  him  with  a list  or  specimen  of  them  ; which 
we  presume  will  be  sufficient  to  excite  his  curiosity,  and  induce 
him  to  examine  the  subject  more  extensively. 

ABOUT — is  derived  from  a,  on,  and  hout,  signifying  boundary : 
On  the  boundary  or  confines. 

AMONG  or  AMONGST — comes  from  the  passive  participle,  ge- 
mcenced,  which  is  from  gemengan,  to  mix. 

AND — is  from  the  imperative  an-ad,  which  is  from  the  verb, 
anan-ad,  signifying  to  accumulate,  to  add  to:  as,  “Two 
and  two  are  four  •”  that  is,  “ Two  add  two  are  four.” 
ASUNDER — comes  from  the  participle  asundred  of  the  verb 
asundrian,  to  separate : and  this  verb  is  from  send,  sand. 
ATHWART — is  derived  from  the  passive  participle  athweoried  of 
the  verb  athweorian,  to  wrest. 

BEYOND — comes  from  he-geond : geond,  or  goned,  is  the  pas- 


ETYMOLOGY 


133 


sive  participle  of  the  verb  gangan,  to  go,  to  pass : Be 
passed,  be  gone. 

BUT — from  the  imperative  hot,  of  the  verb  hotan,  to  boot,  to 
superadd,  to  supply:  as,  “The  number  three  is  not  an 
even  number,  but  an  odd,”  that  is,  “not  an  even  number, 
superadd,  (it  is,)  an  odd  number.” 

BUT — from  the  imperative,  he-utan,  of  the  verb  heon-utan,  to 
be  out.  It  is  used  by  way  of  exception : as,  “ She  re- 
gards nobody,  hut  him  : ” that  is,  “ nobody,  he  out  him.” 

IF — comes  from  gif,  the  imperative  of  the  verb  gif  an,  to  give  : 
as,  “ If  you  live  honestly,  you  will  live  happily  ; ” that  is, 
‘'give  you  live  honestly.” 

LEST — from  the  participle  lesed,  of  the  verb  lesan,  to  dismiss. 

THOUGH — ^Yom  thafg,  the  imperative  of  the  verb  thafigan,  to 
allow  ; as,  “ Though  she  is  handsome,  she  is  not  vain : ” 
that  is,  “ Allow,  grant,  she  is  handsome. 

UNLESS — comes  from  onless,  the  imperative  of  the  verb  onlesan, 
to  dismiss  or  remove  : as,  “ Troy  will  be  taken  unless  the 
palladium  be  preserved;”  that  is,  “Remove  the  palladium 
he  preserved,  Troy  will  be  taken. 

WITH— -the  imperative  of  witlian,  to  join  : as,  “ A house  with  a 
party  wall ; ” that  is,  “ A house  a party  wall.” 

WITHOUT — comes  from  wyrth-utan,  the  imperative  of  the  verb 
wyrihan-utan,  to  be  out : as,  “ A house  without  a roof ; ” 
that  is,  “ A house  he  out  a roof.  ” 

YET — is  derived  from  get,  the  imperative  of  the  verb  getan, 
to  get : as,  “ Yet  a little  while  ; ” that  is,  “ Get  a little 
time.” 

THROUGH — comes  from  Gothic  and  Teutonic  words,  which 
signify  door,  gate,  passage : as,  “ They  marched  through 
a wilderness ; that  is,  “ They  marched  the  passage  a wil- 
derness.” 

FOR — is  from  Saxon  and  Gothic  words,  signifying,  cause,  mo- 
tive : as,  “ He  died  for  his  religion  ; ” that  is,  “ He  died 
the  cause  his  religion.” 

FROM — is  derived  from  frum,  which  signifies  begining,  origin, 
source, (fee. : as,  “ The  lamp  hangs  from  the  ceiling ; ” that 
is,  “ Ceiling  the  place  of  beginning  to  hang.” 

TO — comes  from  Saxon  and  Gothic  words,  which  signify  action, 
effect,  termination,  to  act,  &c. : as,  “ Figs  come  from 
Turkey  to  England  : ” that  is,  “ Figs  come — beginning 
Turkey — termination  England.” 

It  is  highly  probable,  that  the  system  of  the  acute  gramma- 

rian,from  whose  work  these  Saxon  derivations  are  borrowed, 


134 


ETYMOLOGY. 


is  founded  on  truth ; and  that  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  con- 
junctions, are  corruptions  or  abbreviations  of  other  parts  of 
speech.  But  as  many  of  them  are  derived  from  obsolete 
words  in  our  own  language,  or  from  words  in  kindred  lan- 
guages, the  radicd  meaning  of  which  are,  in  general,  ob- 
scure or  unknown;  as  the  system  of  this  very  able  etymol- 
ogist is  not  universally  admitted  ; and  as,  by  long  prescrip- 
tion, whatever  may  have  been  their  origin,  the  words  in 
question  appear  to  have  acquired  a title  to  the  rank  of  dis- 
tinct species ; it  seems  proper  to  consider  them  as  such,  in 
an  elementary,  treatise  of  grammar:  especially  as  this  plan 
coincides  with  that  by  which  other  languages  must  be  taught ; 
and  will  render  the  study  of  them  less  intricate.  It  is  of 
small  moment,  by  what  names  and  classification  we  distinguish 
these  words,  provided  their  meaning  and  use  are  well  under- 
stood. A philosophical  consideration  of  the  subject,  may, 
with  great  propriety,  be  entered  upon  by  the  grammatical 
student,  when  his  knowledge  and  judgment  become  more  im- 
proved. 

Some  critics  carry  their  respect  for  the  Saxon  tongue,  and 
their  fondness  for  derivation,  to  so  great  an  extent,  that  if  their 
opinions  were  adopted,  and  reduced  to  practice,  our  language 
would  be  disorganised,  and  many  of  its  rules  and  principles 
involved  in  obscurity.  Etymological  deductions  may  certainly 
be  pushed  too  far,  and  valued  too  highly.  Like  other  things 
they  have  their  proper  use  and  limits,  which  ought,  on  no  oc- 
casion, to  be  violated.  Our  Saxon  ancestors  were  governed  by 
their  own  lights,  and  by  the  improvements  which  they  made  on 
the  practice  of  their  predecessors.  We  too  must  be  allowed 
the  priviledge  of  forming  our  own  laws,  and  adapting  them 
to  our  wants  and  convenience.  Succeeding  generations  of  men 
have  an  indubitable  right  to  alter  the  old  words  of  their  pre- 
decessors, both  in  point  of  meaning  and  orthography  ; to  make 
new  ones,  and  to  class  the  whole,  according  to  their  own  views 
and  circumstances.  This  right,  with  regard  to  our  own 
tongue,  has  been  regularly,  though  very  gradually  exercised  ; 
and  the  result  has  been  a great  amelioration  of  the  language  in 
every  point  of  view. 

If  fanciful,  or  learned  etymologists,  are  to  decide  for  us,  by 
their  remote  researches  and  discoveries,  our  improvements 
are  at  an  end.  We  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  inquire  what 
v»^as  the  practice  of  ancient  writers,  and  to  submit  to  the  rude 
phraseology  of  authors,  who  were  far  inferior  to  us  in  science 
and  literature.  But  during  this  inquiry,  we  should  be  plunged 
into  a state  of  uncertainty  and  fluctuation.  The  various  opin- 
ions and  contests  of  our  Saxon  etymologists  would  perplex  and 
confound  us.  This,  however,  would  not  be  our  only  embar- 


ETYMOLOGY. 


135 


rassment : for,  at  one  time,  a derivation  from  the  Saxon  must 
correct  present  usage ; at  another,  a more  recondite  examiner 
would  be  able  to  show,  that,  in  the  points  contested,  neither  the 
Saxon,  nor  present  usage,  is  consistent  with  the  Gothic  or  Teu- 
tonic, from  which  the  Saxon  itself  was  derived.  There  would, 
indeed,  be  no  boundary  to  these  remote  and  obscure  derivations; 
and  we  should  have  no  decisions  upon  which  we  coqld  rest 
with  satisfaction. 

Etymology,  when  it  is  guided  by  judgment,  and  proper  limits 
are  set  to  it,  certainly  merits  great  attention  ; it  is  then  highly 
conducive  to  perspicuous  and  accurate  language.  But  the 
suggestions  of  fancy,  or  the  far-fetched  discoveries  of  learning, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  supersede  the  dictates  of  common 
sense,  sound  criticism,  and  rational  improvement.  Ancient 
usage  is  not  the  test  by  which  the  correctness  of  modern  lan- 
guage is  to  be  tried.  The  origin  of  things  is  certainly  a proper 
and  gratifying  subject  of  inquiry  ; and  it  is  particularly  curious 
and  pleasing  to  trace  the  words  of  our  language  to  their  remote 
sources,  'fhis  pleasure  should,  however,  be  confined  to  specu- 
lation. It  should  not  lead  us  to  invert  the  proper  order  of 
things,  and  to  determine  the  propriety  of  our  present  words  and 
forms  of  expression,  by  the  practice  of  distant,  and  comparatively 
rude  ages.  On  the  important  subject  of  the  standard  of  lan- 
guage, we  concur  entirely  with  the  learned  and  judicious  Dr. 
Campbell,  who,  in  his  “ Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,”  says,  “ The 
standard  of  language,  is  reputable,  national,  and  present  use.” 

In  confirmation  of  our  views,  in  this  discussion,  we  give  the 
following  quotation,  from  the  celebrated  Walker,  author  of  the 
Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary.”  “ As  our  language  (says 
he)  has  departed  from  its  Saxon  parent,  in  a thousand  instances, 
I know  not  why  we  should  encumber  it,  by  preserving  Saxon 
peculiarities,  when  such  improvements  as  naturally  arise  in  the 
cultivation  of  letters,  enable  us  to  class  words  in  a clearer  and 
more  analogical  manner.”  The  sentiments  of  the  Eclectic 
Reviewers  on  the  subject  in  question,  are.  also  well  worthy  of 
insertion.  “ What  (say  they)  would  have  become  of  the  French 
language,  if  its  grammarians  and  lexicographers  had  employed 
their  labour  and  time,  in  reducing  it  to  the  state  in  which  it  was 
left  by  the  Franks,  and  other  barbarous  conquerors  of  ancient 
Gaul?  Yet  such  appears  to  us  to  be  the  object  of  several 
recent  treatises  on  our  own  language.  We  are  called  to  reject 
the  refinements,  by  which  our  elegant  writers  of  the  last  century 
have  recommended  the  English  tongue  to  universal  esteem;  and 
to  return  to  the  barbarous  phraseology  of  our  Saxon  ancestors.”^ 


* Eclectic  Review,  May,  1803. 


136 


ETYMOLOGY. 


At  the  same  time  that  we  object  to  the  laws,  which  the  anti- 
quarian in  language  would  impose  upon  us,  we  rnpst  enter  our 
protest  against  those  authors,  who  are  too  fond  of  "innovations : 
and  particularly  against  those  ingenious  writers  on  grammar, 
who  wish  to  alter  its  long-established  terms,  and  to  give  many 
of  its  parts  new  definitions,  and  a new  arrangement.  These 
novelties,  which  we  think  are  so  productive  of  confusion,  and  so 
unnecessary,  are  not  likely,  in  our  opinion,  to  acquire  that 
reputable  and  general  adoption,  which  is  essential  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  literary  experiments.  On  all  occasions,  they  who 
endeavour  to  improve  our  language,  should  observe  a happy 
medium  between  too  great,  and  too  little  reverence  for  the 
usages  of  ancient  times. 

In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold. 

Alike  fantastic,  if  too  new  or  old  : 

Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried, 

Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside. 

Pope^s  Essay  on  Criticism. 

. See  the  observations  on  this  subject,  pages  29, 30,  and  58,  59. 


SECTION  II. 


A sketch  of  the  steps  by  which  the  English  ‘Language  has  risen 
to  its  present  state  of  refinement.  ^ 

Before  we  conclude  the  subject  of  derivation,  it  will  prob- 
ably be  gratifying  to  the  curious  scholar,  to  be  informed  of  some 
particulars  respecting  the  origin  of  the  English  language,  and 
the  various  nations  to  which  it  is  indebted  for  the  copiousness, 
elegance,  and  refinement,  which  it  has  now  attained. 

“ When  the  ancient  Britons  were  so  harassed  and  oppressed 
by  the  invasion  of  their  northern  neighbours,  the  Scots  and 
Piets,  that  their  situation  was  truly  miserable,  they  sent  an 
embassy  (about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century)  to  the  Saxons, 
a warlike  people  inhabiting  the  north  of  Germany,  with  solici- 
tations for  speedy  relief.  The  Saxons  accordingly  came  over 
to  Britain,  and  were  successful  in  repelling  the  incursions  of  the 
Scots  and  Piets : but  seeing  the  weak  and  defenceless  state  of 
the  Britons,  they  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  it ; and  at  length 
established  themselves  in  the  greater  part  of  South  Britain,  after 
having  dispossessed  the  original  inhabitants. 

From  these  barbarians,  who  founded  several  petty  kingdoms 
in  this  island,  and  introduced  their  own  laws,  language,  and 


ETYMOLOGY. 


137 


manners,  is  derived  the  groundwork  of  the  English  language  ; 
which,  even  in  its  present  state  of  cultivation,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  successive  augmentations  and  improvements,  which  it 
has  received  through  various  channels,  displays  very  conspicu- 
ous traces  of  its  Saxon  original. 

The  Saxons  did  not  long  remain  in  quiet  possession  of  the 
kingdom  ; for  before  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the 
Danes,  a hardy  and  adventurous  nation,  who  had  long  infested 
the  northern  seas  with  their  piracies,  began  to  ravage  the  En- 
glish  coasts.  Their  first  attempts,  were,  in  general,  attended 
with  such  success,  that  they  were  encouraged  to  a renewal  of 
their  ravages  ; till,  at  length,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century,  they  made  themselves  masters  of  the  greater  part  of 
England. 

Though  the  period,  during  which  these  invaders  occupied 
the  English  throne,  was  very  short,  not  greatly  exceeding  half 
a century,  it  is  highly  probable  that  some  change  was  introdu- 
ced by  them,  into  the  language  spoken  by  those  whom  they 
had  subdued  : but  this  change  cannot  be  supposed  to  have 
been  very  considerable,  as  the  Danish  and  Saxon  languages 
arose  from  one  common  source,  the  Gothic  being  the  parent  of 
both. 

The  next  conquerors  of  this  kingdom,  after  the  Danes,  were 
the  Normans,  who,  in  the  year  1066,  introduced  their  leader 
William,  to  the  possession  of  the  English  throne.  This  prince, 
soon  after  his  accession,  endeavoured  to  bring  his  own  language 
(the  Norman-French)  into  use  among  his  new  subjects;  but  his 
efforts  were  not  very  successful,  as  the  Saxons  entertained  a 
great  antipathy  to  these  haughty  foreigners.  In  process  of 
time,  however,  many  Norman  words  and  phrases  were  incor- 
porated into  the  Saxon  language : but  its  general  form  and 
construction  still  remained  the  same. 

From  the  Conquest  to  the  Reformation,  the  languages  con- 
tinued to  receive  occasional  accessions  of  foreign  words,  till  it 
acquired  such  a degree  of  expression  and  strength,  as  to  render 
it  susceptible  of  that  polish,  which  it  has  received  from  writers 
of  taste  and  genius,  in  the  last  and  present  centuries.  During 
this  period,  the  learned  have  enriched  it  v/ith  many  significant 
expressions  drawn  from  the  treasures  of  Greek  and  Roman 
literature  ; the  ingenious  and  the.  fashionable  have  imported 
occasional  supplies  of  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  German 
words,  gleaned  during  their  foreign  excursions  ; and  the  con- 
nexions which  we  maintain,  through  the  medium  of  government 
and  commerce,  with  many  remote  nations,  have  made  some 
additions  to  our  native  vocabulary. 

In  this  manner  did  the  ancient  language  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
proceed,  through  the  various  stages  of  innovation,  and  the 

VoL.  I.  20 


138 


ETYMOLOGY, 


several  gradations  of  refinement,  to  the  formation  of  the  pre- 
sent English  tongue. 

A language  which  has  been  so  much  indebted  to  others,  both 
ancient  and  modern,  must  of  course  be  very  copious  and  ex- 
pressive. In  these  respects,  perhaps  it  may  he  brought  into 
competition  with  any  now  spoken  in  the  world.  No  English- 
man has  had  reason  to  complain,  since  our  tongue  has  reached 
its  present  degree  of  excellence,  that  his  ideas  could  not  be 
adequately  expressed,  or  clothed  in  a suitable  dress.  No  author 
has  been  under  the  necessity  of  writing  in  a foreign  language, 
on  account  of  its  superiority  to  our  own.  Whether  we  open 
the  volumes  of  our  divines,  phijosophers,  historians,  or  artists, 
we  shall  find  that  they  abound  with  all  the  terms  necessary  to 
communicate  their  observations  and  discoveries,  and  give  to 
their  readers  the  most  ample  views  of  their  respective  subjects. 
Hence  it  appears,  that  our  language  is  sufficient  for  all  topics, 
and  that  it  can  give  proper  and  adequate  expression  to  variety 
of  argument,  delicacy  of  taste,  and  fervour  of  genius.  That  it 
has  sufficient  copiousness  to  communicate  to  mankind  every 
action,  event,  invention,  and  observation,  in  a full,  clear,  and 
elegant  manner,  may  be  proved  by  an  appeal  to  the  authors, 
who  are  at  present  held  in  the  greatest  esteem.” 


CHAPTER  XII. 


NUMBER  AND  VARIETY  OF  WORDS THEIR  EXTENSIVE  SIGNIFI- 
CATION  ARBITRARY  SIGNS  OF  IDEAS. 

‘‘  Though  the  number  of  elementary  sounds  is  not  great  in 
any  language,  the  variety  of  possible  words,  that  may  be  formed 
by  combining  them,  is,  in  every  tongue,  so  great,  as  almost  to 
exceed  computation,  and  much  more  than  sufficient  to  express 
all  the  varieties  of  human  thought.  But  the  real  words,  even  of 
the  most  copious  language,  may  without  difficulty  be  numbered ; 
for  a good  dictionary  comprehends  them  all,  or  nearly  the 
whole  of  them.  In  the  English  tongue,  after  deducting  proper 
names,  and  the  inflections  of  our  verbs  and  nouns,  they  do  not 
exceed  forty  thousand. 

We  must  not,  however,  estimate  the  number  of  our  ideas, 
by  that  of  our  words : the  former  being  beyond  compari- 
son more  numerous  and  diversified  than  the  latter.  Many 


ETYMOLOGY. 


139 


thoughts  we  express,  not  by  particular  terms  appropriated  to 
each,  but  by  a periphrasis,  or  combination  of  terms,  which, 
under  different  forms  of  arrangement  and  connexion,  may  be 
applied  to  a great  variety  of  different  purposes;  and  many 
thoughts  are  communicated  in  tropes  and  figures ; and  many 
may  sometimes  be  signified  by  one  and  the  same  word. 
There  are  few  terms  in  language  that  have  not  more  than 
one  meaning ; some  have  several,  and  some  a great  number. 
In  how  many  different  ways,  and  to  how  many  different  pur- 
poses, may  the  verbs  do,  lie,  lay,  and  take,  for  example,  be 
applied ! Johnson’s  Dictionary  will  show  this,  and  much  more 
of  the  same  kind:  and  leave  the  reader  equally  astonished  at 
the  acuteness  of  the  lexicographer,  and  at  the  complex  nature 
and  use  of  certain  minute  parts  of  human  speech.  Even  of 
our  prepositions,  one  has  upwards  of  twelve,  one  more  than 
twenty,  and  one  not  fewer  than  thirty  different  meanings. 
And  yet,  when  we  understand  a language,  w^e  are  not  sensi- 
ble of  any  perplexity  arising  from  these  circumstances ; all 
ambiguities  of  sense,  being,  in  a correct  style,  prevented  by 
a right  arrangement  of  the  words,  and  other  artifices  of  com- 
position. 

Words  derive  their  meaning  from  the  consent  and  practice 
of  those  who  use  them.  There  is  no  necessary  connexion 
between  words  and  ideas.  The  association  between  the  sign 
and  the  thing  signified,  is  purely  arbitrary.  If  we  were  to 
contrive  a new  language,  we  might  make  any  articulate  sound 
the  sign  of  any  idea : there  would  be  no  impropriety  in  call- 
ing oxen  men,  or  rational  beings  by  the  name  of  oxen.  But 
where  a language  is  already  formed,  they  who  speak  it  must 
use  words  in  the  customary  sense.  By  doing  otherwise,  they 
incur  the  charge,  either  of  affectation,"  if  they  mean  only  to 
be  remarkable,  or  of  falsehood,  if  they  mean  to  deceive.  To 
speak  as  others  speak,  is  one  of  those  tacit  obligations,  annex- 
ed to  the  condition  of  living  in  society,  which  we  are  bound 
in  conscience  to  fulfil,  though  we  have  never  ratified  them  by 
any  express  promise ; because,  if  they  were  disregarded,  so- 
ciety would  be  impossible,  and  human  happiness  at  an  end. 
It  is  true,  that,  in  a book  of  science  founded  on  definition, 
words  may  be  used  in  any  sense,  provided  their  meaning  be 
explained.  In  this  case  there  is  no  falsehood,  because  there 
is  no  intention  to  deceive.  But  even  in  this  case,  if  the 
common  analogies  of  language  were  violated,  the  author 
would  be  justly  blamed,  for  giving  unnecessary  trouble  to  his 
readers,  and  for  endeavouring  capriciously  to  abrogate  a cus- 
tom, which  universal  use  had  rendered  more  respectable,  as 
well  as  more  convenient,  than  any  other  which  he  could  sub- 
stitute in  its  room.” 


140 


ETYMOLOGY. 


This  proper  respect  for  the  customary  sense  of  words,  does 
not,  however,  preclude  improvements  in  language.  We  are 
not  bound  to  adhere  for  ever  to  the  terms,  or  to  the  meaning  of 
terms,  which  were  established  by  our  ancestors.  But  our 
alterations  should  be  proposed  with  great  caution  and  mo- 
desty. Too  much  should  not  be  offered  at  once  : the  devia- 
tions from  general  usage  should  be  gradual  as  well  as  tempe- 
rate. By  these  means,  the  public  taste  and  judgment  are 
consulted ; our  habits  and  feelings  are  not  shocked  ; and  the 
proposed  variations,  if  approved,  are  introduced  and  established 
almost  imperceptibly. 


PART  III. 


SYNTAX. 


The  third  part  of  Grammar  is  syntax,  which  treats 
of  the  agreement  and  construction  of  words  in  a 
sentence. 

A sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  forming  a 
complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

A simple  sentence  has  in  it  but  one  subject,  and 
one  finite^  verb:  as,  "‘Lifeds  short.” 

A compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
simple  sentences  connected  together : as,  Life  is 
short,  and  art  is  long.”  Idleness  produces  want, 
vice  and  misery.” 

As  sentences  themselves  are  divided  into  simple  and  com- 
pound, so  the  members  of  sentences  may  be  divided  likewise 
into  simple  and  compound  members:  for  whole  sentences, 
whether  simple  or  compounded,  may  become  members  of  other 
sentences,  by  means  of  some  additional  connexion  ; as  in  the 
following  example  : ‘‘  The  ox  knoweth  his  owner,  and  the  ass 
his  master’s  crib ; but  Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  do  not 
consider.”  This  sentence  consists  of  two  compounded  mem- 
bers, each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  two  simple  members, 
which  are  properly  called  clauses. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  simple  sentences : the  explicative,  or 
explaining ; the  interrogative,  or  asking ; the  imperative,  or 
commanding. 

An  explicative  sentence  is,  w^hen  a thing  is  said  to  be,  or  not 
to  be,  to  do,  or  not  to  do,  to  suffer,  or  not  to  suffer,  in  a direct 
manner : as,  “lam;  thou  writest ; Thomas  is  loved.”  If  the 
sentence  be  negative,  the  adverb  not  is  placed  after  the  auxiliary. 

Finite  verbs  are  those  to  which  number  and  person  appertain.  Verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood 
have  no  respect  to  number  or  person. 


142 


SYNTAX. 


or  after  the  verb  itself  when  it  has  no  auxiliary : as,  ‘‘  I did  not 
touch  him  or,  “ I touched  him  not.” 

In  an  interrogative  sentence,  or  when  a question  is  asked, 
the  nominative  case  follows  the  principal  verb,  or  the  auxiliary : 
as,  “Was  it  he?  “ Did  Alexander  conquer  the  Persians? 

In  an  imperative  sentence,  when  a thing  is  commanded  to 
be,  to  do,  to  suffer,  or  not,  the  nominative  case  likewise  follows 
the  verb  Or  the  auxiliary : as,  “ Go  thou  traitor  !”  “ Do  thou  go 

Haste  ye  away unless  the  verb  let  be  used : as,  “ Let  us  be 
gone.” 

A phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together, 
making  sometimes  part  of  a sentence,  and  sometimes 
a whole  sentence. 

The  principal  parts  of  a simple  sentence  are,  the 
subject,  the  attribute,  and  the  object. 

The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of: 'the 
attribute  is  the  thing  or  action  afiirmed  or  denied  of 
it ; and  the  object  is  the  thing  affected  by  such 
action. 

The  nominative  denotes  the  subject,  and  usually 
goes  before  the  verb  or  attribute;  and  the  word  or 
phrase  denoting  the  object,  follows  the  verb  : as,  A 
wise  man  governs  his  passions.”  Here  a wise  man^ 
is  the  subject;  governs^  the  attribute,  or  thing  affirm- 
ed ; and  his  passions,  ihe  object. 

Syntax  principally  consists  of  two  parts,  Concord 
and  Government. 

Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has 
with  another,  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  part  of 
speech  has  over  another,  in  directing  its  mood,  tense, 
or  case. 

In  arranging  the  Rules  of  Syntax,  we  have  adopted  that 
scheme  that  appeared  to  be  the  least  liable  to  objections ; and 
the  most  likely  to  impress  the  mind  of  the  learner,  and  be 
retained  in  his  memory.  The  plan  corresponds  very  nearly 
with  that  which  is  founded  on  the  Concord  and  government  of 
words.  But  an  arrangement  on  this  principle  is  not,  in  all 
cases,  sufficiently  distinct ; and  if  it  were  strictly  adhered  to, 
would  not  embrace  all  the  rules  of  Syntax.  The  rule, 
that  “ a verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  number  and 
person,”  being  of  primary  use  and  importance,  demands  the 


RULE  I. 


143 


first  place.  The  seven  subsequent  rules  are  so  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  principle  of  the  first  rule,  that  they  necessarily 
follow  it,  without  admitting  the  intervention  of  any  other.  By 
this  arrangement,  the^pronouns  are  presented  in  a distinct  point 
of  view,  and  in  regular  succession.  The  English  adjective, 
having  but  a very  limited  syntax,  is  classed  with  its  kindred  ar- 
ticle, the  adjective  pronoun,  under  the  eighth  rule.  It  has,  how- 
ever, an  appropriate  section  under  that  rule.  After  this  special 
disposition  the  syntax  of  the  remaining  parts  of  speech,  is  ex- 
hibited according  to  their  etymological  arrangement.  The 
whole  is  closed  by  two  rules^of  a mixed  and  general  nature. — 
By  this  order,  the  first  nine  rules  accord  with  those  which  re- 
spect the  rules  of  Concord  ; and  the  remainder  include,  though 
they  extend  beyond^  the  rules  of  Government. 

To  produce  the  agreement  and  right  disposition 
of  words  in  a sentence,  the  following  rules  and  ob- 
servations should  be  carefully  studied. 

Rule  1. 

A VERB  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  person : as,  learn;”  ^^Thou  art  im- 
proved ; ” The  birds  sing.” 


See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  1. 


The  following  are  a few  instances  of  the  violation  of  this 
rule.  “ What  signifies  good  opinions,  when  our  practice  is 
bad?”  “what  52^71  j/y.”  “ There’s  two  or  three  of  us,  who 

have  seen  the  work:”  “ there  6«re.”  “We  may  suppose  there 
was  more  impostors  than  one  : ” “ there  were  more,”  “ I have 
considered  what  have  been  said  on  both  sides  in  this  contro- 
versy : ” “ what  has  been  said.”  “ If  thou  would  be  healthy, 
live  temperately : ” “ if  thou  wouldstP  “ Thou  sees  how  little 

has  been  done  : ” “ thou  seestr  “ Though  thou  cannot  do  much 
for  the  cause,  thou  may  and  should  do  something;  ” canst, 
not,  mayst,  and  shouldstJ’  “ Full  many  a flower  are  born  to 
blush  unseen  : ” “inborn.”  “A  conformity  of  inclinations  and 
qualities  prepare  us  for  friendship : ” ^‘prepares  us’’  “A  va- 
riety of  blessings  have  been  conferred  upon  us  : ” “ has  been.  ” 
“ In  piety  and  virtue  consist  the  happiness  of  man : ” “ con- 


144 


SYNTAX. 


sists,  ” “ To  these  precepts  are  subjoined  a copious  selection 

of  rules  and  maxims : ” “ is  subjoined.” 

* 1.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a sentence,  is  sometimes 
put  as  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  ; as,  “ To  see  the  sun  is 
pleasant ; ” To  be  good  is  to  be  happy “A  desire  to  excel 
others  in  learning  and  virtue  is  commendable  ; “ That  warm 
climates  should  accelerate  the  growth  of  the  human  body,  and 
shorten  its  duration,  is  very  reasonable  to  believe  ; ” “ Promising 
without  due  consideration,  often  produces  a breach  of  promise 
“ To  be  temperate  in  eating  and  drinking,  to  use  exercise  in  the 
open  air,  and  to  preserve  the  mind  free  from  tumultuous  emo- 
tions, are  the  best  preservatives  of  health.”  These  sentences, 
or  clauses,  thus  constituting  the  subject  of  an  affirmation,  may  be 
termed  nominative  sentences. 

2.  Every  verb,  except  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  the  partici- 
ple, ought  to  have  a nominative  case,  either  expressed  or 
implied : as,  “ Awake  ; arise  : ” “ that  is  ‘‘  Awake  ye  ; arise 
ye.” 

We  shall  here  add  some  examples  of  inaccuracy,  in  the 
use  of  the  verb  without  its  nominative  case.  “ As  it  hath  pleased 
him  of  his  goodness  to  give  you  safe  deliverance,  and  hath 
preserved  you  in  the  great  danger,”  ^c.  The  verb  ‘‘  hath 
preserved, has  here  no  nominative  case ; for  it  cannot  be 
properly  supplied  by  the  preceding  word,  “himl^  which  is 
in  the  objective  case.  It  ought  to  be,  “ and  as  he  hath  pre- 
served  yo\x  or  rather,  “ to  preserve  “If  the  calm 

in  which  he  was  born,  and  lasted  so  long,  had  continued  ;” 
“ and  which  lasted,”  &c.  “ These  we  have  extracted  from 

an  historian  of  undoubted  credit,  and  are  the  same  that  were 
practised,  &c. ;”  “diuA  they  are  the  same.”  “A  man  whose 
inclinations  led  him  to  be  corrupt,  and  had  great  abilities 
to  manage  the  business  ; ” “ and  who  had,”  &c. ; “ A cloud 
gathering  in  the  north ; which  we  have  helped  to  raise,  and 
may  quickly  break  in  a storm  upon  our  heads’’  which 

may  quickly.’’ 

3.  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  absolute,  and 

when  an  address  is  made  to  a person,  should  belong  to  some 
verb,  either  expressed  or  implied : as,  “ Who  w rote  this 
book?”  “James;”  that  is,  “Jame  wrote  it.”  “To  whom 
thus  Adam ; ” that  is,  “ spoke.  ” “ Who  invented  the  tele- 
scope ? ” “ Galileo  ; ” that  is,  “ Galileo  invented  the  tele- 

scope. ’ 


♦ The  chief  practical  Notes  under  each  Rule,  arc  regularly  numbered,  that  they  may  cot’ 
respond  with  the  examples  in  the  volume  of  ExercisesL 


RULE  I. 


145 


One  or  two  instances  of  the  improper  use  of  the  nomina-  ^ 
live  case,  without  any  verb  expressed  or  implied,  to  answer 
it,  may  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  usefulness  of  the  preceding 
observations. 

‘‘  Which  rule^  if  it  had  been  observed,  a neighbouring  prince 
would  have  wanted  a great  deal  of  that  incense,  which  hath 
been  offered  up  to  him.”  The  pronoun  it  is  here  the  nomi- 
native case  to  the  verb  “observed:”  and  rule,  is  left 

by  itself,  a nominative  case  without  any  verb  following  it. 
This  form  of  expression,  though  improper,  is  very  common. 
It  ought  to  be,  ''  If  this  rule  had  been  observed,”  &c. 
though  he  has  great  variety  of  thoughts,  and  such  from  Vv^hich 
others  as  well  as  himself  might  receive  profit  and  delight  yet 
they  are  all  within  his  own  breast.”  In  this  sentence,  the  nom- 
inative man  stands  alone  and  unconnected  with  any  verb, 
either  expressed  or  implied.  It  should  be,  “ Though  man  has 
great  variety,”  &c. 

4.  When  a verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  either  of  wffiich 
may  be  understood  as  the  subject  of  the  affirmation,  it  may 
agree  with  either  of  them ; but  some  regard  must  be  had  to 
that  which  is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  it,  as.  also  to  that 
which  stands  next  to  the  verb ; as,  “ His  meat  was  locusts  and 
wild  honey  ; ” “ A great  cause  of  the  low"  state  of  industry 
were  the  restraints  put  upon  it ; ” “ The  wages  of  sin  is 
death.” 

In  such  sentences  as  those  which  follow,  either  of  the 
clauses  may  be  considered  as  the  nominative  to  the  verb.  “ To 
show  how  the  understanding  proceeds  herein,  is  the  design  of 
the  following  discourse.”  This  sentence  may  be  inverted 
without  changing  a single  word : “ The  design  of  the  follow- 
ing discourse  is,  to  show^  how  the  understanding  proceeds 
herein.”  “ To  fear  no  eye,  and  to  suspect  no  tongue,  is  the 
great  prerogative  of  innocence.”  This  sentence  may  be  in- 
verted : but,  according  to  the  English  idiom,  the  pronoun  it 
would,  in  that  case,  precede  the  verb ; as,  “ It  is  the  great 
prerogative  of  innocence,  to  fear  no  eye,  arid  to  suspect  no 
tongue.” 

5.  When  the  nominative  case  has  no  personal  tense  of  a 
verb,  but  is  put  before  a participle,  independently  of  the  rest 
of  the  sentence,  it  is  called  the  case  absolute  , as,  “ Shame  being 
lost,  all  virtue  is  lost ;”  ’‘That  having  been  discussed  long  ago, 
there  is  no  occasion  to  resume  it.” 

As  in  the  use  of  the  case  absolute,  the  case  is,  in  English, 
always  the  nominative,  the  following  example  is  erroneous, 
in  making  it  the  objective  ; “ Solomon  was  of  this  mind  ; and 
1 have  no  doubt  he  made  as  wise  and  true  proverbs,  as  any 

VoL.  I.  21 


146 


SYNTAX. 


/ body  has  done  since  ; Mm  only  excepted,  who  was  a much 
greater  and  wiser  man  than  Solomon.”  It  should  be,  “Ae 
only  excpted.” 


The  nominative  case  is  commonly  placed  before  the  verb  ; 
but  sometimes  it  is  .put  after  the  verb,  if  it  is  a simple  tense; 
and  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb  or  participle,  if  a com- 
pound tense  ; as, 

1st,  When  a question  is  asked,  a command  given,  or  a wish 
expressed  ; as,  “Confidest  thou  in  me  ?”  “Read  thou  “Mayst 
thou  be  happy  ! ” “ Long  live  the  king  ! ” 

2d,  When  a supposition  is  made,  without  the  conjunction  if: 
as,  “Where  it  not  for  this;”  “Had  I been  there.” 

3d,  When  a verb  neuter  is  used : as,  “ On  a sudden  appeared 
the  king.”  “Above  it  stood  the  seraphim.  ” 

4th,  When  the  verb  is  preceded  by  the  adverbs,  here,  there, 
then,  thence,  hence,  thus,  &c. : as,  “ Here  I am  ;”  “ There 
was  he  slain;”  “Then  cometh  the  end;”  “Thence  ariseth 
his  grief;”  “Hence  proceeds  his  anger;”  “Thus' was  the 
affair  settled.” 

5th,  When  a sentence  depends  on  neither  or  nor,  so  as  to  be 
coupled  with  another  sentence , as,  “ Ye  shall  not  eat  of  it, 
neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest  ye  die.” 

Gth,  When  an  emphatical  adjective  introduces  a sentence  : 
as,  “ Happy  is  the  man,  whose  heart  does  not  reproach  him.” 

Grammarians  differ  in  opinion,  respecting  the  propriety  of 
the  following  modes  of  expression  : as,  “The  argitments  advan- 
ced were  nearly  as  follows  ; ” “ The  positions  were,  as  apjyears, 
incontrovertible.” — Some  maintain,  that  the  phrases,  as  follows, 
as  appears,  form  what  are  called  impersonal  verbs ; and 
should,  therefore,  be  confined  to  the  singular  number  : the 
construction  being,  “ as  it  follows ,”  “ as  it  appears.”  They 
assert,  that  if  we  give  the  sentence  a different  turn,  and  in- 
stead of  as,  say  such  as,  the  verb  is  no  longer  termed  imper- 
sonal ; but  properly  agrees  with  its  nominative,  in  the  plural 
number : as,  “ The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  such  as 
follow  ; ” “ The  positions  were  such  ^as  appear  incontroverti- 
ble.” Of  this  opinion  is  the  learned  Dr.  Campbell,  who,  in 
his  “ Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,”  says,  “When  a verb  is  used 
impersonally,  it  ought  undoubtedly'  to  be  in  the  singular  num- 
ber, whether  the  neuter  pronoun  be  expressed  or  understood. 
For  this  reason,  analogy  and  usage  favour  this  mode  of  ex- 
pression : ‘ The  conditions  of  the  agreement  were  as  follows* 
and  not,  as  follow.  A few  late  writers  have  inconsiderately 


RULE  I. 


147 


adopted  the  last  form,  through  a mistake  of  the  construction. 
For  the  same  reason  we  ought  to  say,  ‘‘  I shall  consider  his 
censures  so  far  only,  as  concerns  my  friend’s  conduct  and  not, 
^ so  far  as  concern,^  ” 

Other  writers  contend  that  the  word  as  is  equivalent  to 
that,  OY  which-,  and  that  as  in  the  phrased  mentioned,  is  the 
true  nominative  to  the  verbs  follows  and  appears  ; which  should 
consequently  be  written,  as  follow,  as  appear.  They  assert 
that  as  is  used  either  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  number  ; in 
the  singular  : as,  “ His  insensibility  is  such  as  excites  our  detes- 
tationin  the  plural  thus:  His  manners  are  such  as  are  uni- 
versally pleasing.”  That,  in  the  former  example,  such  as  is 
equivalent  to  that  which,  and  in  the  latter  to  those  which.  That 
if  as  be  either  singular  or  plural,  and  synonymous  with  it,  that, 
or  which,  it  must,  when  it  refers  to  a plural  antecedent,  like 
which,  be  considered  as  plural,  and  joined  to  a plural  verb. 
That  it  is  more  consonant  with  analogy  to  say:  “ The  circum- 
stances were,  which  follow,”  than  it  follows,  or  that  follows. 
They  further  observe,  that  when  the  demonstrative  such  pre- 
cedes, and  is  joined  to  a plural  noun,  it  is  universally  admitted 
that  as  must  then  be  followed  by  a plural  verb  : if  so,  the  con- 
struction of  the  word  as  cannot  be  in  the  least  degree  affected 
by  the  ellipsis  of  the  correlative  term. 

The  diversity  of  sentiment  on  this  subject,  and  the  respect- 
ability of  the  different  opponents,  will  naturally  induce  the 
readers  to  pause  and  reflect,  before  they  decide.  They  w ho 
doubt  the  accuracy  of  Horne  Tooke’s  statement,  “ That  as, 
however  and  whenever  used  in  English,  itieans  the  same  as  it, 
or  that,  or  which ;”  and  who  are  not  satisfied  w hether  the  verbs, 
in  the  sentences  first  mentioned,  should  be  in  the  singular  or  the 
plural  number,  may  vary  the  form  of  expression.  Thus,  the 
meaning  of  the  sentences  alluded  to,  may  be  conveyed  in  the 
following  terms,  or  in  other  equivalent  expressions.  “ The 
arguments  advanced  were  nearly  such  as  follow  ;”  ‘‘  The  argu- 

ments advanced  were  nearly  of  the  following  nature  ;”  The 
following  are  nearly  the  arguments  which  were  advanced  ;” 
“ The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  those  which  follow  ;” 

These,  or  nearly  these,  were  the  arguments  advanced  :” 
‘‘The  positions  were  such  as  appear  in  controvertible  ;”  “It 
appears  that  the  positions  were  incontrovertible  “ That  the 
positions  were  incontrovertible,  is  apparent  ;”  “ The  positions 

were  apparently  incontrovertible  ;”  “In  appearance,  the  posi- 
tions were  incontrovertible.” 


It  has  been  advanced  as  a rule  of  grammar,  that  “ When 
the  nominative  consists  of  several  words,  and  the  last  of  the 


148 


SYNTAX. 


nouns  is  in  the  plural  number,  the  verb  is  commonly  plural 
as,  “ A part  of  the  exports  consist  of  raw  silk  t”  “ A number 
of  men  and  women  were  present “ The  train  of  our  ideas 
are  often  interrupted.”  The  support  of  this  rule  has  been  in- 
geniously  attempted  by  the  following  observations  : “ The 
whole  of  the  words  in  the  first  part  of  each  of  the  preceding 
sentences,  or  the  noun  and  its  adjuncts,  are  the  actual  nomina- 
tive. Separate  the  words  part  and  exports,  in  the  first  exam- 
ple, and  the  affirmation  of  the  verb  cannot  with  truth  be  applied 
to  either:  and  as  the  whole  must  be  considered  as  the  nomina- 
tive, the  verb  is  very  naturally  connected  in  number  with  the 
last  noun.” — This  reasoning,  how  plausible  soever  it  may,  at 
first  sight  appear,  is  certainly  destitute  of  solidity.  It  would 
counteract  some  of  the  plainest  principles  of  grammar ; and 
would  justify  the  following  constructions,  and  a multitude  of 
others  of  a similar  nature.  “ The  truth  of  the  narratives  have 
never  been  disputed  “ The  virtue  of  these  men  and  women, 
are  indeed  exemplary  “A  fondness  for  such  distinctions, 
render  a man  ridiculous  “A  deviation  from  good  principles, 
soon  produce  a deviation  from  good  conduct.”  In  each  of 
these  instances,  it  may  be  said,  as  our  opponents  say  in  support 
of  the  proposed  rule,  that  if  we  separate  the  two  nouns,  the 
affirmation  cannot  with  truth  be  applied  to  either ; the  verb  res- 
pects the  whole  preceding  phrase,  in  the  one  case  as  much  as  in 
the  other.  But  will  it  hence  follow,  that  .the  verb  is  to  be  con- 
nected in  number  with  the  last  noun  ? The  truth  is,  the  asser- 
tion grammatically  respects  the  first  nouns  in  all  the  preceding 
instances.  The  adjuncts  are  connected  with  those  nouns  as 
subordinate  parts,  or  as  modifications,  and  are  put  in  the 
objective  case,  governed  by  the  prepositions.  The  latter  nouns 
cannot  therefore  he  the  nominatives  to  the  respective  verbs : 
they  cannot  be  at  the  same  time,  in  the  nominative  and  objec- 
tive cases.  That  a sentence,  or  a part  of  a sentence,  may  be 
the  nominative  to  a verb,  is  undoubtedly  true  ; but,  in  these 
cases,  the  construction  is  obviously  different  from  that  which 
exists  in  the  cases  enumerated  under  the  proposed  rule.  In  the 
former,  there  is  no  prominent  object  to  wffiich  the  verb  chiefly 
relates  : and  the  whole  preceding  part  must  therefore  be  con- 
sidered as  the  nominative  : in  the  latter,  there  is  a capital  lead- 
ing object,  which  attracts  the  verb,  and  which  supports]  the 
dependent  circumstances. 


RULE  II. 


149 


Rule  II. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  &c.  in  the  singular  number, 
joined  together  by  a copulative  conjunction,  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  must  have  verbs,  nouns,  and 
pronouns,  agreeing  with  them  in  the  plural  number : 
as,  Socrates  and  Plato  were  wise;  they  were  the  most, 
eminent  philosophers  of  Greece;”  “The  sun  that 
rolls  over  our  heads,  the  food  that  we  receive,  the 
rest  that  we  enjoy,  daily  admonish  us  of  a superior 
and  snperintending  Power.”* 

See  Vol.  2.  Part.  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  2. 

This  rule  is  often  violated ; some  instances  of  which  are 
annexed.  “ And  so  was  also  James  and  John  tire  sons  of 
Zebedee,  who  were  partners  with  Simon  “ and  so  were  also.’ 

“ All  joy,  tranquillity,  and  peace,  even  for  ever  and  ever,  doth 
dwell “ dwelt  for  ever.”  “ By  whose  power  all  good  and 
evil  is  distributed “ are  distributed.”  “ Their  love,  and  their 
hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  perished  :”  “ are  perished.” 
“ The  thoughtless  and  intemperate  enjoyment  of  pleasure,  the 
criminal  abuse  of  it,  and  the  forgetfulness  of  our  being  account- 
able creatures,  obliterates  every  serious  thought  of  the  proper 
business  of  life,  and  effaces  the  sense  of  religion  and  of  God.” 

It  ought  to  be  ohliteratel^  and  ‘‘  effaceJ^ 

1.  When  the  nouns  are  nearly  related,  or  scarcely  distin- 
guishable in  sense,  and  sometimes,  even  when  they  are  very 
different,  some  authors  have  thought  it  allowable  to  put  the 
verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns  in  the  singular  number  : as. 

Tranquillity  and  peace  dwells  there  ;”  “ Ignorance  and  neg- 
ligence has  produced  the  effect;  “The  discomfiture  and 
slaughter  was  very  great.”  But  it  is  evidently  contrary  to  the 
first  principles  of  grammar,  to  consider  two  distinct  ideas  as 
one,  however  nice  may  be  their  shades  of  difference : and  if 
there  be  no  difference,  one  of  them  must  be  superfluous,  and 
ought  to  be  rejected. 

To  support  the  above  construction,  it  is  said,  that  the  verb 
may  be  understood  as  applied  to  each  of  the  preceding  terms ; 
as  in  the  following  example  : “ Sand,  and  salt,  and  a mass  of 
iron,  is  easier  to  bear  than  a man  without  understanding.” 


• For  the  exceptiona  to  this  Rule,  see  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Key.  Chap.  I.  Rule  8.  The  iiote< 


150 


SYNTAX. 


But  besides  the  confusion,  and  the  latitude  of  application,  which 
such  a construction  would  introduce,  it  appears  to  be  more 
proper  and  analogical,  in  cases  where  the  verb  is  intended  to 
be  applied  to  any  one  of  the  terms,  to  make  use  of  the  disjunct- 
ive conjunction,  which  grammatically  refers  the  verb  to  one  or 
other  of  the  preceding  terms  in  a separate  view.  To  preserve 
the  distinctive  uses  of  the  copulative  and  disjunctive  conjunc- 
tions, would  render  the  rules  precise,  consistent,  and  intelligible. 
Dr.  Blair  observes,  that  “ two  or  more  substantives,  joined  by  a 
copulative,  must  always  require  the*verb  or  pronoun  to  which 
they  refers  to  be  placed  in  the  plural  number:”  and  this  is  the- 
general  sentiment  of  English  grammarians. 

2.  In  many  complex  sentences,  it  is  difficult  for  learners  to 
determine,  whether  one  or  more  of  the  clauses  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  nominative  case  ; and  consequently,  whether  the 
verb  should  be  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  number.  We  shall, 
therefore,  set  down  a number  of  varied  examples  of  this  nature, 
which  may  serve  as  some  government  to  the  scholar,  with  res- 
pect to  sentences  of  a similar  construction.  “ Prosperity,  with 
humility,  renders  its  possessor  truly  amiable.”  “ The  ship,  with 
all  her  furniture  was  destroyed.”  “ Not  only  his  estate,  his 
reputation  too  has  suffered  by  his  misconduct.”  “ The  general 
also,  in  conjunction  with  the  officers,  has  applied  for  redress.” 
‘‘  He  cannot  be  justified  ; for  it  is  true,  that  the  prince,  as  well 
as  the  people,  was  blameworthy.” 

“ The  king,  with  his  life-guard,  has  just  passed  •through  the 
village.”  “In  the  mutual  influence  of  body  and  soul,  there  is 
a wisdom,  a wonderful  wisdom,  which  we  cannot  fathom.” 
“ Virtue,  honour,  nay,  even  self-interest,  conspire  to  recommend 
the  measure.”  “ Patriotism,  morality,  every  public  and  private 
consideration,  demand  our  submission  to  just  and  lawful  govern- 
ment.” “ Nothing  delights  me  so  much  as  the  works  of  nature.” 
— See  Vol,  2.  Part  I.  Exercises.  Chap.  I,  Sec.  9. 

In  support  of  such  forms  of  expression  as  the  following,  we 
see  the  authority  of  Hume,  Priestly,  and  other  writers ; and 
we  annex  them  for  the  reader’s  consideration.  “ A long 
course  of  time,  with  a variety  of  accidents  and  circumstances, 
are  requisite  to  produce  those  revolutions.”  “ The  king,  with 
the  lords  and  commons,  form  an  excellent  frame  of  govern- 
ment,” “ The  side  A,  with  the  sides  B and  C,  compose  the 
triangle.”  “ The  fire  communicated  itself  to  the  bed,  which, 
with  the  furniture  of  the  room,  and  a valuable  library,  were 
all  entirely  consumed.”  It  is  however,  proper  to  observe, 
that  these  modes  of  expression  do  not  appear  to  be  warranted 
by  the  just  principles  of  construction.  The  words,  “ A 
long  course  of  time,”  “ The  king,”  “ The  side  A,”  and 


RULE  III. 


151 


which/’  are  the  true  nominatives  to  the  respective  verbs.  In 
the  last  example,  the  word  all  should  be  expunged.  As  the 
preposition  with  governs  the  objective  case,  in  English ; and  if 
translated  into  Latin  would  govern  the  ablative  case,  it  is  mani- 
fest that  the  clauses  following  with^  in  the  preceding  sentences, 
cannot  form  any  part  of  i\\e  nominative  case.  They  cannot  be 
at  the  same  time  in  the  objective  and  the  nominative  cases. 
The  following  sentence  appears  to  be  unexceptionable ; and 
may  serve  to  explain  the  others.  ‘‘  The  lords  and  commons 
are  essential  branches  of  the  British  constitution  : the  king,  with 
them,  forms  an  excellent  frame  of  government.”* 

3.  If  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  are  joined  to- 
gether by  a copulative  conjunction,  be  of  several  persons,  in 
making  the  plural  pronouns  agree  with  them  in  person,  the 
second  person  takes  place  of  the  third,  and  the  first  of  both : 
as,  “James,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  owr  country.” 
“ Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  you^ 

Rule  III. 

The  conjunction  disjunctive  has  an  effect  con- 
trary to  that  of  the  conjunction  copulative ; for  as 
the  verb,  noun^  or  pronoun,  is  referred  to  the  preced- 
ing terms  taken  separately,  it  must  be  in  the  singular 
number;  as,  Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused 
this  mistake John,  James,  of  Joseph,  intends  to 
accompany  me;”  There  in  many  minds,  neither 
knowledge  nor  understanding.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  3. 

The  following  sentences  are.  variations  from  this  rule.  A 
man  may  see  a rnethaphor  or  an  allegory  4n  a picture,  as  well 
as  read  them  in  a description  “ read  “ Neither  character 
nor  dialogue  were  yet  understood;”  ‘^was,  yet.”  “It  must  in- 
deed be  confessed,  that  a lampoon  or  a satire,  do  not  carry  in 
them  robbery  or  murder;  does  not  carry  in  zf.”  “Death, 
or  some  worse  misfortune,  soon  divide  them :”  it  ought  to  be 
“ divides^ 

1.  When  singular  pronouns,  or  a noun  and  pronoun  of  dif- 
ferent persons  are  disjunctively  connected,  the  verb  must 
agree  with  that  person  which  is  placed  nearest  to  it ; as,  “ I 

* .Though  the  constructipn  will  not  admit  of  a plural  verb,  the  sentence  would  certainly  stand 
better  thus ; * The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  commons,  form  an  excellent  constitution.” 


152 


SYNTAX. 


or  thou  art  to  blame  “ Thou  or  I am  in  fault “ I,  or  thou, 
or  he,  is  the  author  of  it “ George  or  I am  the  person.”  But 
it  would  be  better  to  say ; “ Either  I am  to  blame,  or  thou 
art,”  &c. 

2:  When  a disjunctive  occurs  between  a singular  noun,  or 
pronoun,  and  a plural  one,  the  verb  is  made  to  agree  with  the 
plural  noun  and  pronoun : as,  “ Neither  poverty  nor  riches 
were  injurious  to  him  “ I or  they  were  offended  by  it.”  But 
in  this  case  the  plural  noun  or  pronoun,  when  it  can  conveni- 
ently be  done,  should  be  placed  next  to  the  verb. 

Rule  IV. 

A NOUN  of  multitude,  or  signifying  many,  may  have 
a verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  either  of  the  sin- 
gular or  plural  number;  yet  not  v/ithout  regard  to 
the  import  of  the  word,  as  conveying  unity  or  plural-, 
ity  of  idea : as  “ The  meeting  was  large “ The 
parliament  is  dissolved;”  “ The  nation  is  powerful:” 
“ My  people  do  not  consider : they  have  not  known 
me :”  “ The  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  as 
their  chief  good  “ The  council  were  divided  in 
their  sentiments.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  4. 


We  ought  to  consider  whether  the  term  immediately  sug- 
gests the  idea  of  the  number  it  represents,  or  whether  it  ex- 
hibits to  the  mind  the  idea  of  the  whole  as  one  thing.  In  the 
former  case,  the  verb  ought  to  be  plural : in  the  latter,  it  ought 
to  be  singular.  Thus,  it  seems  improper  to  say,  “ The  peas- 
antry goes  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  makes  use  of  wooden 
shoes.”  It  would  be  better  to  say,  “The  peasantry  barefoot, 
and  the  middle  sort  make  use^^  &c. ; because  the  ideadn  both 
these  cases,  is  that  of  a number.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  a 
harshness  in  the  following  sentences,  in  which  nouns  of  number 
have  verbs  plural : because  the  ideas  they  represent  seem  not  to 
be  sufficiently  divided  in  the  mind.  “ The  court  of  Rome  were 
not  without  solicitude.”  “ The  house  of  commons  were  of  small 
weight.”  “ The  house  of  lords  were  so  much  influenced  by  these 
reasons.”  “ Stephen’s  party  were  entirely  broken  up  by  the 
captivity  of  their  leader.”  “ An  army  of  twenty-four  thousand 
were  assembled.”  “What  reason  have  the  church  of  Rome  for 
proceeding  in  this  manner  ?”  “ There  is  indeed  no  constitu- 


RULE  IV. 


153 


tion  so  tame  and  careless  of  ihew  own  defence.”  “All  the 
virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a few  fingers,  but 
his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable.”  Is  not  mankind  in  this 
place  a noun  of  multitude,  and  such  as  requires  the  pronoun 
referring  to  it,  to  be  in  the  plural  number,  their  ? 

When  a noun  of  multitude  is  preceded  by  a definitive  word, 
which  clearly  limits  the  sense  to  an  aggregate  with  an  idea  of 
unity,  it  requires  a verb  and  pronoun  to  agree  with  it  in  the 
singular  number : as,  “A  company  of  troops  was  detached ; 
a troop  of  cavalry  was  raised : this  people  is  become  a great 
nation ; that  assembly  was  numerous ; a great  number  of  men 
and  women  was  collected.” — See  pages  147,  148. 

On  many  occasions,  where  a noun  of  multitude  is  used,  it 
is  very  difficult  to  decide,  whether  the  verb  should  be  in  the 
singular,  or  in  the  plural  number ; and  this  difficulty  has  indu- 
ced some  grammarians  to  cut  the  knot  at  once,  and  to  assert 
that  every  noun  of  multitude,  as  it  constitutes  one  aggregate 
of  many  particulars,  must  always  be  considered  as  conveying 
the  idea  of  unity ; and  that,  consequently,  the  verb  and  pro- 
noun agreeing  with  it,  cannot  with  propriety,  be  ever  used  in 
the  plural  number.  This  opinion  appears  to  be  not  well  con- 
sidered ; it  is  contrary  to  the  established  practice  of  the  best 
writers  of  the  language,  and  against  the  rules  of  the  most  re- 
spectable grammarians.  Some  nouns  of  multitude  certainly 
convey  to  the  mind  an  idea  of  plurality,  others,  that  of  a 
whole  as  one  thing,  and  others  again,  sometimes  that  of  unity, 
and  sometimes  that  of  plurality.  On  this  ground  it  is  war- 
rantable, and  consistent  with  the  nature  of  things,  to  apply  a 
plural  verb  and  pronoun  to  the  one  class,  and  a singular  verb 
and  pronoun,  to  the  other.  We  shall  immediately  perceive 
the  impropriety  of  the  following  constructions : “ The  clergy 
has  withdrawn  itself  from  the  temporal  courts  “ The  nobili- 
ty, exclusive  of  its  capacity  as  hereditary  counsellor  of  the 
crown,  forms  the  pillar  to  support  the  throne “ The  com- 
monalty is  divided  into  several  degrees  “ The  people  of 
England  is  possessed  of  super-eminent  privileges  “ The 
multitude  was  clamorous  for  the  object  of  its  affections 
“ The  assembly  was  divided  in  its  opinion “ The  fleet  was 
all  dispersed,  and  some  of  it  was  taken.” — In  all  these  in- 
stances, as  well  as  in  many  others,  the  plural  verb  and  pronoun 
should  be  used : and  if  the  reader  will  apply  them,  as  he 
looks  over  the  sentences  a second  time,  he  will  perceive  the 
propriety  and  effect  of  a change  in  the  construction. 


VoL.  I. 


22 


154  ^SYNTAX. 

Rule  V. 

Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antece- 
dents, and  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand,  in  gen- 
der and  number : as,  “ This  is  the  friend  whom  I 
love “ That  is  the  vice  which  I hate  “ The  king 
and  the  queen  had  put  on  their  robes;”  “The  moon 
appears,  and  she  shines,  but  the  light  is  not  her  own.” 

The  relative  is  of  the  same  person  as  the  antece- 
dent, and  the  verb  agrees  with  it  accordingly ; as, 
“Thou  who  lovest  wisdom;”  ^^\who  speak  from  expe- 
rience.” 

See  vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  5. 

Of  this  rule  there  are  many  violations  to  be  met  with ; a 
few  of  which  may  be  sufficient  to  put  the  learner  on  his 
guard.  ‘‘  Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep  within  its  particular 
bounds,  and  content  themselves  with  the  advantages  of  their 
particular  districts better  thus : The  sexes  should  keep 
within  their  particular  bounds,”  &c.  “ Can  any  one,  on  their 

entrance  into  the  world,  be  fully  secure  that  they  shall  not  be 
deceived  ?”  “ on  his  entrance,”  and  “ that  he  shall.”  One 
should  not  think  too  favorably  of  ourselves ;”  “ of  one^s  selfJ^ 
“ He  had  one  acquaintance  which  poisoned  his  principles 
“ who  poisoned.” 

Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it  re- 
fers, either  expressed  or  implied  : as,  “ Who  is  fatal  to 
others,  is  so  to  himself ;”  that  is,  “ the  man  who  is  fatal  to 
others.” 

Who,  which,  what,  and  the  relative  that,  though  in  the  objec- 
tive case,  are  always  placed  before  the  verb ; as  are  also 
their  compounds,  whoever,  whosoever,  &c. : as,  “ He  whom  ye 
seek  ;”  “ This  is  what,  or  the  thing  which,  or  that,  you  want 
“ Whomsoever  you  please  to  appoint.” 

What  is  sometimes  applied,  in  a manner  which  appears  to 
be  exceptionable : as,  “All  fevers,  except  what  are  called 
nervous,”  &c.  It  would  at  least  be  better  to  say,  “ except 
those  which  are  called  nervous.” 

What  is  very  frequently  used  as  the  representative  of  two 
cases ; one  the  objective  after  a verb  or  preposition,  and  the 
other,  the  nominative  to  a subsequent  verb  : as,  “ I heard  what 
was  said.”  “ He  related  what  was  seen.”  “According  to  what 
was  proposed.”  “ We  do  not  constantly  love  what  has  done 
us  good  ” — This  peculiar  construction  may  be  explained  by 
resolving  what  into  its  principles  that  which  ; as,  “ I heard  that 
which  was  said,”  &c. 


RULE  V. 


155 


In  a few  instances,  the  relative  is  introduced  as  the  nominative 
to  the  verb  before  the  sentence  or  clause  which  it  represents : 
as,  “ There  was  therefore,  which  is  all  that  we  assert,  a course 
of  life  pursued  by  them,  different  from  that  which  they  before 
led.”  Here,  the  relative  which  is  the  representative  of  the  whole 
of  the  last  part  of  the  sentence  ; and  its  natural  position  is  after 
that  clause. 

Whatever  relative  is  used,  in  one  of  a series  of  clauses  relating 
to  the  same  antecedent,  the  same  relative  ought,  generally  to 
be  used  in  them  all.  In  the  following  sentence,  this  rule  is  vio- 
lated: “It  is  remarkable,  that  Holland,  against  the  war 

was  undertaken,  and  thaU  in  the  very  beginning,  was  reduced 
to  the  brink  of  destruction,  lost  nothing.”  The  clause  ought  to 
have  been,  “ and  which  in  the  very  beginning.” 

The  relative  frequently  refers  to  a whole  clause  in  the  sen- 
tence, instead  of  a particular  word  in  it : as,  “ The  resolution 
was  adopted  hastily,  and  without  due  consideration,  which  pro- 
duced great  dissatisfaction  ;”  that  is,  “ which  thing,”  namely,  the 
hasty  adoption  of  the  resolution. 


L Personal  pronouns  being  used  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
noun,  are  not  employed  in  the  same  part  of  the  sentence  as  the 
noun  which  they  represent ; for  it  would  be  improper  to  say, 
“The  king  he  is  just “ I saw  her  the  queen  ;”  “ The  men  they 
were  there;”  “Many  words  darken  speech “My  banks 
they  are  furnished  with  bees.”  These  personals  are  superfluous, 
as  there  is  very  seldom  any  occasion  for  a substitute  in  the  same 
part  where  the  principal  word  is  present.  The  nominative  case 
they^  in  the  following  sentence,  is  also  superfluous : “ Who,  in- 
stead of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  perpetually  intent 
upon  doing  mischief.” 

This  rule  is  often  infringed,  by  the  case  absolute’s  not  being  pro- 
perly distinguished  from  certain  forms  of  expression  apparently 
similar  to  it.  In  this  sentence,  “ The  candidate  being  chosen, 
the  people  carried  him  in  triumph,”  the  word  candidate  is  in  the 
absolute  case.  But  in  the  following  sentence,  “ The  candidate, 
being  chosen,  was  carried  in  triumph  by  the  people,”  candidate 
is  the  nominative  to  the  verb  was  carried ; and  therefore  it  is 
not  in  the  case  absolute.  Many  writers,  however,  apprehending 
the  nominative  in  this  latter  sentence,  as  well  as  in  the  former, 
to  be  put  absolutely,  often  insert  another  nominative  to  the  verb, 
and  say,  “ The  candidate  being  chosen,  he  was  carried  in  tri- 
umph by  the  people :”  The  general  approving  the  plan,  he  put 
it  in  execution.”  The  error  in  each  of  these  twb  sentences,  is, 
that  there  are  two  nominatives  used,  where  one  would  have  been 
sufficient,  and  consequently  that  he  is  redundant. 


156 


SYNTAX. 


2.  The  pronoun  that  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as  well 
as  to  things  ; but  after  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree, 
and  after  the  pronominal  adjective  same,  it  is  generally  used  in 
preference  to  who  or  which : as,  ‘‘  Charles  XIL  king  of  Sweden, 
was  one  of  the  greatest  madmen  that  that  the  world  ever  saw 
“Cataline’s  followers  were  the  most  profligate  that  could  be 
found  in  any  city “ He  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw  before.” 
But  if,  after  the  word  same  a preposition  should  precede  the  rel- 
ative, one  of  the  other  two  pronouns  must  be  employed,  the 
pronoun  that  not  admitting  a preposition  prefixed  to  it : as,  “ He 
is  the  same  man,  with  whom  you  were  acquainted.”  It  is  re- 
markable, however,  that,  when  the  arrangement  is  a little  varied, 
the  word  admits  the  preposition:  as,  “He  is  the  same  man 
that  you  were  acquainted  with^ 

There  are  cases  wherein  we  cannot  conveniently  dispense 
with  the  relative  that,  as  applied  to  persons : as,  first  after  who 
the  interrogative ; “ Who  that  has  any  sense  of  religion,  would 
have  argued  thus?”  Secondly,  when  persons  make  but  a 
part  of  the  antecedent ; “ The  woman  and  the  estate,  that 
became  his  portion,  were  rewards  far  beyond  his  desert.”  In 
neither  of  these  examples  could  any  other  relative  have  been 
used. 

3.  The  pronouns  whichsoever,  whosoever,  and  the  like,  are 
elegantly  divided  by  the  interposition  of  the  corresponding 
substantives:  thus,  “On  whichsoever  side  the  king  cast  his 
eyes ;”  would  have  sounded  better,  if  written,  “ On  which  side 
soever,”  &c. 

4.  Many  persons  are  apt,  in  conversation,  to  put  the  object- 
ive case  of  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  place  of  these  and  those : 
as,  “ Give  me  them  books ;”  instead  of  “ those  books.  We 
may  sometimes  find  this  fault  even  in  writing : as,  “ Observe 
them  three  there.”  We  also  frequently  meet  with  those  instead 
of  they,  at  the  beginning  of  a sentence,  and  where  there  is  no 
particular  reference  to  an  antecedent : as,  “ Those  that  sow  in 
tears,  sometimes  reap  in  joy.”  They  that,  or  they  who  sow  in 
tears. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  easy  to  say,  whether  a personal 
pronoun  or  a demonstrative  is  preferable,  in  certain  construc- 
tions. “ We  are  not  unacquainted  with  the  calumny  of  them 
(or  those)  who  openly  make  use  of  the  warmest  profession.” 


5.  In  some  dialects,  the  word  what  is  improperly  used  for 
Lliat,  and  sometimes  we  find  it  in  this  sense  in  writing : “ They 


RULE  V. 


157 


will  never  believe  but  whot  I have  been  entirely  to  blame/’ 
“ I am  not  satisfied  but  what,”  &c.  instead  of  “ but  thatJ^  The 
word  somewhat^  in  the  following  sentence,  seems  to  be  used  im- 
properly. “ These  punishments  seemed  to  have  been  exercised 
in  somewhat  an  arbitrary  manner.  Sometimes  we  read,  “In 
somewhat  of.”  The  meaning  is,  “ in  a manner  which  is  in  some 
respects  arbitrary.” 

6.  The  pronoun  relative  who  is  so  much  appropriated  to 

persons,  that  there  is  generally  harshness  in  the  application  of 
it,  except  to  the  proper  names  of  persons,  or  the  general  terms 
man,  woman,  &c.  A term  which  only  implies  the  idea  of  per- 
sons, and  expresses  them  by  some  circumstance  or  epithet,  will 
hardly  authorize  the  use  of  it : as,  “ That  faction  in  England, 
who  most  powerfully  opposed  his  arbitrary  pretensions.”  “ That 
faction  which,'^  would  have  been  better ; and  the  same  remark 
will  serve  for  the  following  examples : “ France  who  was  in 
alliance  with  Sweden.”  “The  court,  itsAo,”  &c.  “The  cav- 
alry, who^^  &c.  “ The  cities,  who  aspired  at  liberty.”  “ That 

party  among  us,  who^^  &:c.  “ The  family  whom  they  consider 

as  usurpers.” 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  doubtful,  whether  this  pronoun  is 
properly  applied  or  not : as,  “ The  number  of  substantial  inhab- 
itants with  whom  some  cities  abound.”  For  when  a term 
directly  and  necessarily  implies  persons,  it  may  in  many  cases 
claim  the  personal  relative.  “ None  of  the  company  whom  he 
most  affected,  could  cure  him  of  the  melancholy  under  which 
he  laboured.”  The  word  acquaintance  may  have  the  same 
construction. 

7.  We  hardly  consider  little  children  as  persons,  because  that 
term  gives  us  the  idea  of  reason  and  reflection : and  therefore 
the  application  of  the  personal  relative  who,  in  this  case,  seems 
to  be  harsh : “ A child  loAo.”  It,  though  neuter,  is  applied,  when 
we  speak  of  an  infant  or  child  whose  sex  is  unknown : as,  “ It 
is  a lovely  infant ;”  “ It  is  a healthy  child.”  The  personal  pro- 
noun is  still  more  improperly  applied  to  animals : “ A lake  fre- 
quented by  that  fowl,  whom  nature  has  taught  to  dip  the  wing 
in  water.” 

8.  When  the  name  of  a person  is  used  merely  as  a name, 
and  it  does  not  refer  to  the  person,  the  pronoun  who  ought  not 
to  be  applied.  “It  is  no  wonder  if  such  a man  did  not  shine  at 
the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  who  was  but  another  name  for 
prudence  and  economy.”  Better  thus ; “ Whose  name  was  but 
another  word  for  prudence,”  &c.  The  word  whose  begins  like- 
wise to  be  restricted  to  persons ; yet  it  is  not  done  so  generally. 


158 


SYNTAX. 


but  that  good  writers,  even  in  prose,  use  it  when  speaking  of 
things.  The  construction  is  not,  however,  always  pleasing,  as 
we  may  see  in  the  following  instances : ‘‘  Pleasure,  whose 
nature,”  &c.  “ Call  every  production,  whose  parts  and  whose 

nature,”  &c. 

In  one  case,  however,  custom  authorizes  us  to  use  which  with 
respect  to  persons ; and  that  is  when  we  want  to  distinguish 
one  person  of  two,  or  a particular  person  among  a number  of 
others.  We  should  then  say,  “ Which  of  the  two,”  or  “ Which 
of  them,  is  he  or  she  ?” 

9.  As  the  pronoun  relative  has  no  distinction  of  number,  we 
sometimes  find  an  ambiguity  in  the  use  of  it : as,  when  we  say, 
‘‘  the  disciples  of  Christ,  whom  we  imitate we  may  mean  the 
imitation  either  of  Christ,  or  of  his  disciples.  The  accuracy 
and  clearness  of  the  sentence  depend  very  much  upon  the 
proper  and  determinate  use  of  the  relative,  so  that  it  may  readily 
present  its  antecedent  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader, 
without  any  obscurity  or  ambiguity. 

10.  It  is  and  it  was^  are  often,  after  the  manner  of  the  French, 
used  in  a plural  construction,  and  by  some  of  our  best  writers : 
as,  ‘‘  It  is  either  a few  great  men  who  decide  for  the  whole,  or 
it  is  the  rabble  that  follow  a seditious  ringleader;”  is  they 
that  are  the  real  authors,  though  the  soldiers  are  the  actors  of 
the  revolutions ;”  “ It  was  the  heretics  that  first  began  to  rail,” 
&c.  “ ^Tis  these  that  early  taint  the  female  mind.”  This  license 
in  the  construction  of  it  is  (if  it  be  proper  to  admit  it  all)  has, 
however,  been  certainly  abused  in  the  following  sentence,  which 
is  thereby  made  a very  awkw^ard  one.  “ It  is  wonderful  the 
very  few  accidents,  which,  in  several  years,  happen  from  this 
practice.” 

11.  The  interjections  0/  Oh!  andA/i/  require  the  objec- 

tive case  of  a pronoun  in  the  first  person  after  them  : as,  O me  ! 
oh  me  ! Ah  me  !”  But  the  nominative  case  in  the  second  per- 
son : as,  “ O thou  persecutor !”  “ Oh  ye  hypocrites  !”  “ Oh 

thou,  who  dwellest,”  &c. 


The  neuter  pronoun,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the  English  lan- 
guage, is  frequently  joined  in  explanatory  sentences,  with  a 
noun  or  pronoun  of  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender : as,  “ It 
was  I ;”  “ It  was  the  man  or  woman  that  did  it.” 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  omitted  and  understood ; 
thus  we  say,  “ As  appears,  as  follows ;”  for,  “ As  it  appears,  as 
it  follows ;”  and  “ May  be,”  for  “ It  may  be.” 


RULE  VI. 


159 


The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  express ; 

1st,  The  subject  of  any  discourse  or  inquiry  : as,  “It  hap- 
pened on  a summer’s  day  “ Who  is  it  that  calls  on  me?” 

2d,  The  state  or  condition  of  any  person  or  thing  : as,  “ How 
is  it  with  you  ?” 

3d,  The  thing,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  the  cause  of  any  effect 
or  event,  or  any  person  considered  merely  as  a cause  : as, 
“ We  heard  her  say  it  was  not  he  “ The  truth  is,  it  was  I that 
helped  her.” 


Rule  VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb, 
when  no  nominative  comes  between  it  and  the  verb : 
as,  The  master  who  taught  us  The  trees  which 
are  planted.” 

When  a nominative  comes  between  the  relative 
and  the  verb,  the  relative  is  governed  by  some  word 
in  its  own  member  of  the  sentence  : as,  He  who 
preserves  me,  to  whom  I owe  my  being,  whose  I am, 
and  whom  I serve,,  is  eternal.” 

See  vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  6. 

In  the  several  members  of  the  last  sentence,  the  relative  per- 
forms a different  office.  In  the  first  member,  it  marks  the 
agent ; in  the  second,  it  submits  to  the  government  of  the  prep- 
osition ; in  the  third,  it  represents  the  possessor ; and  in  the 
fourth,  the  object  of  an  action : and  therefore,  it  must  be  in 
three  different  cases,  correspondent  to  those  offices. 

When  both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative  become  nomina- 
tives, each  to  different  verbs,  the  relative  is  the  nominative  to 
the  former,  and  the  antecedent  to  the  latter  verb : as,  “ True 
philosophy,  which  is  the  ornament  of  our  nature,  consists  more 
in  the  love  of  our  duty,  and  the  practice  of  virtue,  than  in  great 
talents  and  extensive  knowledge.” 

A few  instances  of  erroneous  construction  will  illustrate 
both  the  branches  of  the  sixth  rule.  The  three  following  re- 
fer to  the  first  part.  “ How  can  we  avoid  being  grateful  to 
those  whom,  by  repeated  kind  offices,  have  proved  them- 
selves our  real  friends  ?”  “ These  are  the  men  whom  you 
might  suppose,  were  the  authors  of  the  work:”  “If  you 
were  here,  you  would  find  three  or  four  whom  you  would  say 
passed  their  time  agreeably in  all  these  places  it  should  be 
who  instead  of  lohom.  The  two  latter  sentences  contain  a 
nominative  between  the  relative  and  the  verb  ; and,  therefore, 


160 


SYNTAX. 


seem  to  contravene  the  rule : but  the  student  will  reflect,  that 
it  is  not  the  nominative  of  the  verb  with  which  the  relative  is 
connected.  The  remaining  examples  refer  to  the  second  part 
of  the  rule.  ‘‘  Men  of  fine  talents  are  not  always  the  per- 
sons whom  we  should  esteem.’’  “ The  persons  who  you  dis- 
pute with,  are  precisely  of  your  opinion.”  “Our  tutors 
are  our  benefactors,  who  we  owe  obedience  to,  and  who  we 
ought  to  love.”  In  these  sentences  whom  should  be  used  in- 
stead of  who. 

1.  When  the  relative  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative  kind, 
the  noun  or  pronoun  containing  the  answer  must  be  in  the 
same  case  as  that  which  contains  the  question  : as,  “ Whose 
books  are  these  ? They  are  Jokrisr  “ Who  gave  them  to 
him  ? We.”  “ Of  whom  did  you  buy  them  ? Of  a bookseller  ; 
him  who  lives  at  the  Bible  and  Crown.”  “ Whom  did  you  see 
there?  Both  him  and  the  shopman.”  The  learner  will  readily 
comprehend  this  rule,  by  supplying  the  words  which  are  under- 
stood in  the  answers.  Thus,  to  express  the  answers  at  large, 
we  should  say,  “They  are  John’s  books.”  “We  gave  them 
to  him.”  “ We  bought  them  of  him  who  lives,”  &c.  “ We 

saw  both  him  and  the  shopman.” — As  the  relative  pronoun, 
when  used  interrogatively,  refers  to  the  subsequent  word  or 
phrase,  containing  the  answer  to  the  question,  that  word  or 
phrase  may  properly  be  termed  the  subsequent  to  the  inter- 
rogative. 

Pronouns  are  sometimes  made  to  precede  the  things  which 
they  represent:  as,  “If  a man  declares  in  autumn  when  he  is 
eating  them^  or  in  spring,  when  there  are  none,  that  he  loves 
grapes^'^  &c.  But  this  is  a construction  which  is  very  seldom 
allowable. 

Rule  VIL 

When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nominatives 
of  different  persons,  the  relative  and  verb  may  agree 
in  person  with  either  according  to  the  sense  : as,  I 
am  the  man  who  command  you  : or  I am  the  man  who 
commands  you.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  i.  Rule  7. 

The  form  of  the  first  of  the  two  preceding  sentences,  ex- 
presses the  meaning  rather  obscurely.  It  would  be  more  per- 
spicuous to  say ; “ I who  command  you,  am  the  man.”  Per- 
haps the  difference  of  meaning,  produced  by  referring  the  rel- 
ative to  the  antecedents,  will  be  more  evident  to  the 


RULE  VIII. 


161 


learner,  in  the  following  sentences.  ‘‘  I am  the  general  who 
gives  the  orders  to-day “ I am  the  general,  who  give  the 
orders  to-day  that  is,  “ I,  who  give  the  orders  to-day,  am  the 
general.” 

When  the  relative  and  the  verb  have  been  determined  to 
agree  with  either  of  the  preceding  nominatives,  that  agreement 
must  be  preserved  throughout  the  sentence  ; as,  in  the  follow- 
ing instance  : “ I am  the  Lord  that  maketh  all  things ; and 
stretcheth  forth  the  heavens  alone.”  Isa,  xliv.  24.  Thus  far  is 
consistent : The  Lord,  in  the  third  person,  is  the  antecedent, 
and  the  |verb  agrees  with  the  relative  in  the  third  person : “ I 
am  the  Lord,  which  Lord,  or,  he  that  maketh  all  things.”  If  / 
were  made  the  antecedent,  the  relative  and  the  verb  should 
agree  with  it  in  the  first  person  : as,  “ I am  the  Lord,  that 
make  all  things,  that  stretch  forth  the  heavens  alone.  But 
should  it  follow  : “ That  spreadeth  abroad  the  earth  by  myself : 
there  would  arise  a confusion  of  persons,  and  a manifest 
solecism. 


Rule  VIII. 

Every  adjective,  and  every  adjective  pronoun, 
belongs  to  a substantive  expressed  or  understood  : 
as,  He  is  a good^  as  well  as  a wise  man Few 
are  happy  : that  is,  persons This  is  a pleasant 
walk  that  is,  This  walk  is^^^  &c. 

Adjective  pronouns  must  agree,  in  number,  with 
their  substantives:  as,  This  book,  these  books; 
that  sort,  those  sorts  ; another  road,  other  roads.” 


See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  8.  and  Part  3,  Key.  Chap.  1.  Rule  8. 

The  note. 

1.  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

A FEW  instances  of  the  breach  of  this  rule  are  here  exhibited. 
“ I have  not  travelled  this  twenty  years  ;”  “ these  twenty.”  “ I 
am  not  recommending  these  kind  of  sufferings  ;”  “ this  kind.” 
“ Those  set  of  books  was  a valuable  present  ;”  “ that  set.” 

1.  The  word  means  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  phrases, 
“ By  this  meansl'"  “ By  that  means^  are  used  by  our  best  and 
most  correct  writers  ; namely.  Bacon,  Tillotson,  Atterbury, 
Vol.  I.  23 


162 


SYNTAX. 


Addison,  Steele,  Pope,  &c.*  They  are,  indeed,  in  so  gene- 
ral and  approved  use,  that  it  would  appear  awkward,  if  not 
affected,  to  apply  the  old  singular  form,  and  say,  “ By  this 
mean  ; by  that  mean  ; it  was  by  a mean  although  it  is  more 
agreeable  to  the  general  analogy  of  the  language.  “ The  words 
means,  (says  Priestly,)  belongs  to  the  class  of  words,  which  do 
not  change  their  termination  on  account  of  number ; for  it  is 
used  alike  in  both  numbers.’’ 

The  word  amends  is  used  in  this  manner  in  the  following  sen- 
tences ; “ Though  he  did  not  succeed,  he  gained  the  approba- 
tion of  his  country  ; and  with  this  amends  he  was  content.” 
‘‘  Peace  of  mind  is  an  honourable  amends  for  the  sacrifices  of 
interest.”  “ In  return,  he  received  the  thanks  of  his  employers, 
and  the  present  of  a large  estate  : these  were  ample  amends  for 
all  his  labours.”  “ We  have  described  the  rewards  of  vice  : 
the  good  rnan’s  amends  are  of  a different  nature.” 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  this  word  amends  (like  the 
word  means)  had  formerly  its  correspondent  form  in  the  singu- 
lar number,  as  it  is  derived  from  the  French  amende,  though 


* “ By  this  means\ve  had  them  the  more  at  vantage,  being  tired  and  harassed  with  a long 
march.”  Bacon. 


“ By  this  means  one  great  restraint  from  doing  evil  would  be  taken  away.” — “ And  this  is  an 
admirable  means  to  improve  men  in  virtue.” — “ By  that  means  they  have  rendered  their  duty 
more  difficult.”  ' Tillotson. 


“ It  renders  us  careless  of  approving  ourselves  to  God,  and  by  that  means  securing  the  con- 
tinuance of  his  goodness.  ” “ A good  character,  when  established,  should  not  be  rested  in  as  an 
end,  but  employed  as  a meons  of  doing  still  further  good.”  Atterbury. 


“ By  this  means  they  are  happy  in  each  other.”  “ He  by  that  means  preserves  his 
superiority.”  Addison. 

“ Your  vanity  means  will  want  its  food.”  , Steele. 

“ By  this  means  alone,  their  greatest  obstacles  will  vanish.”  Pope. 

“ Which  cns^om  has  proved  the  most  effectual  means  to  ruin  the  nobles.”  Dean  Swift. 


“ There  is  no  means  of  escaping  the  persecution.” — “ Faith  is  not  only  a means  of  obeying, 
but  a principal  act  of  obedience.”  boxing. 

“ He  looked  on  money  as  a necessary  means  of  maintaining  and  increasing  power.” 

Lord  Lyttle  ton’s  Henry  IL 


» John  was  too  much  intimidated  not  to  embrace  every  means  afforded  for  his  safety.” 

(aoldsmim. 


tc 


“ Lest  this  means  should  fail.”— “ By  means  of  ship-money,  the  late  king,”  &c. 
The  only  means  of  securing  a durable  peace.”  Hut 


*^By 


this  means  there  was  nothing 


left  to  the  Parliament  of  Ireland,”  &c. 

Blackstone. 


“ By  this  means  so  many  slaves  escaped  out  of  the  hands  of  their 

“ By  this  meanB  they  bear  witness  to  each  other.” 

“ By  this  means  the  wrath  of  man  was  made  to  turn  against  itself. 

“A  magazine,  which  has,  by  this  means,  contained,”  &c. — “Birds,  in 
food  by  means  of  their  beak.*’ 


masters. 

Dr.  Robertson. 

Burke. 

Dr.  Blair 

general  procure  tlieir 
Dr.  Paley. 


RULE  VIII. 


1G3 


now  it  is  exclusively  established  in  the  plural  form.  If,  there- 
fore, it  be  alleged  that  mean  should  be  applied  in  the  singular, 
because  it  is  derived  from  the  French  moyen,  the  same  kind  of 
argument  may  be  advanced  in  favour  of  the  singular  . 

and  the  general  analogy  of  the  language  may  also  be  pleaded 
in  support  of  it.  ^ 

Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,”  has  the  following 
remark  on  the  subject  before  us : “ No  persons  of  taste  will,  I 
presume,  venture  so  far  to  violate  the  present  usage,  and  conse- 
quently to  shock  the  ears  of  the  generality  of  readers,  as  to  say, 

^ By  this  mean,  by  that  mean^  ” 

Lowth  and  Johnson  seem  to  be  against  the  use  of  means  in 
the  singular  number.  They  do  not,  however,  speak  decisively 
on  this  point ; but  rather  dubiously,  and  as  if  they  knew  that 
they  were  questioning  eminent  authorities,  as  well  as  general 
practice.  That  they  were  not  decidedly  against  the  applica- 
tion of  this  word  to  the  singular  number,  appears  from  their 
own  language : Whole  sentences,  whether  simple  or  com- 
pound, may  become  members  of  other  sentences,  by  means  of 
some  additional  connexion^ — Dr.  LowtiTs  Introduction  to  Eng- 
lish Grammar. 

“ There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  of  which  any 
one  is  ignorant,  but  by  means  of  something  already  known.” 

Neither  grace  of  person  nor  vigour  of  understanding,  is  to 
be  regarded  otherwise  than  as  a means  of  happiness.” — Dr. 
Johnson. 

It  is  remarkable  that  our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures 
makes  no  use,  as  far  as  the  Compiler  can  discover,  of  the  word 
mean : though  there  are  several  instances  to  be  found  in  it  of 
the  use  of  means,  in  the  sense  and  connexion  contended  for. 

By  this  means  thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this  side  the 
river.”  Ezra  iv.  16.  “ That  by  means  of  death, &c.  Heb. 

ix.  15.  It  will  scarcely  be  pretended,  that  the  translators  of 
the  sacred  volumes  did  not  accurately  understand  the  English 
language : or  that  they  would  have  admitted  one  form  of  this 
word,  and  rejected  the  other,  had  not  their  determinations  been 
conformable  to  the  best  usage.  An  attempt  therefore  to  re- 
cover an  old  word,  so  long  since  disused  by  the  most  correct 
writers,  seems  not  likely  to  be  successful ; especially  as  the  re- 
jection of  it  is  not  attended  with  any  inconvenience. 

The  practice  of  the  best  and  most  correct  writers,  or  a great 
majority  of  them,  corroborated  by  general  usage,  forms,  during 
its  continuance,  the  standard  of  language : especially,  if,  in  par- 
ticular instances,  this  practice  continue,  after  objection  and 
due  consideration.  Every  connexion  and  application  of  words 
and  phrases,  thus  supported,  must  therefore  be  proper,  and 


164 


SYNTAX. 


entitled  to  respect,  if  not  exceptionable  in  a moral  point  of 
view.  ^ 


‘‘  Sermo  constat  ratione,  vetustate,  auctoritate,  consuetudine. 
“ Consuetudo  veroo  certissima  loquendi  magistra.’" 

Quinctilian. 


« Si  volet  usus 

“ Quern  penes  arbitrium  est,  et  jus,  et  norma  loquendi.” 

Horace. 

On  this  principle,  many  forms  of  expression,  not  less  deviating 
from  the  general  analogy  of  the  language,  than  those  before 
mentioned,  are  to  be  considered  as  strictly  proper  and  justifi- 
able. Of  this  kind  are  the  following  : “ None  of  them  are 
varied  to  express  the  gender and  yet  none  originally  signified 
no  one.  “ He  himself  shall  do  the  work here,  what  was  at 
first  appropriated  to  the  objective,  is  now  properly  used  as  the 
nominative  case.  “ You  have  behaved  yourselves  well in 
this  example,  the  word  you  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  plural, 
with  strict  propriety : though  formerly  it  was  confined  to  the 
objective  case,  and  ye  exclusively  used  for  the  nominative. 

With  respect  to  anomalies  and  variations  of  language,  thus 
established,  it  is  the  grammarian’s  business  to  submit,  not  to 
remonstrate.  In  pertinaciously  opposing  the  decision  of  proper 
authority,  and  contending  for  obsolete  modes  of  expression,  he 
may,  indeed,  display  learning  and  critical  sagacity ; and,  in  some 
degree,  obscure  points  that  are  sufficiently  clear  and  decided : 
but  he  cannot  reasonably  hope,  either  to  succeed  in  his  aims,  or 
to  assist  the  learner,  in  discovering  and  respecting  the  true 
standard  and  principles  of  language. 

Cases  which  custom  has  left  dubious,  are  certainly  within  the 
grammarian’s  province.  Here,  he  may  reason  and  remonstrate 
on  the  ground  of  derivation,  analogy,  and  propriety ; and  his 
reasonings  may  refine  and  improve  the  language : but  when 
authority  speaks  out  and  decides  the  point,  it  were  perpetually 
to  unsettle  the  language,  to  admit  cavil  and  debate.  Anomalies 
then,  under  the  limitation  mentioned,  become  the  law,  as  clearly 
as  the  plainest  analogies. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that  in  the  following  sentences,  the 
use  of  the  word  mean^  in  the  old  form,  has  a very  uncouth  ap- 
pearance : ‘‘  By  the  mean  of  adversity,  we  are  often  instructed.” 
“ He  preserved  his  health,  by  mean  of  exercise.”  “ Frugality 
is  one  mean  of  acquiring  a competency.”  They  should  be,  “ By 
means  of  adversity,”  &ec.  “ By  means  of  exercise,”  &c.  “ Fru- 
gality is  one  meansp  &c. 


RULE  VIII. 


165 


Good  writers  do  indeed  make  use  of  the  substantive  mean 
in  the  singular  number,  and  in  that  number  only,  to  signify  me- 
diocrity, middle  rate,  &c.  : as,  “ This  is  a mean  between  the 
two  extremes.”  But  in  the  sense  of  instrumentality,  it  has 
been  long  disused  by  the  best  authors,  and  by  almost  every 
writer. 

This  means  and  that  means  should  be  used  only  when  they 
refer  to  what  is  singular  ; these  means  and  those  means,  when 
they  respect  plurals ; as,  “ He  lived  temperately,  and  by  this 
means  preserved  his  health  “ The  scholars  were  attentive^ 
industrious,  and  obedient  to  their  tutors ; and  by  these  means 
acquired  knowledge.” 

We  have  enlarged  on  this  article,  that  the  young  student  may 
be  led  to  reflect  on  a point  so  important,  as  that  of  ascertaining 
the  standard  of  propriety  in  the  use  of  the  language. 

2.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of  in  a sentence, 
and  there  is  occasion  to  mention  them  again  for  the  sake  of 
distinction,  that  is  used  in  reference  to  the  former,  and  this  in 
reference  to  the  latter : as,  “ Self-love,  which  is  the  spring  of 
action  in  the  soul,  is  ruled  by  reason : but  for  that,  man  would 
be  inactive  ; and  but  for  this,  he  would  be  active  to  no  end.” 

3.  The  distributive  adjective  pronouns,  each,  every,  either, 
agree  with  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  of  the  singular  num- 
ber only : as,  “ The  king  of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of 
of  Judah,  sat  each  on  his  throne  ;”  “ Every  tree  is  known  by 
its  fruit :”  unless  the  plural  noun  convey  a collective  idea : as, 
“ Every  six  months  “ Every  hundred  years.” — The  following 
phrases  are  exceptionable  ; ‘‘  Let  each  esteem  others  better  than 
themselves  it  ought  to  be  himself, “ It  is  requisite  that  the 
language  should  be  both  perspicuous  and  correct : in  proportion 
as  either  of  these  two  qualities  are  wanting,  the  language  is 
imperfect it  should  be  ‘‘  is  wanting.”  “ Every  one  of  the 
letters  bear  regular  dates,  and  contain  proof  of  attachment:” 
“ hears  a regular  date,  and  contains “ Every  town  and  village 
were  burned ; every  grove  and  every  tree  were  cut  down.” 
“ was  burned,  and  was  cut  dowm.”  “ Every  freeman,  and  every 
citizen  have  a right  to  give  their  votes  “ has  a right  to  give 
his  vote’’ — See  vol.  2.  pages  24,  190.  The  Note. 

Either  is  often  used  improperly  instead  of  each:  as,  “The 
king  of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  either  of 
them  on  his  throne  ;”  “ Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons  of  Aaron, 
took  either  of  them  his  censor.”  Each  signifies  both  of  them 
taken  distinctly  or  separately  ; either  properly  signifies  only  the 
one  or  the  other  of  them  taken  disjunctively. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  some  examples  will  appear,  of 
erroneous  translations  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  with  respect 
to  grammatical  construction : but  it  may  be  proper  to  remark, 


166 


SYNTAX. 


that  notwithstanding  these  verbal  mistakes,  the  Bible,  for  the 
size  of  it,  is  the  most  accurate  grammatical  composition  that  we 
have  in  the  English  language.  The  authority  of  several  emi-* 
nent  grammarians  might  be  adduced  in  support  of  this  asser- 
tion ; but  it  may  be  sufficient  to  mention  only  that  of  Dr.  Lowth, 
who  says,  “ The  present  translation  of  the  Bible,  is  the  best 
standard  of  the  English  language/’ 

3.  ADJECTIVES. 

4.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  improperly  applied  as  adverbs : 
as,  “ Indifferent  honest ; excellent  well  ; miserable  poor 
instead  of,  “ Indifferently  honest ; excellently  well ; miserably 
poor.”  “ He  behaved  himself  conformable  to  that  great  ex- 
ample ‘‘  conformably^  “ Endeavour  to  live  hereafter  suit- 
able to  persons  in  your  station  “ suitably^  “ I can  never 
think  so  very  mean  of  him  “ meanly T ‘‘  He  describes 

this  river  agreeable  to  the  common  reading “ agreeably. 
Agreeable  to  my  promise,  I now  write  ‘‘  agreeably.^'' 
Thy  exceeding  great  reward.”  When  united  to  an  adjective, 
or  adverb  not  ending  in  ly  the  word  exceeding  has  ly  added 
to  it : as,  “ exceedingly  dreadful,  exceedingly  great ;”  exceed- 
ingly well,  exceedingly  more  active but  when  it  is  joined  to 
an  adverb  or  adjective,  having  that  termination,  the  ly  is 
omitted  : as,  “ Some  men  think  exceeding  clearly,  and  reason 
exceeding  forcibly “ She  appeared  on  this  occasion  exceed- 
ing lovely :”  “ He  acted  in  this  business  bolder  than  was  ex- 
pected :”  “ They  behaved  the  noblest^  because  they  were  dis- 
interested.” They  should  have  been,  “ more  boldly ; most 
njoblyT — The  adjective  pronoun  such  is  often  misapplied  : as, 
He  was  such  an  extravagant  young  man,  that  he  spent  his 
whole  patrimony  in  a few  years :”  it  should  be,  “ so  extravagant 
a young  manP  “ I never  before  saw  such  large  trees  “ saw 
trees  so  largeP  When  we  refer  to  the  species  or  nature  of  a 
thing,  the  word  such  is  properly  applied  : as,  “ Such  a temper 
is  seldom  found :”  but  when  degree  is  signified  ; we  use  the 
word  so : as,  “ So  bad  a temper  is  seldom  found.” 

Adverbs  are  likewise  improperly  used  as  adjectives : as, 
The  tutor  adressed  him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but  suitably 
to  his  offence  “ suitable  “ They  w^ere  seen  wandering  about 
solitarily  and  distressed  :”  “ solitary “ He  lived  in  a manner 
agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and  religion  ;”  ‘‘  agreeable.^^ 
The  study  of  syntax  should  be  previously  to  that  of  punctua- 
tion ;”  previous. 

* For  the  rule  to  determine,  whether  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  ia  to  be  used,  sec  Volume  II. 
The  Note  at  the  end  of  the  promiscuous  Exercises  on  Syntax. 


RULE  VIII. 


167 


5.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  be  avoided : 
such  as,  “ A worser  conduct “ On  lesser  hopes  “ A more 
serener  temper “ The  most  straitest  sect “ A more  superior 
work.”  They  should  be,  “ worse  conduct “ less  hopes  “ a 
more  serene  temper “ the  straitest  sect “ a superior  work.” 


6.  Adjectives  that  have  in  themselves  a superlative  significa- 
tion, do  not  properly  admit  of  the  superlative  or  comparative 
form  superadded : such  as,  “ Chief,  extreme,  perfect,  right, 
universal,  supreme,”  &c. ; which  are  sometimes  improperly 
written,  “ Chiefest,  extremest,  perfectest,  rightest,  most  uni- 
versal, most  supreme,’’  &c.  The  following  expressions  are 
therefore  improper.  “ He  sometimes  claims  admission  to  the 
chiefest  offices ;”  “ The  quarrel  became  so  universal,  and 
national ;”  “ A method  of  attaining  the  rightest  and  greatest 
happiness.”  The  phrases,  so  perfect,  so  right,  so  extreme,  so 
universal,  &c.  are  incorrect ; because  they  imply  that  one  thing 
is  less  perfect,  less  extreme,  &c.  than  another,  which  is  not 
possible. 


7.  Inaccuracies  are  often  found  in  the  way  in  which  the 
degrees  of  comparison  are  applied  and  construed.  The  fol- 
lowing are  examples  of  wrong  construction  in  this  respect; 
“ This  noble  nation  hath,  of  all  others,  admitted  fewer  cor- 
mptions.”  The  word  fewer  is  here  construed  precisely  as  if 
it  were  the  superlative.  It  should  be,  “ This  noble  nation  hath 
admitted  fewer  corruptions  than  any  other.”  We  commonly 
say,  “ This  is  the  weaker  of  the  two ;”  or,  “ The  weakest  of 
the  two :”  but  the  former  is  the  regular  mode  of  expression, 
because  there  are  only  two  things  compared.  “ The  vice  of 
covetousness  is  what  enters  deepest  into  the  soul  of  any  other.” 
“ He  celebrates  the  church  of  England  as  the  most  perfect  of 
all  others.”  Both  these  modes  of  expression  are  faulty : we 
should  not  say,  “ The  best  of  any  man,”  or,  “ The  best  of 
any  other  man,”  for  “ the  best  of  men.”  The  sentences  may 
be  corrected  by  substituting  the  comparative  in  the  room  of 
the  superlative.  “ The  vice,  &c.  is  what  enters  deeper  into 
the  soul  than  any  other.”  “ He  celebrates,  &c.  as  more  perfect, 
or  less  imperfect,  than  any  other.”  It  is  also  possible  to  retain 
the  superlative,  and  render  the  expression  grammatical.  “ Cov- 
etousness, of  all  vices,  enters  the  deepest  into  the  soul.”  “ He 
celebrates,  &c.  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  churches.”  These 
sentences  contain  other  errors,  against  which  it  is  proper  to 
caution  the  learner.  The  words  deeper  and  deepest,  being  in- 
tended for  adverbs,  should  have  been  more  deeply,  most  deeply. 


168 


SYNTAX. 


The  phrases  more  perfect  and  most  perfect^  are  improper ; be- 
cause perfection  admits  of  no  degrees  of  comparison.  We  may 
say  nearer  or  nearest  to  perfection,  or  more  or  less  imperfect. 

8.  In  some  cases,  adjectives  should  not  be  separated  from 
their  substantives,  even  by  words  which  modify  their  meaning, 
and  make  but  one  sense  with  them : as,  “ A large  enough  num- 
ber surely.”  It  should  be,  ‘‘  a number  large  enough.”  “ The 
lower  sort  of  people  are  good  enough  judges  of  one  not  very 
distant  from  them.” 

The  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  its  substantive  ; as,  “ A 
generous  man  ;”  How  amiable  a woman  !”  The  instances  in 
which  it  comes  after  the  substantive,  are  the  following  : 

1st,  When  something  depends  upon  the  adjective ; and 
when  it  gives  a better  sound,  especially  in  poetry : as,  A man 
generous  to  his  enemies ;”  “ Feed  me  with  food  convenient 
for  me;”  A tree  three  feet  thick  A body  of  troops  fifty 
thousand  strong  ^‘The  torrent  tumbling  through  rocks 
abrupt^ 

2d,  When  the  adjective  is  emphatical : as,  “ Alexander  the 
Great ;”  “ Lewis  the  Bold ;”  Goodness  infinite ;”  Wisdom 
unsearchable,^'* 

3d,  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  one  substantive : as, 

A man  just,  wise,  and  charitable ;”  A woman  modest,  sen- 
sible, and  virtuous.” 

4th,  When  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  an  adverb : as,  “ A 
boy  regularly  studious  A girl  unaffectedly  modest.” 

5th,  When  the  verb  to  6e,  in  any  of  its  variations,  comes 
between  a substantive  and  an  adjective  the  adjective  may  fre- 
quently either  precede  or  follow  it;  as,  ^^The  man  is  happy  f 
or  happy  is  the  man  who  makes  virtue  his  choice ;”  The 
interview  was  delightful :”  or  delightful  was  the  interview.” 

6th,  When  the  adjective  expresses  some  circumstance  of  a 
substantive  placed  after  an  active  verb:  as,  ‘‘Vanity  often  ren- 
ders its  possessor  despicable In  an  exclamatory  sentence,  the 
adjective  generally  precedes  the  substantive : as.  How  despi- 
ccble  does  vanity  often  render  its  possessor  ?” 

There  is  sometimes  great  beauty,  as  well  as  force,  in  placing 
the  adjective  before  the  verb,  and  the  substantive  immediately 
after  it : “ Great  is  the  Lord  ! just  and  true  are  thy  ways,  thou 
King  of  saints !” 

Sometimes  the  word  all  is  emphatically  put  after  a number 
of  particulars  comprehended  under  it.  “ Ambition,  interest, 
honour  all  concurred.”  Sometimes  a substantive,  which 
likewise  comprehends  the  preceding  particulars,  is  used  in 


RULE  VIII. 


169 


conjunction  with  this  adjective  pronoun:  as,  ‘‘Royalists,  re- 
publicans, churchmen,  sectaries,  courtiers,  patriots,  all  partiesy 
concurred  in  the  illusion.” 

An  adjective  pronoun  in  the  plural  number,  will  sometimes 
properly  associate  with  a singular  noun : as,  “ Our  desire,  your 
intention,  their  resignation.”  This  association  applies  rather 
to  things  of  an  intellectual  nature,  than  to  those  which  are  cor- 
poreal. It  forms  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  * 

A substantive  with  its  adjective  is  reckoned  as  one  com- 
pounded word ; whence  they  often  take  another  adjective, 
and  sometimes  a third,  and  so  on  : as,  “ An  old  man  ; a good 
old  man  ; a very  learned,  judicious,  good  old  man.” 

Though  the  adjective  always  relates  to  a substantive,  it  is, 
in  many  instances,  put  as  if  it  were  absolute  ; especially  where 
the  noun  has  been  mentioned  before,  or  is  easily  understood 
though  not  expressed  : as,  “ I often  survey  the  green  fields,  as, 
I am  very  fond  of  green “ The  wise,  the  virtuous,  the  hon- 
oured, famed,  and  great,”  that  is,  “persons:”  “The  twelve” 
that  is,  “apostles  ;”  “ Have  compassion  on  i\\e  poor  ; be  feet  to 
the  lamey  and  eyes  to  the  blind 

Substantives  are  often  used  as  adjectives.  In  this  case,  the 
word  so  used  is  sometimes  unconnected  with  the  substantive  to 
which  it  relates ; sometimes  connected  with  it  by  a hyphen ; 
and  sometimes  joined  to  it,  so  as  to  make  the  two  words 
coalesce.  The  total  separation  is  proper,  when  either  of  the 
two  words  is  long,  or  when  they  cannot  be  fluently  pronounced 
as  one  word : as,  an  adjective  pronoun,  a silver  watch,  a stone 
cistern ; the  hyphen  is  used,  when  both  the  words  are  short, 
and  are  readily  pronounced  as  a single  word  : as,  coal-mine, 
corn-mill,  fruit-tree,  the  words  coalesce,  when  they  are  readily 
pronounced  together  ; have  a long  established  association  ; and 
are  in  frequent  use ; as,  honeycomb,  gingerbread,  inkhorn, 
Yorkshire. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  becomes  a substantive,  and  has 
another  adjective  joined  to  it:  as,  “The  chief  good  “The 
vast  immense  of  space.” 

Some  adjectives  of  number  are  more  easily  converted  into 
substantives,  than  others.  Thus  we  more  readily  say,  “A 
million  of  men,”  than  “ a thousand  of  men.”  On  the  other 
hand  it  will  hardly  be  allowable  to  say^  “A  million  men.” 
whereas,  “ a thousand  men,”  is  quite  familiar.  Yet  in  the 
plural  number,  a different  construction  seems  to  be  required. 
We  say,  “Some  hundreds,”  or  “thousands,”  as  well  as 
“ millions  of  men.”  Perhaps  on  this  account  the  words 
million^  hundreds^  and ' thousands^  will  be  said  to  be  substan- 
tives. 

VoL.  I. 


24 


170 


SYNTAX. 


When  an  adjective  has  a preposition  before  it,  and  the  sub- 
stantive is  understood,  the  words  assume  the  nature  of  an  ad- 
verb, and  may  be  considered  as  an  adverbial  phrase ; as,  “In 
general,  in  particular,  in  common,”  &c. ; that  is,  “Generally, 
particularly,  commonly.” 

Enow  was  formerly  used  as  the  plural  of  enough : but  it  is 
now  obsolete. 

Rule  IX. 

The  article  a or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  the  sin- 
gular number  only,  individually  or  collectively:  as, 
“ A Christian,  an  infidel,  a score,  a thousand.” 

The  definite  article  the  may  agree  with  nouns  in 
the  singular  and  plural  number  : as,  “ The  garden, 
the  houses,  the  stars,” 

The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted : when 
used,  they  should  be  justly  applied,  according  to 
their  distinct  nature ; as,  “ Gold  is  corrupting ; the 
sea  is  green;  a lion  is  bold.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  9. 

It  is  the  nature  of  both  the  articles  to  determine  or  limit 
the  thing  spoken  of.  A determines  it  to  be  one  single  thing 
of  the  kind,  leaving  it  still  uncertain  which  ; the  determines 
which  it  is,  or  of  many,  which  they  are. 

The  following  passage  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the  dif- 
ferent uses  of  a and  the^  and  of  the  force  of  the  substantive 
without  any  article.  “ Man  was  made  for  society,  and  ought 
to  extend  his  good  will  to  all  men : but  a man  will  naturally 
entertain  a more  particular  kindness  for  the  men,  with  whom 
he  has  the  most  frequent  intercourse ; and  enter  into  a still 
closer  union  with  the  man  whose  temper  and  disposition  suit 
best  with  his  own. 

There  is  in  some  instances,  a peculiar  delicacy  in  the  ap- 
plication or  omission  of  the  indefinite  article.  This  will  be 
seen  in  the  following  sentences.  We  commonly  say;  “Ido 
not  intend  to  turn  critic  on  this  occasion  ; ” not  “ turn  a cri- 
tic.” On  the  other  hand,  we  properly  add  the  article  in  this 
phrase  ; “ I do  not  intend  to  become  a critic  in  this  business 
not,  “ to  become  critic.”  It  is  correct  to  say  with  the  article, 
“ He  is  in  a great  hurry  ; ” but  not,  “ in  great  hurry.”  And 
yet,  in  this  expression,  “He  is  in  great  haste,”  the  article 
should  be  omitted : it  would  be  improper  to  say,  “ He  is  in  a 
great  haste  ” A nice  discernment,  and  accurate  attention  to* 
the  best  usage,  are  necessary  to  direct  us,  on  these  occasions* 


RULE  IX, 


171 


As  the  articles  are  sometimes  misapplied,  it  may  be  of  some 
use  to  exhibit  a few  instances : “ And  I persecuted  this  way 
unto  the  death.”  The  apostle  does  not  mean  any  particuFar 
sort  of  death,  but  death  in  general ; the  definite  article  there- 
fore is  improperly  used : it  ought  to  be  “ unto  death,”  without 
any  article. 

“When  he,  the  Spirit  of  Truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you 
into  all  truth;”  that  is,  according  to  this  translation,  “into  all 
truth  whatsoever,  into  truth  of  all  kinds ;”  very  different  from 
the  meaning  of  the  evangelist,  and  from  the  original,  “into 
all  the  truth;”  that  is,  “into  all  evangelical  truth,  all  truth 
necessary  for  you  to  know.” 

“ Who  breaks  a butterfly  upon  a wheel  ?”  it  ought  to  be 
*^the  wheel,”  used  as  an  instrument  for  the  particular  purpose 
of  torturing  criminals.  “The  Almighty  hath  given  reason 
to  a man  to  be  a light  unto  him ;”  it  should  rather  be,  “to 
man^^  in  general.  “ This  day  is  salvation  come  to  this  house, 
forasmuch  as  he  also  is  the  son  of  Abraham  it  ought  to  be, 
“ a son  of  Abraham.” 

These  remarks  may  serve  to  show  the  great  importance  of 
the  proper  use  of  the  article,  and  the  excellence  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  in  this  respect ; wliich,  by  means  of  its  two  arti- 
cles, does  most  precisely  determine  the  extent  of  signification 
of  common  names. 

1.  A nice  distinction  of  the  sense  is  sometimes  made  by 
the  use  or  omission  of  the  article  a.  If  I say,  “ He  behaved 
with  a little  reverence ;”  my  meaning  is  positive.  If  I say 
“ He  behaved  with  little  reverence  ;”  my  meaning  is  negative. 
And  these  two  are  by  no  means  the  same,  or  to  be  used  in  the 
same  cases.  By  the  former,  I rather  praise  a person  ; by  the 
latter  I dispraise  him.  For  the  sake  of  this  distinction,  which  is 
a very  useful  one,  we  may  better  bear  the  seeming  impropriety 
of  the  article  a before  nouns  of  number.  When  I say,  “ There 
were  few  men  with  him ; I speak  diminutively,  and  mean  to 
represent  them  as  inconsiderable  : whereas,  when  I say,  “There 
were  a few  men  with  him ; I evidently  intend  to  make  the 
most  of  them. 

2.  In  general,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  prefix  the  article  to  the 
fiDrmer  of  the  two  words  in  the  same  construction  ; though 
the  French  never  fail  to  repeat  it  in  this  case.  “ There  were 
many  hours,  both  of  the  night  and  day,  which  he  could  spend, 
without  suspicion,  in  solitary  thought.”  It  might  have  been 
“ of  the  night  and  of  the  day.”  And,  for  the  sake  of  empha- 
sis, we  often  repeat  the  article  in  a series  of  epithets.  “ He 


172 


SYNTAX. 


hoped  that  this  title  would  secure  him  an  ample,  and  an  inde- 
pendent authority.” 

*3.  In  common  conversation,  and  in  familiar  style,  we  fre- 
quently omit  the  articles,  which  might  be  inserted  with  pro- 
priety in  writing,  especially  in  a grave  style.  “At  worst,  time 
might  be  gained  by  this  expedient.”  “ At  the  worst,”  would 
have  been  better  in  this  place.  “ Give  me  here  John  Bap- 
tist’s head.”  There  would  have  been  more  dignity  in  saying, 
“John  the  Baptist’s  head:”  or,  “The  head  of  John  Bap- 
tist.” 


The  article  the  has  sometimes  a good  effect,  in  distinguishing 
a person  by  an  epithet.  “ In  the  history  of  Henry  the  fourth,  by 
Father  Daniel,  we  are  surprised  at  not  finding  him  the  great 
man.”  “ I own  I am  often  surprised  that  he  should  have  treat- 
ed so  coldly,  a man  so  much  the  gentleman.” 

This  article  is  often  elegantly  put,  after  the  manner  of  the 
French,  for  the  pronoun  possessive  : as,  “ He  looks  him  full 
in  the  face that  is,  “ in  his  face.”  “ In  his  presence  they 
were  to  strike  the  forehead  on  the  ground  that  is,  “ their 
foreheads^ 

We  sometimes,  according  to  the  French  manner,  repeat  the 
same  article,  when  the  adjective,  on  account  of  any  clause  de- 
pending upon  it,  is  put  after  the  substantive.  “ Of  all  the  con- 
siderable governments  among  the  Alps,  a commonwealth  is  a 
constitution  the  most  adapted  of  any  to  the  poverty  of  those 
countries.”  “ With  such  a specious  title  as  that  of  blood,  which 
with  the  multitude  is  always  a claim,  the  strongest,  and  the  most 
easily  comprehended.”  “ They  are  not  the  men  in  the  nation 
the  most  difficult  to  be  replaced” 

The  definite  article  is  likewise  used  to  distinguish  between 
things,  which'  are  individually  different,  but  have  one  generic 
name,  and  things  which  are,  in  truth,  one  and  the  same,  but 
are  characterized  by  several  qualities.  If  we  say,  “The  ec- 
clesiastical and  secular  powers  concurred  in  this  measure,” 
the  expression  is  ambiguous,  as  far  as  language  can  render  it 
so.*  The  reader’s  knowledge,  as  Dr.  Campbell  observes,  may 
prevent  his  mistaking  it ; but,  if  such  modes  of  expression  be 
admitted,  where  the  sense  is  clear,  they  may  inadvertently  be 
imitated,  in  cases  where  the  meaning  would  be  obscure,  if  not 
entirely  misunderstood.  The  error  might  have  been  avoided, 
either  by  repeating  the  substantive,  or  by  subjoining  the  sub- 
stantive to  the  first  adjective,  and  prefixing  the  article  to  both 
adjectives  ; or  by  placing  the  substantive  alter  both  adjectives, 
the  article  being  prefixed  in  the  same  manner:  as,  “ The  ec- 
clesiastical powers,  and  the  secular  powers;”  or  better,  “The 


RULE  X. 


173 


ecclesiastical  powers,  and  the  secular or,  “ The  ecclesiastical, 
and  the  secular  powers.”  The  repetition  of  the  article  shows, 
that  the  second  adjective  is  not  an  additional  epithet  to  the  same 
subject,  but  belongs  to  a subject  totally  different,  though  express- 
ed by  the  same  generic  name.  “ The  lords  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral/' is  a phraseology  objectionable  on  the  same  principle, 
though  now  so  long  sanctioned  by  usage,  that  we  scarcely  dare 
question  its  propriety.  The  subjects  are  different,  though  they 
have  but  one  generic  name.  The  phrase  should,  therefore,  have 
been,  “ The  spiritual  and  the  temporal  lords.”  On  the  contrary, 
when  two  or  more  adjectives  belong  as  epithets,  to  one  and  the 
same  thing,  the  other  arrangement  is  to  be  preferred : as,  “ The 
high  and  mighty  states.”  Here  both  epithets  belong  to  one 
subject.  “ The  states  high  and  mighty,”  would  convey  the  same 
idea. 

The  indefinite  article  has,  frequently,  the  meaning  of  every  or 
each : as,  “ They  cost  five  shillings  a dozen that  is,  “ every 
dozen,”  or  “ each  dozen.” 

“ A man  he  was  to  all  thp  country  dear, 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a year Goldsmith. 

that  is,  every  year.” 

There  is  a particular  use  of  the  indefinite  article,  which  de- 
serves attention,  as  ambiguity  may,  by  this  means,  be  in  some 
cases,  avoided.  Thus  if  we  say,  “ he  is  a better  soldier  than 
scholar ;”  the  article  is  suppressed  before  the  second  term,  and 
the  expression  is  equivalent  to,  “He  is  more  warlike  than 
learned  ;”  or,  “ He  possesses  the  qualities  which  form  the  soldier, 
in  greater  degree  than  those  which  constitute  the  scholar.”  If 
we  say,  “ He  w^oiild  make  a better  soldier  than  a scholar,”  the 
article  is  prefixed  to  the  second  term,  and  the  meaning  is,  “ He 
w^ould  make  a better  soldier  than  a scholar  would  make 
that  is,  “He  has  more  of  the  constituent  qualities  of  a soldier,, 
than  are  to  be  found  in  any  literary  man.”  These  two  phrase- 
ologies are  frequently  confounded,  which  seldom  fails  to  produce 
uncertainty  of  meaning.  In  the  former  case,  the  subject,  as 
possessing  different  qualities  in  various  degrees,  is  compared 
with  itself;  in  the  latter  it  is  compared  with  something  else. 

Rule  X. 

One  substantive  governs  another,  signifying  a dif- 
ferent thing,  in  the  possessive  or  genitive  case : as, 
My  father’s  house  ‘‘  Man’s  happiness ; “ Virtue’s 
reward.” 

Sec  Vol.  ii.  Part  3,  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  10, 


174 


SYNTAX. 


When  the  annexed  substantive  signifies  the  same  thing  as 
the  first,  and  serves  merely  to  explain  or  describe  it,  there  is 
no  variation  of  case ; as,  “ George,  king  of  Great  Britain, 
elector  of  Hanover,”  &c. ; “ Pompey  contended  with  Caesar, 
the  greatest  general  of  his  time “ Religion,  the  support  of 
adversity,  adorns  prosperity.”  Nouns  thus  circumstanced  are 
said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  The  interposition  of  a 
relative  and  verb  will  sometimes  break  the  construction : as, 

Pompey  contended  with  Caesar,  who  was  the  greatest  gene- 
ral of  his  time.”  Here  the  word  general  is  in  the  nominative 
case,  governed  by  note  4,  under  rule  xi.  Both  the  parts  of 
this  rule  are  exemplified  in  the  following  sentences : Maria 
rejected  Valerius,  the  man  whom  she  had  rejected  before 
‘‘Maria  rejected  Valerius,  who  was  he  that  she  had  rejected 
before.” 

Nouns  are  not  unfrequently  set  in  apposition  to  sentences, 
or  clauses  of  sentences  : as,  “ If  a man  had  a positive  idea  of 
infinite,  cither  duration  or  space,  he  could  add  two  infinites 
together ; nay,  make  one  infinite  infinitely  bigger  than  another  : 
absurdities  too  gross  to  be  confuted.”  Here  the  absurdities  are 
the  whole  preceding  propositions.  “ You  are  too  humane  and 
considerate ; things  which  few  people  can  be  charged  with.” 
Here  things  are  in  apposition  to  humane  and  considerate.  This 
construction  is  not  to  be  recommended,  when  the  parts  of  the 
sentence  are  long,  or  numerous.  The  first  of  the  preceding 
examples,  is,  therefore,  improvable.  It  would  have  been  bet- 
ter if  a fresh  sentence  had  been  introduced,  thus : “ These  are 
absurdities,”  &c. 

The  preposition  of  joined  to  a substantive,  is  frequently  equi- 
valent to  the  possessive  case : as,  “ A Christian’s  hope,”  “ The 
hope  of  a Christian.”  But  it  is  only  so,  when  the  expression 
can  be  converted  into  the  regular  form  of  the  possessive  case. 
We  can  say,  “The  reward  of  virtue,”  and  “Virtue’s  reward;” 
but  though  it  is  proper  to  say,  “ A crown  of  gold,”  we  cannot 
convert  the  expression  into  the  possessive  case,  and  say,  “ Gold’s 
crown.” 

Substantives  govern  pronouns  as  well  as  nouns,  in  the  pos- 
sessive case : as,  “Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit “ Good- 
ness brings  its  reward  :”  “ That  desk  is  miner 

The  genitive  its  is  often  improperly  used  for  His  or  it  is : as, 
“ Its  my  book ;”  instead  of,  “ It  is  my  book.” 

The  pronoun  his^  when  detached  from  the  noun  to  which  it 
relates,  is  to  be  considered,  not  as  a possessive  pronoun,  but  as 
the  genitive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun  : as,  “ This  composi- 
tion is  Aw,”  “ Whose  book  is  that  ?”  “ JTw.”  If  we  use  the  noun 
itself,  we  should  say,  “This  composition  is  John’s.”  “Whose  book 
is  that?”  “Eliza’s.”  The  position  will  be  still  more  evident,  when 


RULE  X. 


175 


we  consider  that  both  the  pronouns,  in  the  following  sentence, 
must  have  a similar  construction ; “Is  it  her  or  his  honour  that 
is  tarnished  ?”  “ It  is  not  hers^  but  hisJ^ 

Sometimes  a substantive  in  the  gentive  or  possessive  case 
stands  alone,  the  latter  one  by  which  it  is  governed  being  un- 
derstood ; as,  I called  at  the  bookseller’s,”  that  is,  ‘‘  at  the 
bookseller’s  shop.^^ 

1.  If  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  genitive  case,  the 
apostrophe  with  s is  annexed  to  the  last,  and  understood  to  the 
rest:  as,  “John  and  Eliza’s  books:”  “This  was  my  father, 
mother,  and  uncle’s  advice.”  But  when  any  words  intervene, 
perhaps  on  account  of  the  increased  pause,  the  sign  of  the  pos- 
sessive should  be  annexed  to  each : as,  “ They  are  John’s  as 
well  as  Eliza’s  books  “ I had  the  physician’s,  the  surgeon’s, 
and  the  apothecary’s  assistance.  The  following  distinction  on 
this  point,  appears  to  be  worthy  of  attention.  When  any  subject 
or  subjects  are  considered  as  the  common  property  of  two  or 
more  persons,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case,  is  affixed  only  to 
the  name  of  the  last  person : as,  “ This  is  Henry,  William,  and 
Joseph’s  estate.”  But  when  several  subjects  are  considered,  as 
belonging  separately  to  distinct  individuals,  the  names  of  the 
individuals  have  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case  annexed  to  each 
of  them:  as,  “These  are  Henry’s,  William’s,  and  Joseph’s 
estates.”  It  is,  however,  better  to  say,  “ It  was  the  advice  of 
my  father,  mother,  and  uncle  “ I had  the  assistance  of  the 
physician,  the  surgeon,  and  the  apothecary “ This  estate 
belongs  in  common  to  Henry,  William,  and  Joseph.” 

2.  In  poetry,  the  additional  ^ is  frequently  omitted,  but  the 

apostrophe  retained,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  substantives  of 
the  plural  number  ending  in  s : as,  “ The  wrath  of  Peleus’  son.” 
This  seems  not  so  allowable  in  prose ; which  the  following 
erroneous  examples  will  demonstrate  ; “ Moses’  minister 

“ Phinehas’  wife  “ Festus  came  into  Felix’  room.”  “ These 
answers  were  made  to  the  witness’  questions.”  But  in  cases 
which  would  give  too  much  of  the  hissing  sound,  or  increase 
the  difficulty  of  pronunciation,  the  omission  takes  place  even 
in  prose : as,  “ For  righteousness’  sake “ For  conscience’ 
sake.” 

3.  Little  explanatory  circumstances  are  particularly  awkward 
between  a genitive  case,  and  the  word  which  usually  follows 
it : as,  “ She  began  to  extol  the  farmer’s,  as  she  called  him, 
excellent  understanding.”  It  ought  to  be,  “ the  excellent  un- 
derstanding of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him.”  The  word  in 
the  genitive  case  is  frequently  placed  improperly : as,  “ This 


176 


SYNTAX. 


fact  appears  from  Dr.  Pearson  of  Birmingham’s  experiments.” 
It  should  be,  “ from  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Pearson  of  Birming- 

4.  When  a sentence  consists  of  terms  signifying  a name  and 
an  office,  or  of  any  expressions  by  which  one  part  is  descriptive 
or  explanatory  of  the  other,  it  may  occasion  some  doubt  to 
which  of  them  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case  should  be  annexed  ; 
or  whether  it  should  be  subjoined  to  them  both.  Thus,  some 
would  say ; “ I left  the  parcel  at  Smith’s  the  bookseller 
others,  “at  Smith  the  bookseller’s;”  and  perhaps  others  “at 
Smith’s  the  bookseller’s.”  The  first  of  these  forms  is  most 
agreeable  to  the  English  idiom ; and  if  the  addition  consists  of 
two  or  more  w^ords,  the  case  seems  to  be  less  dubious : as,  “ I 
left  the  parcel  at  Smith’s,  the  bookseller  and  stationer.”  The 
point  will  be  still  clearer,  if  W'C  supply  the  ellipsis  in  these  sen- 
tences, and  give  the  equivalent  phrases,  at  large  : thus ; “ I left 
the  parcel  at  the  house  of  Smith  the  bookseller;”  “I  left  it  at 
Smith  the  house  of  the  bookseller.”  “ I left  it  at  the  house  of 
Smith  the  house  of  the  bookseller.”  By  this  process,  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  only  the  first  mode  of  expression  is  correct  and 
proper.  But  as  this  subject  requires  a little  further  explanation, 
to  make  it  intelligible  to  the  learners,  we  shall  add  a few’  obser- 
vations calculated  to  unfold  its  principles. 

A phrase  in  which  the  words  are  so  connected  and  dependent, 
as  to  admit  of  no  pause  before  the  conclusion,  necessarily  re- 
quires the  genitive  sign  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  phrase : as, 
“ Whose  prerogative  is  it  ? It  is  the  king  of  Great  Britain’s  ;” 
“ That  is  the  duke  of  Bridgewater’s  canal  ;”  “ The  bishop  of 

Landaffs’s  excellent  book  ;”  “ The  lord  mayor  of  London’s 

authority  ;”  “ The  captain  of  the  guard’s  house.” 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  quick  succes- 
sion, it  seems  also  most  agreeable  to  our  idiom,  to  give  the  sign 
of  the  genitive  a similar  situation  ; especially  if  the  noun  which 
governs  the  genitive  be  expressed : as,  “The  emperor  Leo- 
pold’s ;”  “ Dyonysius  the  tyrant’s  “ For  David  my  servants 
sake  ;”  “ Give  me  John  the  Baptists  head  ;”  “ Paul  the  apostles 
advice.”  But  when  a pause  is  proper,  and  the  governing  noun 
not  expressed  ; and  when  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  is  ex- 
tended ; it  appears  to  be  requisite  that  the  sign  should  be  applied 
to  the  first  genitive,  and  understood  to  the  other : as,  “ I reside 
at  lord  Stormont’s,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor ;”  “ Whose 
glory  did  he  emulate  ? He  emulated  Caesar’s  the  greatest  gen- 
eral of  antiquity.”  In  the  following  sentences,  it  w’ould  be  very 
awkward  to  place  the  sign,  either  at  the  end  of  each  of  the 
clauses,  or  at  the  end  of  the  latter  one  alone  : “These  psalms 
are  David’s,  the  king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the  Jewish  people  ;” 


RULE  X. 


177 


We  staid  a month  at  lord  Lyttleton’s,  the  ornament  of  his 
country,  and  the  friend  of  every  virtue.”  The  sign  of  the  gen- 
itive case  may  very  properly  be  understood  at  the  end  of  these 
members,  an  ellipsis  at  the  latter  part  of  sentences  being  a com-' 
mon  construction  in  our  language ; as  the  learner  will  see  by 
one  or  two  examples : “ They  wished  to  submit,  but  he  did  not;” 
that  is,  “ he  did  not  wish  to  submit “ He  said  it  was  their 
concern,  but  not  his that  is,  “ not  his  concern,^^ 

If  we  annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  last 
clause  only,  we  shall  perceive  that  a resting  place  is  wanted, 
and  that  the  connecting  circumstance  is  placed  too  remotely, 
to  be  either  perspicuous  or  agreeable : as,  “ Whose  glory  did 
he  emulate?”  “ He  emulated  Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of 
antiquitijs.^^  “ The  psalms  are  David,  the  king,  priest,  and 
prophet  of  the  Jewish  people^s,'^^  It  is  much  better  to  say, 
“ This  is  PauVs  advice,  the  Christian  hero,  and  great  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,”  than,  “ This  is  Paul  the  Christian  hero,  and 
great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles'  advice.”  On  the  other  hand,  the 
application  of  the  genitive  sign  to  both  or  all  of  the  nouns  in 
apposition,  would  be  generally  harsh  and  displeasing,  and  per- 
haps in  some  cases  incorrect : as,  “ The  emperor’s  Leopold’s  ;” 
“ King’s  George’s “ Charles’s  the  second’s “ The  parcel 
was  left  at  Smith’s,  the  bookseller’s  and  stationer’s.”  The  rules 
which  we  have  endeavoured,  to  elucidate,  will  prevent  the  in- 
conveniences of  both  these  modes  of  expression  ; and  they  ap- 
pear to  be  simple,  perspicuous,  and  consistent  with  the  idiom  of 
the  language. 

5.  The  English  genitive  has  often  an  unpleasant  sound  ; so 
that  we  daily  make  more  use  of  the  particle  of  to  express  the 
same  relation.  There  is  something  awkward  in  the  following 
* sentences,  in  which  this  method  has  not  been  taken.  “ The 
general  in  the  army’s  name,  published  a declaration.”  The 
commons’  vote.”  “ The  Lords’  house.”  Unless  he  is  very 
ignorant  of  the  kingdom’s  condition.”  It  were  certainly  better 
to  say,  In  the  name  of  the  army;”  ‘‘  The  votes  of  the  com- 
mons ;”  “ The  house  of  lords ; The  condition  of  the  king- 
dom.” It  is  also  rather  harsh  to  use  two  English  genitives 
with  the  same  substantive : as,  Whom  he  acquainted  with  the 
pope’s  and  the  king’s  pleasure.”  The  pleasure  of  the  pope 
and  the  king,”  would  have  been  better. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  three  substantives  dependent  on 
one  another,  and  connected  by  the  preposition  of  applied  to 
each  of  them : as,  “ The  severity  of  the  distress  of  the  son  of 
the  king,  touched  the  nation ;”  but  this  mode  of  expression  is 
not  to  be  recommended.  It  would  be  better  to  say,  ‘‘  The 
VoL.  I.  25 


178 


SYNTAX. 


severe  distress  of  the  king’s  son,  touched  the  nation.”  We 
have  a striking  instance  of  this  laborious  mode  of  expression,  in 
the  following  sentence:  “ Of  some  of  the  books  of  each  of 
these  classes  of  literature,  a catalogue  will  be  given  at  the  end 
of  the  work.” 

6.  In  some  cases,  W'e  use  both  the  genitive  termination  and 
the  preposition  of:  as,  “ It  a disCi  very  of  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton’s.” Sometimes  indeed,  echss  we  throw  the  sentence  into 
another  form,  this  method  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to 
distinguish  the  sense,  and  to  give  llie  idea  of  properly,  strictly 
so  called,  which  is  the  most  important  of  ihe  relations  ex- 
pressed by  the  genitive  case  : for  the  expressions,  “This  picture 
of  my  friend,”  and  “ This  picture  of  my  friend’s,”  suggest  very 
different  ideas.  The  latter  only  is  that  of  property  in  the 
strictest  sense.  The-  idea  would,  doubtless,  be  conveyed  in 
a belter  manner,  by  saying,  “ This  picture  belonging  to  my 
friend.” 

When  this  double  genitive,  as  some  grammarians  term  it,  is 
not  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  especially  in  a grave 
style,  it  is  generally  omitted.  Except  to  prevent  ambiguity,  it 
seems  to  be  allowable  only  in  cases  which  suppose  the  existence 
of  a plurality  of  subjects  of  the  same  kind.  In  the  expressions, 
A subject  of  the  emperor’s  “A  sentiment  of  my  brother’s 
more  than  one  subject  and  one  sentiment,  are  supposed  to  be- 
long to  the  possessor.  But  when,  this  plurality  is  neither  inti- 
mated, nor  necessarily  supposed,  the  double  genitive,  except  as 
before  mentioned,  should  not  be  used : as,  This  house  of  the 
governor  is  very  commodious The  crown  of  the  king  was 
stolen That  privilege  of  the  scholar  was  never  abused.” 
(See  pages  45,  46.)  But  after  all  that  can  be  said  for  this 
double  genitive,  as  it  is  termed,  some  grammarians  think,  that 
it  would  be  better  to  avoid  the  use  of  it  altogether,  and  to  give 
the  sentiment  another  form  of  expression. 

7.  When  an  entire  clause  of  a sentence,  beginning  with  a 
participle  of  the  present  tense,  is  used  as  one  name,  or  to  ex- 
press one  idea  or  circumstance,  the  noun  on  which  it  depends 
may  be  put  in  the  genitive  case  ; thus,  instead  of  saying, 
“ What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  servant  so 
hastily  ?”  that  is  “ What  is  the  reason  of  this  person,  in  dis- 
missing his  servant  so  hastily  ?”  we  may  say,  and  perhaps 
ought  to  say,  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person’s  dismissing 
of  his  servant  so  hastily  ?”  Just  as  we  say,  What  is  the 
reason  of  this  person’s  hasty  dismission  of  his  servant  ?”  So 
also,  we  say,  ‘‘  I remember  it  being  reckoned  a great  exploit 


RURE  Xt. 


179 


or  more  properly,  ‘‘I  remember  it’s  being  reckoned,”  &c. 
The  following  sentence  is  correct  and  proper  ; “ Much  will  de- 
pend on  the  pupiVs  composing^  but  more  on  his  reading  fre- 
quently.” It  would  not  be  accurate  to  say,  “ Much  will  depend 
on  ihe  pupil  composing  &c.  We  also  properly  say  ; “This 
will  be  the  oSeoi  of  the  pupiVs  composing  iYee\\ioni\y instead 
of,  “ Of  the  pupil  composing  frequently.”  The  participle,  in 
such  circumstances,  does  the  office  of  a substantive  ; and  it 
should  therefore  have  a correspondent  regimen. 

Rule  XI. 

Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case : as, 
Truth  ennobles  her  ; ” She  comforts  me  ; ” They 
support  ‘‘Virtue  rewards  her  followers 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  E^iercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  11. 

In  English,  the  nominative  case  denoting  the  subject,  usually 
goes  before  the  verb  ; and  the  objective  case,  denoting  the  ob- 
ject, follows  the  verb  active  ; and  it  is  the  order  that  determines 
the  case  in  nouns:  as,  “Alexander  ponquered  the  Persians.” 
But  the  pronoun  having  a proper  form  for  each  of  those  cases, 
is  sometimes,  wffien  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  placed  before 
the  verb  ; and  when  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  follows  the 
the  object  and  verb : as,  “ Whorn  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him 
declare  I unto  you.” 

This  position  of  the  pronoun  sometimes  occasions  its  proper 
case  and  government  to  be  neglected  ; as  in  the  following  in- 
stances: “ Who  should  I esteem  more  than  the  wise  and  good 
“ By  the  character  of  those  who  you  choose  for  your  friends, 
your  own  is  likely  to  be  formed.”  “ Those  are  the  persons 
who  he  thought  true  to  his  interest.”  “ Who  should  I see  the 
other  day  but  my  old  friend  ? ” “ Whosoever  the  court  favours.” 
In  all  these  places  it  ought  to  be  whom,  the  relative  being  gov- 
erned in  the  objective  case  by  the  verbs  “ esteem,  choose, 
thought.”  “ He,  who  under  all  proper  circumstances,  has  the 
boldness  to  speak  the  truth,  choose  for  thy  friend  ;”  it  should 
be  “ him  who.” 

Verbs  neuter  do  not  act  upon,  or  govern  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. “ He  sleeps ; they  muse,  &c.  are  not  transitive. 
They  are  therefore,  not  followed  by  an  objective  case,  speci- 
fying the  object  of  an  action.  But  when  this  case  or  an  ob- 
ject of  action,  comes  after  such  verbs,  though  it  may  carry  the 
appearance  of  being  governed  by  them,  it  is  generally  affected 
by  a preposition  or  some  other  word  understood : as,  “ He 
resided  many  years  [that  is,  for  during  many  years]  in  that 


180 


SYNTAX. 


street ; ” He  rode  several  miles  [that  is,  for  or  through  the 
space  of  several  miles]  on  that  day  ; ” “ He  lay  an  hour  [that 
is,  during  an  hour]  in  great  torture.”  In  the  phrases,  To 
dream  a dream,”  To  live  a virtuous  life,”  ‘^To  run  a race,” 
‘‘  To  walk  the  horse,”  “ To  dance  the  child,”  the  verbs  certainly 
assume  the  transitive  form,  and  may,  in  these  cases,  not  im- 
properly be  denominated  transitive  verbs. 

Part  of  a sentence,  as  well  as  a noun  or  pronoun,  may  be 
said  to  be  in  the  objective  case,  or  to  be  put  objectivel}^  gov- 
erned by  the  active  verb  : as,  “ We  sometimes  see  virtue  in 
distress : but  we  should  consider  how  great  will  he  her  ultimate 
reward^  Sentences  or  phrases  under  this  circumstance,  may 
be  termed  objective  sentences  or  phrases. 

1.  Some  writers,  however,  use  certain  neuter  verbs  as  if 

they  were  transitives,  putting  after  them  the  objective  case, 
agreeably  to  the  French  construction  of  reciprocal  verbs  ; but 
this  custom  is  so  foreign  to  the  idiom  of  the  English  tongue,  that 
it  ought  not  to  be  adopted  or  imitated.  The  following  are  some 
instances  of  this  practice.  Repenting  him  of  his  design.” 
‘‘  The  king  soon  found  reason  to  repent  him  of  his  provoking 
such  dangerous  enemies.”  “ The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to 
enlarge  themselves  on  the  subject.”  The  nearer  his  successes 
approached  him  to  the  throne.”  “ Go  flee  thee  away  into  the 
land  of  Judah.”  “ I think  it  by  no  means  a fit  and  decent 
thing  to  vie  charities,”  &c.  “ They  have  spent  their  whole 

time  and  pains,  to  agree  the  sacred  with  the  profane  chron- 
ology.” 

2.  Active  verbs  are  sometimes  as  improperly  made  neuter: 
as,  I must  premise  with  three  circumstances.”  “ Those  that 
think  to  ingratiate  with  him  by  calumniating  me.”  They 
should  be,  “ premise  three  circumstances : ” “ ingratiate  them- 
selves with  him.” 

3.  The  neuter  verb  is  varied  like  the  active  ; but  having  in 
some  degree  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits,  in  many  in- 
stances, of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the  neuter  signifi- 
cation, chiefly  in  such  verbs  as  signify  some  sort  of  motion, 
or  change  of  place  or  condition:  as,  “I  am  come:  I was 
gone  ; I am  grown  ; I was  fallen.”  The  following  examples, 
however,  appear  to  be  erroneous,  in  giving  the  neuter  verbs 
a passive  form,  instead  of  an  active  one.  “ The  rule  of  our 
holy  religion,  from  which  we  are  infinitely  swerved.^^  “ The 
whole  obligation  of  that  law  and  covenant  was  also  ceased” 
“Whose  number  was  now  amounted  to  three  hundred.” 
“ This  mareschal,  upon  some  discontent,  was  entered  into  a 


KULE  XI. 


181 


conspiracy  against  his  master.”  “ At  the  end  of  a campaign, 
when  half  the  men  are  deserted  or  killed.”  They  should  be, 

“ have  swerved,  had  ceased,”  &c. 

4.  The  verb  to  through  all  its  variations,  has  the  same  case 
after  it,  expressed  or  understood,  as  that  which  next  precedes 
it : “ / am  he  whom  they  invited  “ It  may  be  (or  might  have 
been)  he,  but  it  cannot  be  (or  could  not  have  been)  “ It  is 
impossible  to  be  they ;”  It  seems  to  have  been  he,  who  con- 
ducted himself  so  wisely;”  “ appears  to  be  that  trans- 
acted the  business  “ I understood  it  to  be  him “ I believe  it 
to  have  been  them “ We  at  first  took  it  to  be  her  ; but  were 
afterward  convinced  that  it  was  not  she ‘‘  He  is  not  the  person 
who  it  seemed  he  was.”  “ He  is  really  the  person  who  he  ap- 
peared to  be.”  “ She  is  not  now  the  woman  whom  they  repre- 
sented her  to  have  been.”  “ Whom  do  you  fancy  him.  to  be  ?” 
“ He  desired  to  be  their  king."^^  “ They  desired  him  to  be 
their  kingT  By  these  examples  it  appears  that  this  sub- 
stantive verb  has  no  government  of  case,  but  serves  in  all 
its  forms,  as  a conductor  to  the  cases  ; so  that  the  two 
cases  which,  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  or  member 
of  the  sentence,  are  the  next  before  and  after  it,  must  always  be 
alike.  . Perhaps  this  subject  will  be  more  intelligible  to  the 
learner,  by  observing  that  the  words  in  the  cases  preceding  and 
following  the  verb  to  he,  may  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each 
other.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  “ I understood  it  to  be  him,”  the 
words  it  and  him  are  in  apposition  ; that  is,  ‘Hhey  refer  to  the 
same  thing,  and  are  in  the  same  case.”  If  this  rule  be  consid- 
ered as  applying  to  simple  sentences,  or  to  the  simple  members 
of  compound  sentences,  the  difficulties  respecting  it  will  be  still 
farther  diminished. 

The  following  sentences  contain  deviations  from  the  rule,  and 
exhibit  the  pronoun  in  a wrong  case  : It  might  have  been  him, 
but  there  is^no  proof  of  it :”  “ Though  I was  blamed,  it  could 

not  have  been  me ;”  “ I saw  one  whom  I took  to  be  she “ She 
is  the  person  who  I understand  it  to  have  been ;”  “ Who  do  you 
think  me  to  be  ?”  Whom  do  men  say  that  I am  ?”  “ And  whom 
think  ye  that  I am  ?” 

In  the  last  example,  the  natural  arrangement  is,  “ Ye  think 
that  I am  whom  ;”  where,  contrary,  to  the  rule,  the  nominative 
/ precedes,  and  the  objective  case  whom  follows  the  verb. 
The  best  method  of  discovering  the  proper  case  of  the  pro- 
noun, in  such  phrases  as  the  preceding,  is,  to  turn  them  into 
declarative  expressions,  and  to  substitute  the  antecedent  for 
the  pronoun,  as  the  pronoun  must  be  in  the  same  case  as  the 
antecedent  would  be  in,  if  substituted  for  it.  Thus,  the  ques- 
tion, “ Whom  do  men  say  that  I am  ?”  if  turned  into  a declara- 


182 


SYNTAX. 


live  sentence,  with  the  antecedent,  would  be,  Men  do  say 
that  I am  he consequently  the  relative  must  be  in  the  same 
case  as  he ; that  is,  the  nominative  who  and  not  whom.  In  the 
same  manner,  in  the  phrase,  Who  should  I see  but  my  old 
friend  ?”  if  we  turn  it  into  a declarative  one,  as,  “ I should  see 
him,  my  old  friend,”  we  shall  perceive  that  the  relative  is 
governed  by  the  verb ; as  Aim  and  my  friend  are  in  the  object* 
ive  case,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  in  the  same  case  ; that  is,  whom, 
and  not  who. 

When  the  verb  to  be  is  understood,  it  has  the  same  case  before 
and  after  it,  as  when  it  is  expressed  : as,  “ He  seems  the  leader 
of  the  party  “ He  shall  continue  steward  “ They  ap- 
pointed me  executor “ I supposed  him  a man  of  learning 
that  is,  He  seems  to  he  the  leader  of  the  party,”  &c. 

Passive  verbs  which  signify  naming,  and  others  of  a similar 
nature,  have  the  same  case  before  and  after  them  : as,  “ He 
was  called  Ccesar “ She  was  named  Penelope  “ Homer  is 
styled  the  prince  of  poets  James  was  created  a duke 

The  general  was  saluted  emperor  f “ The  professor  was  ap- 
pointed tutor  to  the  prince  “ He  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed king  “The  senate  adjudged  him  to  be  declared  a 
traitorT 

From  the  observations  and  examples  which  have  been  pro- 
duced under  this  4th  subordinate  rule,  it  is  evident  that  certain 
neuter  verbs,  besides  the  verb  to  he,  require  the  same  case, 
whether  it  be  the  nominative  or  the  objective,  before  and  after 
them.  The  verbs  to  become,  to  wander,  to  go,  to  return,  to 
expire,  to  appear,  to  die,  to  live,  to  look,  to  grow,  to  seem, 
to  roam,  and  several  others,  are  of  this  nature.  After  this 
event  he  became  physician  to  the  king “ She  wanders  an 
outcast “ He  forced  her  to  wander  an  outcast “ He  went 
out  mate,  but  he  returned  captain  “ And  Swift  expires  a 
driveler  and  a shoio  “This  conduct  made  him  appear  an  en- 
courager  of  every  virtue  “ Hortensius  died  a martyr  ; “ The 
gentle  Sidney  lived  the  shepherd’s  friend?'* 

All  the  examples  under  this  4th  division  of  the  Eleventh  Rule, 
and  all  others  of  a similar  construction,  may  be  explained  on 
the  principle,  that  nouns  and  pronouns  are  in  the  same  case, 
when  they  signify  the  same  thing,  the  one  merely  describing  or 
elucidating  the  other. 

5.  The  auxiliary  let  governs  the  objective  case  : as,  “ Let 
him  beware  “ Let  us  judge  candidly  “ Let  them  not  pre- 
sume “ Let  George  study  his  lesson.” 

Some  of  our  verbs  appear  to  govern  two  words  in  the  ob- 
jective case : as,  “ The  Author  of  my  being  formed  me  man, 


RULE  XII. 


183 


and  made  me  accountable  to  him.”  ‘‘  They  desired  me  to 
call  them  hrethi'enJ'^  “He  seems  to  have  made  Azm  what  he 
was.” 

We  sometimes  meet  with  such  expressions  as  these  : “ They 
were  asked  a question  “ They  were  offered  a pardon  He 
had  been  left  a great  estate  by  his  father.”  In  these  phrases, 
verbs  passive  are  made  to  govern  the  objective  case.  .This 
license  is  not  to  be  approved.  The  expressions  should  be  : 
question  wa^^  put  to  them  pardon  was  offered  to  them 

“ His  father  left  him  a great  estate.” 

Rule  XII. 

One  verb  governs  another  that  follows  it,  or  de- 
pends upon  it,  in  the  iiifinitive  mood  : as,  Cease  to 
do  evil:  learn  to  a'o  well ^^We  should  be  prepared 
to  render  an  account  of  our  actions.” 

The  preposition  /o,  though  generally  used  before 
the  latter  verb,  is  sometimes  properly  omitted ; as, 
heard  him  say  it;  instead  of  sayiV^ 

See  vol.  ii.  part  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  12. 

This  rule  refers  to  principal,  not  to  auxiliary  verbs.  If  the 
student  reflects,  that  the  principal  and  the  auxiliary  form  but  one 
verb,  he  will  have  little  or  no  difficulty  in  the  proper  application 
of  the  present  rule. 

The  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  following  them 
in  the  infinitive  mood,  without  the  sign  to^  are,  bid,  dare,  need, 
make,  see,  hear,  feel ; and  also,  let,  not  used  as  an  auxiliary ; and 
perhaps  a few  others  : as,  “I  bade  him  do  it ;”  “Ye  dare  not 
do  it ;”  “ I saw  him  do  it ;”  “ I heard  him  say  it “ Thou  let- 
test  him  go.” 

This  irregularity  extends  only  to  active  or  neuter  verbs  : for 
all  the  verbs  abovementioned,  when  made  passive,  require  the 
preposition  to  before  the  following  verbs  : as,  “ He  was  seen  to 
^o;”  “ He  was  heard  to  speak  \n  his  own  defence “They 
were  bidden  to  he  upon  their  guard.” 

1.  In  the  following  passages,  the  word  to^  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive  mood,  where  it  is  distinguished  by  Italic  characters, 
is  superfluous  and  improper.  “ I have  observed  some  satirists 
to  use,”  &c.  “ To  see  so  many  io  make  so  little  conscience  of 

so  great  a sin.”  “ It  cannot  but  be  a delightful  spectacle  to 
God  and  angels,  to  see  a young  person,  besieged  by  powerful 
temptations  on  every  side,  to  acquit  himself  gloriously,  and 
resolutely  to  hold  out  against  the  most  violent  assaults : to 


184 


SYNTAX. 


behold  one  in  the  prime  and  flower  of  his  age,  that  is  courted 
by  pleasures  and  honours,  by  the  devil,  and  all  the  bewitching 
vanities  of  the  world,  to  reject  all  these,  and  to  cleave  stead- 
fastly unto  God.” 

This  mood  has  also  been  improperly  used  in  the  following 
places ; “ I am  not  like  other  men,  to  envy  the  talents  I cannot 
reach.”  “ Grammarians  have  denied,  or  at  least  doubted, 
them  to  he  genuine.”  “ That  all  our  doings  may  be  ordei'ed 
by  thy  governance,  to  do  always  what  is  righteous  in  thy 
sight.” 


The  infinitive  is  frequently  governed  by  adjectives,  substan- 
tives, and  participles  : as,  “He  is  eager  to  learn  ;”  “ She  is  wor- 
thy to  be  loved  ;”  “ They  have  a desire  to  improve  ;”  “ Endeav- 
ouring to  persuade.” 

The  infinitive  sometirnes  follows  the  word  as  : thus,  “An  ob- 
ject so  high  as  to  he  invisible :”  “ A question  so  obscure  as  to 
perplex  the  understanding.” 

The  infinitive  occasionally  follows  than  after  a comparison  ; 
as,  “ He  desired  nothing  more  than  to  know  his  own  imper- 
fections.” 

The  infinitive  mood  has  much  of  the  nature  of  a substantive, 
expressing  the  action  itself  which  the  verb  signifies,  as  the  par- 
ticiple has  the  nature  of  an  adjective.  Thus  the  infinitive  mood 
does  the  office  of  a substantive  in  different  cases : in  the  nomi- 
native : as,  “ Toplay  is  pleasant :”  in  the  objective  : as,  “Boys 
love  to  play  ;”  “For  to  will  is  present  with  me  ; but  to  perform 
that  which  is  good,  I find  not.” 

The  infinitive  mood  is  often  made  absolute,  or  used  inde- 
pendently on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  supplying  the  place  of 
the  conjunction  that  with  the  ^Dotential  mood  : as,  “ To  con- 
fess the  truth,  I was  in  fault “ To  begin  with  the  first ;” 
“ To  proceed  ;”  “ To  conclude  ;”  that  is,  “ That  I may  con- 
fess,” &C.  1 

The  preposition  to,  signifying  in  order  to,  was  anciently  pre- 
ceded hyfor:  as,  “ What  went  ye  out /or  to  The  word 

for,  before  the  infinitive,  is  now  in  almost  every  case  obso- 
lete. It  is,  however,  still  used,  if  the  subject  of  the  affirma- 
tion intervenes  between  that  preposition  and  the  verb  : as, 
“ for  holy  persons  to  be  humble,  is  as  hard,  as  for  a prince  to 
submit  himself  to  be  guided  by  tutors.” 


atJLE  xiir. 


186 


Rule  XIII. 

In  the  use  of  words  and  phrases,  which,  in  point 
of  time,  relate  to  each  other,  a due  regard  to  that 
relation  should  be  observed.  Instead  of  saying, 
“ The  Lord  hath  given,  and  the  Lord  hath  taken 
away we  should  say,  “■  The  Lord  gave,  and  the 
Lord  hath  taken  away.”  Instead  of  “ I know  the 
family  more  than  twenty  years it  should  be,  “ I 
have  known  the  family  more  than  twenty  years.” 


See  Vol.  ii.  Part.  3.  Exercises.  Chap  1.  Rule  13. 

It  is  not  easy,  in  all  cases,  to  give  particular  rules,  for  the 
management  of  words  and  phrases  which  relate  to  one  another, 
so  that  they  may  be  proper  and  consistent.  The  best  rule  that 
can  be  given,  is  this  very  general  one,  “ To  observe  what  the 
sense  necessarily  requires.”  It  may,  however,  be  of  use,  to 
exhibit  a number  of  instances,  in  which  the  construction  is 
irregular.  The  following  are  of  this  nature. 

“ I have  completed  the  work  more  than  a week  ago  “ I 
have  seen  the  coronation  at  Westminster  last  summer.”  These 
sentences  should  have  been  ; “ I completed  the  work,  &c  ;”  “ I 
saw  the  coronation,”  &:c. : because  the  perfect  tense  extends  to 
a past  period,  which  immediately  precedes,  or  includes  the 
present  time ; and  it  cannot  therefore,  apply  to  the  time  of  a 
week  ago,  or  to  last  midsummer. 

‘‘  Charles  has  lately  finished  the  reading  of  Henry’s  History 
of  England  : it  should  be,  “ Charles  lately  finished, &c. ; the 
word  lately  referring  to  a time  completely  past,  without  any 
allusion  to  the  present  time. 

“ They  have  resided  in  Italy,  till  a few  months  ago,  for  the 
benefit  of  their  health ;”  it  should  be,  ‘‘  they  resided  in 
Italy,”  &c. 

“ This  mode  of  expression  has  been  formerly  much  admired 
it  ought  to  be,  “ was  formerly  much  admired.” 

“ The  business  is  not  done  here,  in  the  manner  in  which  it 
has  been  done,  some  years  since  in  Germany  :”  it  should  be, 
“ in  the  manner  it  which  it  was  done,”  &c. 

“ I will  pay  the  vows  which  my  lips  have  uttered,  when  I 
was  in  trouble : it  ought  to  be,  “ which  my  lips  uttered,’'^  &c. 

“ I have,  in  my  youth,  trifled  with  health ; and  old  age  now 
Vol.  I.  26 


186 


SYNTAX. 


prematurely  assails  me  it  should  be,  “ In  my  youth  I triHed 
with  health,”  &c. 

The  five  examples  last  mentioned  are  corrected  on  the  same 
principle  that  the  preceding  examples  are  corrected. 

“ Charles  is  grown  considerably  since  I have  seen  him  the 
last  time this  sentence  ought  to  be,  “ Charles  has  grown  con- 
siderably, since  I saw  him  the  last  time,” 

“ Payment  was  at  length  made,  but  no  reason  assigned  for 
its  being  so  long  postponed  it  should  be,  “ for  its  having  been 
so  long  postponed.” 

“ He  became  so  meek  and  submissive,  that  to  be  in  the  house 
as  one  of  the  hired  servants,  was  now  the  utmost  of  his  wishes:” 
it  ought  to  be,  “ w^as  then  the  utmost  of  his  wishes.” 

“ They  were  arrived  an  hour  before  we  reached  the  city 
it  ought  to  be,  “ They  had  arrivedy^  &c. ; because  arrived,  in 
this  phrase,  denotes  an  event  not  only  past,  but  prior  to  the  time 
referred  to,  by  the  words,  “ reached  the  city.” 

“ The  workmen  will  finish  the  business  at  midsummer.” 
According  to  the  meaning,  it  ought  to  be  ; “ The  workmen  will 
have  fini^edr  &c. 

“ All  the  present  family  have  been  much  indebted  to  their 
great  and  honourable  ancestor it  should  be,  “ are  much  in- 
debted.” 

This  curious  piece  of  workmanship  was  preserved,  and 
shown  to  strangers,  for  more  than  fifty  years  past it  ought  to 
be,  “ has  been  preserved,  and  been  shown,"^  &c. 

“ I had  rather  walk  tiran  ride  it  should  be,  “ I would  rather 
walk  than  ride.” 

“ On  the  morrow,  because  he  should  have  known  the  cer- 
tainty, wherefore  he  was  accused  of  the  Jews,  he  loosed  him 
it  ought  to  be,  “ because  he  would  know ;”  or  rather,  “ bemg 
willing  to  know^ 

“ The  blind  man  said  unto  him.  Lord,  that  I might  receive 
my  sight ;”  “ If  by  any  means  I might  attain  unto  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead :”  in  both  these  places  may  would  have  been 
better  than  might 

“ I feared  that  I should  have  lost  the  parcel,  before  I arrived 
at  the  city :”  it  should  be,  “ I feared  that  I should  lose,^  &c. 

“ It  would  have  afforded  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I could  perform 
it it  ought  to  be,  “ If  I could  have  performed  it ;”  or,  “ It 
would  affoi^d  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I could  perform  it.” 

To  preserve  consistency  in  the  time  of  verbs,  and  of  words 
and  phrases,  we  must  recollect  that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood , 


RULE  XIII. 


187 


the  present  and  the  imperfect  tenses  often  carry  with  them  a 
future  sense : and  that  the  auxiliaries  should  and  would,  in  the 
imperfect  time,  are  used  to  express  the  present  and  future,  as 
well  as  the  past.  See  Section  5 of  the  6th  Chapter  of  Etymol- 
72,  73. 

1.  With  regard  to  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  the  practice 
of  many  writers,  and  some  even  of  our  most  respectable  wri- 
ters, appears  to  be  erroneous.  They  seem  not  to  advert  to  the 
true  principles,  which  influence  the  different  tenses  of  this 
mood.  We  shall  produce  some  rules  on  the  subject,  which, 
we  presume  will  be  found  perspicuous  and  accurate.  All 
verbs  expressive  of  hope,  desire,  intention,  or  command,  must 
invariably  be  followed  by  the  present,  and  not  the  perfect  of 
the  infinitive.”  “ The  last  week  I intended  to  have  written^'* 
is  a very  common  phrase : the  infinitive  being  in  the  past  time, 
as  well  as  the  verb  which  it  follows.  But  it  is  evidently  wrong : 
for  how  long  soever  it  now  is  since  I thought  of  writing,  “ to 
write”  was  then  present  to  me ; and  must  still  be  considered  as 
present,  when  I bring  back  that  time,  and  the  thoughts  of  it.  It 
ought  therefore  be  ; The  last  week,  I intended  to  writeP 

The  following  sentence  is  properly  and  analogically  ex- 
pressed : I found  him  better  than  I expected  to  find  him.” 
‘‘  Expected  to  have  found  himf  is  irreconcilable  to  grammar 
and  to  sense.  Every  person  would  perceive  an  error  in  this 
expression ; It  is  long  since  I commanded  him  to  have  done 
it yet  “expected  to  have  found, is  not  better.  It  is  as  clear, 
that  the  finding  be  posterior  to  the  expectation,  as  that 
the  obedience  must  be  posterior  to  the  command. 

Some  writers  on  grammar  contend,  that  the  sentence,  “ I 
intend  to  have  written,”  is  correct  and  grammatical ; because 
it  simply  denotes,  as  they  assert,  the  speaker’s  intention  to  be 
hereafter  in  possession  of  the  finished  action  of  writing.  But 
to  this  reasoning  the  following  answers  may  be  given  : that 
the  phrase,  “ to  have  written,”  is  stated  in  English  gram- 
mars, as  the  established  past  tense  of  the  infinitive  mood ; 
that  it  is  as  incontrovertibly  the  past  tense  of  the  infinitive  in 
English  as  scripsisse  is  the  past  tense  of  the  infinitive  in  Latin ; 
that  no  writers  can  be  warranted  in  taking  such  liberties  with 
the  language,  as  to  contradict  its  plainest  rules,  for  the  sake 
of  supporting  an  hypothesis ; that  these  writers  might,  on  their 
own  principles,  and  with  equal  propriety,  contend,  that  the 
phrase,  “ I intend  having  written, is  proper  and  grammatical ; 
and  that,  by  admitting  such  violations  of  established  grammat- 
ical distinctions,  confusion  would  be  introduced,  the  language 
would  be  disorganized,  the  most  eccentric  systems  of  grammar 


188 


SYNTAX. 


might  be  advanced,  and  plausibly  supported. — In  short,  the 
phrase,  “ I intend  to  have  written,”  appears  to  involve  the  fol- 
lowing absurdity  ; “ I intend  to  produce  hereafter  an  action  or 
event,  which  has  been  already  completed.” 

As  the  verbs  to  desire  and  to  wish,  are  nearly  related,  the 
young  student  may  naturally  suppose,  from  the  rule  just  laid 
down,  that  the  latter  verb,  like  the  former,  must  invariably  be 
followed  by  the  present  of  the  infinitive.  But  if  he  reflect, 
that  the  act  of  desiring  always  refers  to  the  future : and  that 
the  act  of  wishing  refers  sometimes  to  the  past,  as  well  as 
sometimes  to  the  future ; he  will  perceive  the  distinction  be- 
tween them,  and  that,  consequently,  the  following  modes  of 
expression  are  strictly  justifiable  : I wished  that  I had  written 
sooner,”  “ I wished  to  have  written  sooner :”  and  he  will  be 
perfectly  satisfied,  that  the  following  phrases  must  be  improper: 
“ I desire  that  I had  written  sooner “ I desire  to  have  written 
sooner.”* 

Having  considered  and  explained  the  special  rule,  respect- 
ing the  government  of  verbs  expressive  of  hope,  desire,  inten- 
tion of  command,  we  proceed  to  state  and  elucidate  the  gen- 
eral rule,  on  the  subject  of  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood.  It 
is  founded  on  the  authority  of  Harris,  Lowth,  Campbell,  Pick- 
bourn,  &c. ; and  we  think  too,  on  the  authority  of  reason 
and  common  sense.  When  the  action  or  event  signified,  by 
a verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  is  contemporary  or  future,  with 
respect  to  the  verb  to  which  it  is  chiefly  related,  the  present 
of  the  infinitive  is  required : when  it  is  not  contemporary  nor 
future,  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  is  necessary.”  To  com- 
prehend and  apply  this  rule,  the  student  has  only  to  consider, 
whether  the  infinitive  verb  refers  to  a time  antecedent,  con- 
temporary or  future,  with  regard  to  the  governing  or  related 
verb.  When  this  simple  point  is  ascertained,  there  will  be  no 
doubt  in  his  mind,  respecting  the  form  which  the  infinitive 
verb  should  have.  A few  examples  may  illustrate  these  posi- 
tions. If  I wish  to  signify,  that  I rejoiced  at  a particular 
time,  in  recollecting  the  sight  of  a friend,  some  time  having 
intervened  between  the  seeing  and  the  rejoicing,  I should  ex- 
press myself  thus ; I rejoiced  to  have  seen  my  friend.”  The 


^ In  the  expression,  I hope  that  I have  done  my  duty,”  there  appears  to  be  a considerable 
ellipsis.  The  sentence  at  large  may  very  naturally  be  thus  explained  : “I  hope  it  will  appear,  or, 
I hope  to  show,  or,  I hope  it  is  evident,  or,  1 hope  you  will  believe,  that  I have  done  my  duty. 
But  whether  the  ellipsis  be  admitted  or  rejected,  it  is  indubitable  that  the  infinitive  mood  cannot 
be  applied  on  this  occasion,  to  say,  “ I hope  to  have  done  my  duty,”  is  harsh  and  incorrect.  1 
hoped  that  I had  done  my  duty,”  that  is,  “ I hoped  he  would  believe,  or,  I hoped  it  w^  evident, 
that  I had  done  my  duty,”  is  a correct  and  regular  mode  of  expression.  But  it  would  not  be  proper, 
under  any  circumstances  whatever,  to  say,  “I  hoped  to  have  done  my  duty  :”  it  should  be,  | 
hoped  to  do  my  duty.” 


RULE  XIII. 


189 


seeing^  in  this  case,  was  evidently  antecedent  to  the  rejoicing ; 
and  therefore  the  verb  which  expresses  the  former,  must  be  in 
the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  mood.  The  same  meaning  may  be 
expressed  in  a different  form : “ I rejoiced  that  I had  seen  my 
friend  f or,  in  having  seen  my  friend  f ’ and  the  student  may, 
in  general,  try  the  propriety  of  a doubtfiil  point  of  this  nature, 
by  converting  the  phrase  into  these  two  correspondent  foVms  of 
expression.  When  it  is  convertible  into  both  these  equivalent 
phrases,  its  legitimacy  must  be  admitted. — If,  on  the  contrary, 
I wish  to  signify,  that  I rejoiced  at  the  sight  of  my  friend,  that 
my  joy  and  his  presence  were  contemporary,  I should  say,  “ I 
rejoiced  to  see  my  friend or,  in  other  words,  “ I rejoiced  in 
seeing  my  friend.”  The  correctness  of  this  form  of  the  infini- 
tive may  also,  in  most  cases,  be  tried,  by  converting  the  phrase 
into  other  phrases  of  a similar  import. 

The  subject  may  be  still  further  illustrated,  by  additional  ex- 
amples. In  the  sentence  which  follows,  the  verb  is  with  pro- 
priety put  in  the  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  mood  : “ It  would 
have  afforded  me  great  pleasure,  as  often  as  I reflected  upon  it, 
to  have  been  the  messenger  of  such  intelligence.”  As  the  mes- 
sage, in  this  instance,  was  antecedent  to  the  pleasure,  and  not 
contemporary  with  it,  the  verb  expressive  of  the  message  must 
denote  that  antecedent,  by  being  in  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  message,  and  the  pleasure  were  referred 
to  as  contemporary,  the  subsequent  verb  would,  with  equal  pro- 
priety, have  been  put  in  the  present  of  the  infinitive : as,  “ It 
would  have  afforded  me  great  pleasure,  to  he  the  messenger  of 
such  intelligence.”  In  the  former  instance,  the  praise  in  ques- 
tion is  equivalent  to  these  words;  If  I had  been  the  messen- 
ger in  the  latter  instance,  to  this  expression  : “ Being  the 
messenger.” 

For  the  greater  satisfaction  of  the  reader,  we  shall  present 
him  with  a variety  of  false  constructions,  under  the  general  rule. 

“ This  is  a book  which  proves  itself  to  be  written  by  the  per- 
son whose  name  it  bears it  ought  to  be,  “ which  proves  itself 
to  have  been  written^^ 

“To  see  him  would  have  afforded  me  pleasure  all  my  life 
it  should  be,  “ To  have  seen  him,  would  have  afforded,”  &c.  or, 
“ To  see  him  would  afford  me  pleasure,”  &c. 

“ The  arguments  were  sufficient  to  have  satisfied  all  who 
heard  them ;”  “ Providence  did  not  permit  the  reign  of  Julian 
to  have  been  long  and  prosperous  they  should  be,  “ were  suf- 
ficient to  satisfy  f &c.  and,  “ to  be  long  and  prosperous.” 

“ It  was  impossible  for  those  men,  by  any  diligence  whatever, 
to  have  prevented  this  accident ; every  thing  that  men  could 
have  done,  was  done  :”  corrected  thus : “ to  prevent  this  acci*= 
dent ;”  “ every  thing  that  men  could  dof  &c. 


190 


SYNTAX. 


‘‘  The  respect  shown  to  the  candidate  would  have  been 
greater,  if  it  had  been  practicable,  to  have  afforded  repeated 
opportunities  to  the  freeholders  to  have  annexed  their  names 
to  the  address  f they  should  be,  “ if  it  had  been  practicable  to 
afford^'^  and  “ to  annex,  their  names.” 

“ From  this  biblical  knowdedge,  he  appears  to  study  the  Holy 
Scriptures  with  great  attention  it  ought  to  be  ; “ he  appears 
to  have  studied^^  &c. 

“ 1 cannot  excuse  the  remissness  of  those,  whose  business  it 
should  have  been,  as  it  certainly  was  their  interest,  to  have 
interposed  their  good  offices  “ There  were  two  circumstances, 
which  made  it  necessary  for  them  to  have  lost  no  time  His- 
tory painters  would  have  found  it  difficult,  to  have  invented  such 
a species  of  beings.”  In  these  three  examples,  the  phrases 
should  have  been,  “ to  interpose,  to  lose,  to  inventP 

It  is  proper  to  inform  the  learner,  that,  in  order  to  express 
the  past  time  with  the  defective  verb  ought,  the  perfect  of  the 
infinitive  must  always  be  used  : as,  “ He  ought  to  have  done  it.” 
When  we  use  this  verb,  this  is  the  only  possible  way  to  distin- 
guish the  past  from  the  present. 

In  support  of  the  positions  advanced  under  this  rule,  we  can 
produce  the  sentimets  of  the  most  eminent  grammarians.  There 
are,  however,  some  writers  on  grammar,  who  strenuously  main- 
tain, that  the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  ought  to  be  in  the 
past  tense,  when  the  verb  which  governs  it,  is  in  the  past  time. 
Though  this  cannot  be  admitted  in  the  instances  which  are  con* 
troverted  under  this  rule,  or  in  any  instances  of  a similar  nature, 
yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  many  cases,  in  which  the 
thing  referred  to  preceded  the  governing  verb,  it  would  be 
proper  and  allowable.  We  may  say  ; ‘^From  a conversation  I 
once  had  with  him,  he  appeared  to  have  studied  Homer  with 
great  care  and  judgment.”  It  would  be  proper  also  to  say, 
from  his  conversation,  he  appears  to  have  studied  Homer,  with 
great  care  and  judgment ;”  “ That  unhappy  man  is  supposed  to 
have  d'lecZ  by  violence.”  These  examples  are  not  only  consistent 
with  our  rule,  but  they  confirm  and  illustrate  it.  It  is  the  tense 
of  the  governing  verb  only,  that  marks  what  is  called  the  abso- 
lute time  ; the  tense  of  the  verb  governed,  marks  solely  its 
relative  time  with  respect  to  the  other. 

To  assert,  as  some  writers  do,  that  verbs  in  the  infinitive 
mood  have  no  tenses,  no  relative  distinctions  of  present,  past, 
and  future,  is  inconsistent  with  just  grammatical  views  of  the 
subject.  That  these  verbs  associate  with  verbs  in  all  the 
tenses,  is  no  proof  of  their  having  no  peculiar  time  of  their 
own.  Whatever  period  the  governing  verb  assumes,  whether 
present,  past,  or  future,  the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive 


RULE  XIII. 


191 


always  respects  that  period,  and  its  time  is  calculated  from  it. 
Thus,  the  time  of  the  infinitive  may  be  before,  after,  or  the 
same  as,  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  according  as  the  thing 
signified  by  the  infinitive  is  supposed  to  be  before,  after,  or 
present  with,  the  thing  denoted  by  the  governing  verb.  It  is, 
therefore,  with  great  propriety,  that,  tenses  are  assigned  to  verbs 
of  the  infinitive  mood.  The  point  of  time  from  which  they  are 
computed,  is  of  no  consequence  ; since  present,  past,  and  future, 
are  completely  applicable  to  them. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  observe,  that  though  it  is  often 
correct  to  use  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  after  the  governing 
verb,  there  are  particular  cases,  in  which  it  would  be  better 
to  give  the  expression  a different  form.  Thus,  instead  of  say- 
ing, ‘‘  I wish  to  have  written  to  him  sooner,”  “ I then  wished 
to  have  written  to  him  sooner,”  “ He  will  one  day  wish  to  have 
written  sooner : ” it  would  be  more  perspicuous  and  for- 
cible, as  well  as  more  agreeable  to  the  practice  of  good  writers, 
to  say,  “ I wish  that  I had  written  to  him  sooner,”  “ I then 
wished  that  I had  written  to  him  sooner,  “ He  will  one  day 
wish  that  he  had  written  sooner.” 

Should  the  justness  of  these  strictures  be  admitted,  the 
past  infinitive  would  not  be  superseded,  though  some  gram- 
marians have  supposed  it  would : there  would  still  be  nume^ 
rous  occasions  for  the  use  of  it ; as  we  may  perceive  by  a few 
example?.  “ It  would  ever  afterwards  have  been  a scource  of 
pleasure,  to  have  found  him  wise  and  virtuous.”  “ To  have 
deferred  his  repentence  longer,  would  have  disqualified  him 
for  repenting  at  alh”  “ They  will  then  see,  that  to  have  faith- 
fully performed  their  duty,  would  have  been  their  greatest 
consolation.” 

In  relating  things  that  were  formerly  expressed  by  another 
person,  we  often  meet  with  modes  of  expression  similar  to  the 
following : 

‘‘  The  travellers  who  lately  came  from  the  south  of  England, 
said  that  the  harvest  there  was  very  abundant  ” ; “ I met  Charles 
yesterday,  who  told  me  that  he  is  very  happy  : ” “ The  profes- 
sor asserted,  that  a resolute  adherence  to  truth  is  an  indispensable 
duty : ” “ The  preacher  said  very  audibly,  that  whatever  was 
useful,  was  good.” 

In  referring  to  declarations  of  this  nature,  the  present  tense 
must  be  used,  if  the  position  is  immutably  the  same  at  all  times, 
or  supposed  to  be  so  : as,  “ The  bishop  declared,  that  virtue  is 
always  advantageous  :”  not,  was  always  advantageous.”  But 
if  the  assertion  referred  to  something  that  is  not  always  the 
same,  or  supposed  to  be  so,  the  past  tense  must  be  applied  ; 
as,  George  said  that  he  was  very  happy;”  not,  “w  very 
happy.” 


192 


SYNTAX. 


The  following  sentences  will  fully  exmplify,  to  the  young 
grammarian,  both  the  parts  of  this  rule.  He  declared  to  us, 
that  he  was  afraid  of  no  man : because  concious  innocence  gives 
firmness  of  mind.”  “ He  protested,  that  he  believed  what  was 
said,  bcause  it  appeared  to  him  probable.”  “ Charles  asserted, 
that  it  was  his  opinion,  that  men  always  succeed,  when  they  use 
precaution  and  pains.”  “ The  doctor  declared  to  his  audience, 
that  if  virtue  suffers  some  pains,  she  is  amply  recompensed  by 
the  pleasures  which  attend  her.” 

If  this  rule  should  not  be  completely  applicable  to  every 
case  which  an  ingenious  critic  may  state,  the  author  presumes 
that  it  will  be  found  very  generally  useful. 

The  examples  which  have  been  adduced,  to  illustrate  and 
strengthen  the  positions  contained  under  the  several  parts  of 
this  Thirteenth  rule  of  Syntax,  will  not,  we  hope,  be  deemed 
too  numerous:  they  have  been  given  so  copiously,  that  the 
student  may  be  the  better  informed  and  impressed,  by  sur- 
veying the  subject  at  large,  and  in  different  points  of  view. 
The  author  has  not  advanced  any  instances,  or  corrections, 
which  he  does  not  think  are  pertinent  and  strictly  defensible. 
But  if  some  of  them  should  be  less  obvious  than  others,  and 
if  a few  of  them  should  be  gratuitously  conceded  to  criticism, 
the  candid  reader  will  perceive,  that  there  would  still  remain 
unimpeached,  a number  amply  sufficient  to  confirm  the  dif- 
ferent rules  and  positions.  This  observation  may  be  properly 
extended  to  several  other  parts  of  the  present  work.  A rule 
is  not  to  be  invalidated,  because  all  the  examples  given  under 
it,  are  not  equally  obvious,  or  even  equally  tenable. 

Rule  XIV. 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the 
verbs  from  which  they  are  derived ; as,  I am  weary 
with  hearing  him  She  is  instructing  us  ‘^The 
tutor  is  admonishing  Charles,^ 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  14. 

I.  Participles  are  sometimes  governed  by  the  article ; for 
the  present  participle,  with  the  definite  article  the  before  it, 
becomes  a substantive,  and  must  have  the  preposition  of  af- 
ter it : as,  “ These  are  the  rules  of  grammar,  by  the  observ- 
ing of  which,  you  may  avoid  mistakes.”  It  would  not  be 


* Though  the  participle  is  not  a part  of  speech  distinct  from  the  verb,  yet  as  it  forms  a par- 
ticular and  striking  part  of  the  verb  and  has  some  rules  and  observations  which  are  peculiar 
to  itself,  we  ihink^it  is  entitled  to  a separate  and  distinctive  consideration. 


RULE  XIV. 


193 


proper  to  say,  “ by  the  observing  which nor,  “ by  observing 
of  which  but  the  phrase,  without  either  article  or  preposition, 
would  be  right : as,  “ by  observing  which.”  The  article  a or 
an,  has  the  same  effect:  as,  “This  was  a betraying  of  the  trust 
reposed  in  him.” 

This  rule  arises  from  the  nature  and  idiom  of  our  language, 
and  from  as  plain  a principle  as  any  on  which  it  is  founded ; 
namely,  that  a word  which  has  the  article  before  it,  and  the 
possessive  preposition  o/*  after  it,  must  be  a noun  ; and  if  a noun, 
it  ought  to  follow  the  construction  of  a noun,  and  not  to  have 
the  regimen  of  a verb.  It  is  the  participial  termination  of  this 
sort  of  words  that  is  apt  to  deceive  us,  and  make  us  treat  them 
as  if  they  were  of  an  amphibious  species,  partly  nouns  and 
partly  verbs. 

The  following  are  a few  examples  of  the  violation  of  this  rule. 
“ He  was  sent  to  prepare  the  way  by  preaching  of  repentance;” 
it  ought  to  be,  “ by  the  preaching  of  repentance or,  “ by 
preaching  repentance.”  “ By  the  continual  mortifying  our  cor- 
rupt affections ;”  it  should  be,  “by  the  continual  mortifying  q/*,” 
or,  “ by  continually  mortifying  our  corrupt  affections.”  “ They 
laid  out  thenniselves  towards  the  advancing  and  promoting  the 
good  of  it ;”  “ towards  advancing  and  promoting  the  good.” 
“ It  is  an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  reduce  every  thing  to  the 
narrow  measure  of  our  capacities:”  “if  is  overvaluing  our- 
selves,” or,  “^72  overvaluing  of  ourselves.”  “Keeping  of  one 
day  in  seven,”  &c.  it  ought  to  be,  “ the  keeping  of  one  day ;”  or, 
“ keeping  one  day.” 

A phrase  in  which  the  article  precedes  the  present  participle 
and  the  possessive  preposition  follows  it,  will  not,  in  every 
instance  convey  the  same  meaning,  as  would  be  conveyed  by 
the  participle  without  the  article  and  preposition.  “He  ex- 
pressed the  pleasure  he  had  in  the  hearing  of  the  philosopher,” 
is  capable  of  a different  sense  from  “ He  expressed  the  pleasure 
he  had  in  hearing  the  philosopher.”  When,  therefore,  we  wish, 
for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  variety,  to  substitute  one  of  these 
phraseologies  for  the  other,  wq  should  previously  consider, 
whether  they  are  perfectly  similar  in  the  sentiments  they  convey, 

2.  The  same  observations,  which  have  been  made  respecting 
the  effect  of  the  article  and  participle,  appear  to  be  applicable 
to  the  pronoun  and  participle,  when  they  are  similarly  associat- 
ed : as,  “ Much  depends  on  their  observing  of  the  rule,  and  error 
will  be  the  consequence  of  their  neglecting  of  it,”  instead  of 
“ their  observing  the  rule,  and  their  neglecting  it.”  We  shall 
perceive  this  more  clearly,  if  we  substitute  a noun  for  the  pro- 
noun : as,  “ Much  depends  upon  Tyrds  observing  of  the  rule,” 
VoL.  I.  27 


194 


SYNTAX. 


&c. ; which  is  the  same  as,  “ Much  depends  on  Tyro’s  observ- 
ance of  the  rule.”  But  as  this  construction  sounds  rather  harsh- 
ly, it  would,  in  general,  be  better  to  express  the  sentiment  in  the 
following,  or  some  other  form  : “ Much  depends  on  the  rule's 
being  observed ; and  error  will  be  the  consequence  of  its  being 
neglected:"  or — “ on  observing  the  rule  ; and— of  neglecting  it.” 
This  remark  may  be  applied  to  several  other  modes  of  expres- 
sion to  be  found  in  this  work  ; which  though  they  are  contended 
for  as  strictly  correct,  are  not  always  the  most  eligible,  on 
account  of  their  unpleasant  sound.  See  pages  45,  46,  65,  66, 
176—179. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  expressions  like  the  following:  “/w 
forming  of  his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact “ From  calling  of 
names  he  proceeded  tol)lows.”  But  this  is  incorrect  language  ; 
for  prepositions  do  not,  like  articles  and  pronouns,  convert  the 
participle  itself  into  the  nature  of  a substantive ; as  we  have 
shown  above  in  the  phrase,  by  observing  which.”  And  yet  the 
participle  with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a substantive 
phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  or  verb, 
expressed  or  understood : as,  “ By  promising  much,  and  per^ 
forming  but  little,  we  become  despicable.”  “ He  studied  to 
avoid  expressing  himself  too  severely" 

3.  As  the.  perfect  participle  and  the  imperfect  tense,  are 
sometimes  different  in  their  form,  care  must  be  taken  that  they 
be  not  indiscriminately  used.  It  is.  frequently  said,  “He  begun,” 
for  “ he  began  “ he  Tun,”  for  “ he  ran  “ He  drunk,”  for  “ he 
drank;”  the  participle  being  here  used  instead  of  the  imperfect 
tense  : and  much  more  frequently  the  imperfect  tense  instead  of 
the  participle : as,  “ I had  wrote,”  for  “ I had  written  ;”  “ 1 was 
chose,  for  “ I was  chosen  ;”  “I  have  eat,”  for  “I  have  eaten.” 
“ His  words  were  interwove  with  sighs.;”  were  inter^woven" 
“ He  would  have  spoke  ;”  “ spoken"  “ He  hath  bore  wituess 
to  his  faithful  servant ;”  “ borne."  “ By  this  means  he  over-run 
his  guide  ;”  ^^over-ran."  “The  sun  ha's  rose  ;”  ^^risen."  “His 
constitution  has  been  greatly  shook,  but  his  mind  is  too  strong 
to  be  shook  by  such  causes  ;”  ‘‘  shaken,"  in  both  places.  “ They 
were  verses  wrote  on  glass  ;”  “ written."  “ Philosophers  have 
often  mistook  the  source  of  true  happiness :”  it  ought  to  be,  mis- 
taken." 

The  participle  ending  in  ed  is  often  improperly  contracted, 
by  changing  ed  into  t : as,  “ In  good  behaviour  he  is  not  surpast 
by  any  pupil  of  the  school.”  “ She  was  much  distrest.”  They 
ought  to  be,  ‘^surpassed"  distressed." 


RULE  XIV. 


195 


When  a substantive  is  put  absolutely,  and  does  not  agree 
with  the  following  verb,  it  remains  independent  on  the  parti- 
ciple, and  is  called  the  case  absolute,  or  the  nominative  absolute : 
as,  “The  painter  being  entirely  confined  to  that  part  of  lime 
he  has  chosen,  the  picture  comprises  but  very  few  incidents.” 
Here  the  painter  agrees  with  no  verb,  as  the  verb  comprises, 
which  follows,  agrees  with  picture.  But  when  the  substantive 
preceding  the  participle  agrees  with  the  subsequent  verb,  it ' 
loses  its  absoluteness,  and  is  like  every  other  nominative : as, 

“ The  painter  being  entirely  confined  to  that  part  of  time 
which  he  has  chosen,  cannot  exhibit  various  stages  of  the 
same  action.”  In  this  sentence  we  see  that  the  painter  go- 
verns or  agrees  with,  the  verb  can,  as  its  nominative  case. 
In  the  following  sentence,  a still  different  construction  takes 
place : “ The  painter’s  being  entirely  confined  to  that  part 
of  time  which  he  has  chosen,  deprives  him  of  the  power  of 
exhibiting  various  stages  of  the  same  actioUc”  In  this  sen- 
tence, if  we  inquire  for  the  nominative  case,  by  asking,  what 
deprives  the  painter  of  the  power  of  exhibiting  various  stages 
of  the  same  action,  we  shall  find  it  to  be  the  confinement  of 
the  painter  to  that  part  of  time  which  he  has  chosen  : and 
this  state  of  things  belonging  to  the  painter  governs  it  in  the  pos- 
sessive case,  and  forms  the  compound  nominative  to  the 
verb  deprives. 

In  the  sentence,  “ What  think  you  of  my  horse’s  running 
to-day it  is  implied  that  the  horse  did  actually  run.  If  it 
is  said,  “ What  think  you  of  my  horse  running  to-day  ?”  it  is 
intended  to  ask,  whether  it  be  proper  for  my  horse  to  run 
to-day.  This  distinction,  though  frequently  disregarded,  de- 
serves attention  ; for  it  is  obvious,  that  ambiguity  may  arise, 
from  using  the  latter  only  of  these  phraseologies,  to  express 
both  meanings. 

The  active  participle  is  frequently  introduced  without  an  ob- 
vious reference  to  any  noun  or  pronoun : as,  “ Generally  speaks 
ing,  his  conduct  was  very  honourable  “ Granting  this  to  be 
true,  what  is  to  be  inferred  from  it?”  “It  is  scarcely  possible, 
to  act  otherwise,  considering  the  frailty  of  human  nature.”  In 
these  sentences,  there  is  no  noun  expressed  or  implied,  to  which 
speaking,  granting,  and  considering  can  be  referred.  The  most 
natural  construction  seems  to  be,  that  a pronoun  is  to  be  under- 
stood : as,  “ We  considering  the  frailty  of  human  nature,”  &c. ; 

“ I granting  this  to  be  true,”  &c. 

The  word  the,  before  the  active  participle,  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  in  all  others  of  a similar  construction,  is  im- 
proper, and  should  be  omitted : “ This  style  may  be  more  « 

properly  called  the  talking  upon  paper  than  writing :”  “ The 
advising,  or  the  attempting,  to  excite  such  disturbances,  is  un^ 


196 


SYNTAX. 


lawful “ The  taking  from  another  what  is  his,  without  his 
^knowledge  or  allowance,  is  called  stealing”  They  should 
be:  “Maybe  called  talking  upon  paper;”  “ Advising  or  at- 
tempting to  excite  disturbances  ;”  “ Taking  from  another  what 
is  his,”  &;c. 

In  some  of  these  sentences,  the  infinitive  mood  might  very 
properly  be  adopted  : as,  “ To  advise  or  attempt “ To  take 
from  another,”  &c. 

Rule  XY. 

Adverbs,  though  they  have  no  government  of 
case,  tense,  &c.  require  an  appropriate  situation 
in  the  sentence,  viz,  for  the  most  part,  before 
adjectives,  after  verbs  active  or  neuter,  and  fre- 
quently between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb  : as, 
“ He  made  a very  sensible  discourse;  he  spoke  un- 
affectedly and  forcibly  ; and  ivas  attentively  heard  by  the 
whole  assembly.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  15. 

A FEW  instances  of  erroneous  positions  of  adverbs  may 
serve  to  illustrate  the  rule.  . “ He  must  not  expect  to  find 
study  agreeable  always  “ always  agreeable.”  “ We  always 
find  them  ready  when  we  want  them  “ We  find  them  always 
ready,”  &c.  “Dissertations  on  the  prophecies  which  have 
remarkably  been  fulfilled;”  “which  have  been  . remar/rcz&Zy.” 
“Instead  of  looking  contemptuously  down  on  the  crooked 
in  mind  or  in  body,  we  should  look  up  thankfully  to  God, 
who  hath  made  us  better  “ instead  of  looking  down  con- 
temptuously^ &c.  we  should  thankfully  look  upP  &c.  “ If 

thou  art  blessed  naturally  with  a good  memory,  continually 
exercise  it;”  ‘^naturally  hlessed^^  &c.  “exercise  it  continu- 
allyr 

Sometimes  the  adverb  is  placed  with  propriety  before  the 
verb,  or  at  some  distance  after  it ; sometimes  between  the 
two  auxiliaries  ; and  sometimes  after  them  both  ; as  in  the 
following  examples.  “Vice  always  creeps  by  degrees,  and 
insensibly  twines  around  us  those  concealed  fetters,  by  which 
we  are  at  last  completely  bound.”  “ He  encouraged  the  Eng- 
lish Barons  to  carry  their  opposition  farther.^’  “ They  com- 
pelled him  to  declare  that  he  would  abjure  the  realm  for 
ever  f instead  of,  “to  carry  farther  their  opposition;”  and 
“ to  abjure  for  ever  the  realm,”  “ He  has  generally  been  reck- 


RULE  XV. 


197 


oned  an  honest  man  “ The  book  may  always  be  had  at  such 
a place  are  preferable  to  “ has  been  generally  ” and  “ may 
be  always.”  “ These  rules  will  be  clearly  understood,  after 
they  have  been  diligently  studied,”  in  preference  to  “These 
rules  will  clearly  be  understood,  after  they  have  diligently  been 
studied.” 

“ When  adverbs  are  emphatical,  they  may  introduce  a sen- 
tence, and  be  separated  from  the  word  to  which  they  belong ; 
as  : “ How  completely  this  most  amiable  of  human  virtues,  had 
taken  possession  of  his  soul  !”  This  position  of  the  adverb  is 
more  frequent  in  interrogative  and  exclamatory  phrases. 

From  the  preceding  remarks  and  examples,  it  appears  that 
no  exact  and  determinate  rule  can  be  given  for  the  placing  of 
adverbs  on  all  occasions.  The  general  rule  may  be  of  conside- 
rable use  : but  the  easy  flow  and  perspicuity  of  the  phrase,  are 
the  things  which  ought  chiefly  to  be  regarded. 

The  adverb  there  is  often  used  as  an  expletive,  or  as  a word 
that  adds  nothing  to  the  sense  : in  which  case  it  precedes  the 
verb  and  the  nominative  noun  : as,  “ There  is  a person  at  the 
door ;”  “ There  are  some  thieves  in  the  house :”  which  would 
be  as  well,  or  better,  expressed  by  saying,  “ A person  is  at 
the  door;”  “ Some  thieves  are  in  the  house.”  Sometimes  it 
is  made  use  of  to  give  a small  degree  of  emphasis  to  the  sen- 
tence : as,  “ There  was  a man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was 
John.”  When  it  is  applied  in  its  strict  sense,  it  principally  fol- 
lows the  verb  and  the  nominative  case  : as,  “The  man  stands 
there?^ 

1.  The  adverb  nemr  generally  precedes  the  verb:  as,  “I 
never  was  there  ;”  “ He  never  comes  at  a proper  time.”  When 
an  auxiliary  is  used,  it  is  placed  indifferently,  either  before  or 
after  this  verb : as,  “ He  was  never  seen  (or  never  was  seen)  to 
laugh  from  that  time.”  Never  seems  to  be  improperly  used  in 
the  following  passages,  “ Ask  me  never  so  much  dowry  and 
gift.”  “ If  I make  my  hands  never  so  clean.”  “ Charm  he 
never  so  wisely.”  The  word  “ever”  would  be  more  suitable  to 
the  sens6. — Ever  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  never  : as, 
“ I seldom  or  ever  see  him  novr.”  It  should  be,  “ I seldom  or 
never ; the  speaker  intending  to  say,  “ that  rarely,  or  rather  at 
no  time,  does  he  see  him  now not  “ rarely,”  or,  “ at  any 
time.” 

2.  In  imitation  of  the  French  idiom,  the  adverb  of  place 
where,  is  often  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  relative  and  a pre- 
position. “ They  framed  a protestation,  where  they  repeated 
all  their  former  claims i.  e.  “ in  which  they  repeated.”  “ The 
king  was  still  determined  to  run  forwards,  in  the  same  course 


198 


SYNTAX. 


where  he  was  already,  by  his  precipitate  career,  too  fatally 
advanced  i.  e.  “ in  which  he  wasP  But  it  would  be  better 
to  avoid  this  mode  of  expression. 

The  adverbs,  hence,  thence,  and  whence,  imply  a preposition  ; 
for  they  signify,  “ from  this  place,  from  that  place,  from  what 
place.”  It  seems,  therefore,  strictly  speaking,  to  be  improper 
to  join  a preposition  with  them,  because  it  is  superfluous : as, 
‘‘  This  is  the  leviathan,  from  whence  the  wits  of  our  age  are 
said  to  borrow  their  weapons ‘‘  an  ancient  author  prophesies 
from  hence.”  But  the  origin  of  these  words  is  little  attended 
to,  and  the  preposition  from  is  so  often  used  in  construction 
with  them,  that  the  omission  of  it  in  many  cases,  would  seem 
stiff,  and  be  disagreeable. 

The  adverbs  here,  there,  where,  are  often  improperly  applied 
to  verbs  signifying  motion,  instead  of  the  adverbs  hither, 
thither,  whither : as,  “ He  came  here  hastily  “ They  rode 
there  with  speed.”  They  should  be,  “He  came  hither:'^ 
“ They  rode  thither,^’  &c. 

3.  We  have  some  examples  of  adverbs  being  used  for  sub- 
stantives : “ In  1()87,  he  erected  it  into  a community  of  regu- 
lars, since  when,  it  has  begun  to  increase  in  those  countries  as  a 
religious  order  ;”  i.  e.  since  which  timer  “ A little  while  and  I 
shall  not  see  you  ;”  i.  e.  “ a short  timer  “ It  is  worth  their 
while  :”  i.  e.  “ it  deserves  their  time  and  pains.”  But  this  mode 
of  expression  rather  suits  familiar  than  grave  style.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  phrase,  “To  do  a thing  any‘howi\  i.  e.  “ in 
any  manner,”  or  somehow  f L e.  “ in  some  manner.”  “ Soilie- 
how,  worthy  as  these  people  are,  they  are  under  the  influence 
of  prejudice.” 

Such  expressions  as  the  following,  though  not  destitute  of 
authority,  are  very  inelegant,  and  do  not  suit  the  idiom  of  our 
language :”  “ The  then  ministry,”  for,  “ the  ministry  of  that 
time “ The  above  discourse,”  for  “ the  preceding  dis- 
course.” 

Rule  XVI. 

Two  negatives,  in  English,  destroy  one  another, 
or  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative : as,  JVbr  did 
they  not  perceive  him  that  is,  they  did  perceive 
him.”  His  language,  though  inelegant,  is  not  un- 
grammatical^  that  is,  it  is  grammatical.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  16. 

It  is  better  to  express  an  affirmation,  by  a regular  affirma- 


RULE  XVII. 


199 


live,  than  by  two  separate  negatives,  as  in  the  former  sentence : 
but  when  one  of  the  negatives  is  joined  to  another  word,  as  in 
the  latter  sentence,  the  two  negatives  form  a pleasing  and  deli- 
cate variety  of  expression. 

Some  writers  have  improperly  employed  two  negatives  in- 
stead of  one  : as  in  the  following  instances : “ I never  did  re- 
pent of  doing  good,  nor  shall  not  now nor  shall  I nowP 
“ Never  no  imatator  grew  up  to  his  author “ never  did  any’^ 
&c.  “ I cannot  by  no  means  allow  him  what  his  argument 

must  prove  “ I cannot  by  any  means/’  &c.  or,  “ I can  by  no 
means^  “ Nor  let  no  comforter  approach  me nor  let  any 
comforter,”  &c.  “ Nor  is  danger  ever  apprehended  in  such  a 

government,  no  mor^  than  we  commonly  apprehend  danger 
from  thunder  or  earthquakes it  should  be,  “ any  more^^ 
“ Ariosto,  Tasso,  Galileo,  no  more  than  Raphael,  were  not  born 
in  republics.”  Neither  Ariosto,  Tasso,  nor  Galileo,  any  more 
than  Raphael,  was  born  in  a republic.” 


Rule  XVII. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case : as,  I 
have  heard  a good  character  of  her  f From  him 
that  is  needy  turn  not  away A word  to  the  wise 
is  sufficient  for  them  f We  maybe  good  and  happy 
without  riches.'^'^ 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part.  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  17. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  nominative  case  being 
used  instead  of  the  objective.  “ Who  servest  thou  under  ?” 
“ Who  do  you  speak  to  ?”  “ We  are  still  much  at  a loss  who 
civil  power  belongs  to  ?”  “ Who  do  you  ask  for  ?”  “ Associate 
not  with  those  who  none  can  speak  well  of.”  In  all  these 
places  it  ought  to  be  “ whom^  See  Note  1. 

The  prepositions  to  and  for  are  often  understood,  chiefly 
before  the  pronouns ; as,  “ Give  me  the  book  “ Get  me  some 
paper  ;”  that  is,  “ to  me  ; for  me.”  “ Wo  is  me  i.  e.  “ to 
me.”  “ He  was  banished  England  i.  e.  ‘^from  England.” 

1.  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  relative 
which  it  governs  : as,  “ Whom  will  you  give  it  to  ?”  instead 
of,  “ To  whom  will  you  give  it  ?”  “ He  is  an  author  whom  I 


200 


SYNTAX. 


am  much  delighted  with The  world  is  too  polite  to  shock 
authors  with  a truth,  which  generally  their  booksellers  are  the 
first  that  inform  them  of.”  This  is  an  idiom  to  which  our  lam 
guage  is  strongly  inclined ; it  prevails  in  common  conversation, 
and  suits  very  well  with  the  familiar  style  in  writing  : but  the 
placing  of  the  preposition  before  the  relative,  is  more  graceful, 
as  well  as  more  perspicuous,  and  agrees  much  better  with  the 
solemn  and  elevated  style. 

2.  Some  writers  separate  the  preposition  from  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  it  governs,  in  order  to  connect  different  prepo- 
sitions with  the  same  word : as,  “ To  suppose  the  zodiac  and 
planets  to  be  efficient  of,  and  antecedent  to  themselves.”  This 
construction,  whether  in  the  familiar  or  the  solemn  style,  is 
always  inelegant,  and  should  generally  be  avoided.  In  forms 
of  law,  and  the  like,  where  fulness  and  exactness  of  expression 
must  take  place  of  every  other  consideration,  it  may  be 
admitted. 

3.  Different  relations,  and  different  senses,  must  be  expressed 
by  different  prepositions,  though  in  conjunction  with  the  same 
verb  or  adjective.  Thus  we  say,  “ To  converse  with  a person, 
upon  a subject,  in  a house,”  &c.  We  also  say,  “ We  are  dis- 
appointed of  a thing,”  when  we  cannot  get  it,  “ and  disap- 
pointed in  it,”  when  we  have  it,  and  find  it  does  not  answer 
our  expectations.  But  two  different  prepositions  must  be  im- 
proper in  the  same  construction,  and  in  the  same  sentence : as, 
“ The  combat  between  thirty  French  against  twenty  English.” 

In  some  cases  it  is  difficult  to  say,  to  which  of  two  preposi- 
tions the  preference  is  to  be  given,  as  both  are  used  promiscu- 
ously and  custom  has  not  decided  in  favour  of  either  of  them. 
We  say,  “ Expert  at,”  and  “ expert  in  a thing.”  “ Expert  at 
finding  a remedy  for  his  mistakes  ;”  “ Expert  in  deception.” 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined  to  nouns,  they  are  generally 
the  same  that  are  subjoined  to  the  verbs  , from  which  the  nouns 
are  derived:  as,  “A  compliance  with,’’  to  comply  with;”  “A 
disposition  to  tyranny,”  “ disposed  to  tyrannize.” 

Dr.  Priestly  observes,  that  many  writers  affect  to  subjoin  to 
any  word,  the  proposition  with  which  it  is  compounded,  or  the 
idea  of  which  it  implies  ; in  order  to  point  out  the  relation  of 
the  words,  in  a more  distinct  and  definite  manner,  and  to  avoid 
the  more  indeterminate  prepositions  of  and  to:  but  general 
practice,  and  the  idiom  of  the  English  tongue,  seem  to  op- 
pose the  innovation.  Thus  many  writers  say,  “Averse  from 
a thing “ The  abhorrence  against  all  other  sects.”  But 
other  writers  use,  “ Averse  to  it ;”  which  seems  more  truly 
English : “ Averse  to  any  advice.”  Swift.  An  attention  to 


RULE  XVII. 


201 


latent  metaphor  may  be  pleaded  in  favour  of  the  former  ex- 
ample; and  this  is  a rule  of  general  use,  in  directing  what  prep- 
ositions to  subjoin  to  a word.  Thus  we  say,  “ devolve  upon 
a thing;’’  “founded  on  natural  resemblance.”  But  this  rule 
w’ould  sometimes  mislead  us,  particularly,  where  the  figure 
has  become  nearly  evanescent.  Thus  we  should  naturally  ex- 
pect, that  the  word  depend  would  require  from  after  it  ; but 
custom  obliges  us  to  say,  “depend  upon,”  as  well  as,  “insist 
upon  a thing,”  Were  wo  to  use  the  same  word  where  the 
figure  is  manifest,  we  could  apply  it  to  no  other  preposition 
than/rom  ; as,  “The  cage  depends  from  the  roof  of  the  build- 
ing ;”  and  yet  this  mode  of  expression  is  inadmissible. 

“ The  words  and  aversion  (says  Dr.  Campbell)  are 

more  properly  construed  with  to  than  with  from.  The  exam- 
ples in  favour  of  the  latter  preposition,  are  beyond  comparison 
outnumbered  by  those  in  favour  of  the  former.  The  argument 
from  etymology  is  here  of  no  value,  being  taken  from  the  use 
of  another  language.  If  by  the  same  rule,  we  were  to  regulate 
all  nouns  and  verbs  of  Latin  original,  our  present  syntax  would 
be  overturned.  It  is  more  conformable  to  English  analogy  with 
to;  the  words  cZirfiAe  and  nearly  synonymous,  are  thus 

construed. 


4.  As  an  accurate  and  appropriate  use  of  the  preposition  is 
of  great  importance,  we  shall  select  a considerable  number 
of  examples  of  impropriety,  in  the  application  of  this  part  of 
speech. 

First — With  respect  to  the  preposition  of. 

“He  is  resolved  of  going  to  the  Persian  court ; “ on  go- 

• „ p o o o 

ing,  &c. 

“He  was  totally  dependent  of  the  Papal  crown;”  “on  the 
Papal,”  &c. 

“ To  call  of  a person,”  and  “ to  wait  of  him  ; ” “on  a person,” 
&c. 

“He  was  eager  of  recommending  it  to  his  fellow  citizens  ;” 
“m  recommending,”  &c. 

Of  is  sometim^es  omitted,  and  sometimes  inserted,  after  wor- 
thy : as  “ It  is  wprthy  observation,”  or  “ of  observation.” 

But  it  would  have  been  better  omitted  in  the  following  sen* 
fences.  “ The  emulation,  who  should  serve  their  country  best, 
no  longer  subsists  among  them,  but  of  who  should  obtain  the 
most  lucrative  command.” 


“ The  rain  hath  been  fallen  of  a long  time  ; ” “falling  a long 
time.” 

“ It  is  situation  chiefly  which  decides  of  the  fortune  and 
characters  of  men “ decides  the  fortune,”  or,  “ concernins 
the  fortune.”  ^ 

Vot.I. 


28 


202 


SYNTAX. 


“ He  found  the  greatest  difficulty  of  writing  ” “m  writing.^^ 

‘‘  It  might  have  given  me  a greater  taste  of  its  antiquities.”  A 
taste  of  a thing  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it ; but  a taste /or 
it,  implies  only  a capacity  of  enjoyment. 

“ This  had  a much  greater  share  of  inciting  him,  than  any  re- 
gard after  his  fathers  commands  ; ” “ share  in  inciting,”  and 
“ regard  to  his  father’s  ” &c. 

Second — With  respect  to  the  prepositions  to  and  for. 

“You  have  bestowed  your  favours  to  the  most  deserving 
persons  ; ” “ upon  the  most  deserving,  ” &c. 

“He  accused  the  ministers  for  betraying  the  Dutch;”  “(/ 
having  betrayed.” 

“His  abhorrence  to  that  superstitious  figure ; ” “(/that,” 
&c. 

“A  great  change  to  the  better;’’  “/or the  better.” 

“Your  prejudice  to  my  cause  against^ 

“The English  were  very  different  people  than  to  what  they 
are  at  present ^‘from  what,”  &c. 

“ In  compliance  to  the  declaration  ; ” “ witlif  6ic. 

“ It  is  more  than  they  thought  for “ thought  o/.” 

“ There  is  no  need  for  it ; ” “ (/  it.” 

For  is  superfluous  in  the  phrase,  “More  than  he  knows/or.” 

“No  discouragement  for  the  authors  to  proceed;”  “ ^o  the 
authors,”  &c. 

“ It  was  perfectly  in  compliance  to  some  persons  ; ” with 
some  persons.” 

“ The  wisest  princes  need  not  think  it  any  diminution  to  their 
greatness,  or  derogation  to  their  sufficiency,  to  rely  upon  coun- 
sel ; “ diminution  (jf,”  and  “ derogation/rom.” 

Third — With  respect  to  the  prepositions  with  and  upon. 

“ Reconciling  himself  with  the  king.” 

“Those  things  which  have  the  greatest  resemblance  with 
each  other,  frequently  differ  the  most.” 

“That  such  rejection  should  be  consonant  with  our  common 
nature.”  “ Conformable  with,”  &c. 

“ The  history  of  Peter  is.  agreeable  with  the  sacred  texts.” 

In  all  the  above  instances,  it  should  be  “ to  ” instead  of 
“ withj* 

“ It  is  a use  that  perhaps  I should  not  have  thought  on  ; ” 
“ thought  q/” 

“A  greater  quantity  may  be  taken  from  the  heap,  without 
making  any  sensible  alteration  upon  it ;”  “ in  it.” 

“Intrusted  to  persons  on  whom  the  parliament  could  con- 
fide : ” “ in  whom.” 

“ He  was  made  much  on  at  Argos  ; “ much  (/.” 


RULE  XVII. 


203 


If  policy  can  prevail  upon  force  ^^over  force.” 
do  likewise  dissent  with  the  examiner;”  “from.” 

Fourth— With  respect  to  the  prepositions  in,  from,  &:c. 

They  should  be  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  character ;” 
or  “ concerning^ 

“Upon  such  occasions  as  fell  into  their  cognizance ;”  “i/w- 
derr 

“ That  variety  of  factions  into  which  we  are  still  engaged 
“ in  which.” 

“ To  restore  myself  into  the  favour ;”  “ to  the  favour.” 

“ Could  he  have  profited  from  repeated  experiences 
From  seems  to  be  superfluous  after /ortear;  as,  “He  could 
not  forbear  from  appointing  the  pope,”  &c.. 

“ A strict  observance  after  times  and  fashions ; “ of  times.” 

“ The  character  which  we  may  now  value  ourselves  by 
drawing;”  “ drawing.” 

“ Neither  of  them  shall  make  me  swerve  out  of  the  path ;” 
^^from  the  path.” 

“Ye  blind  guides,  which  strain  at  a gnat,  and  swallow  a 
camel ;”  it  ought  to  be,  “ which  strain  out  a gnat,  or  take  a gnat 
out  of  the  liquor  by  straining  it.”  The  impropriety  of  the  pre- 
positioh,  as  Dr.  Lowth  observes,  has  wholly  destroyed  the 
meaning  of  the  phrase. 

The  verb  to  found,  when  used  literally,  is  more  properly  fol- 
lowed by  the  preposition  on : as,  “ The  house  was  founded  on 
a rock.”  But  in  the  metaphorical  application,  it  is  often  better 
with  in ; as  in  this  sentence,  “ They  maintained,  that  dominion 
is  founded  in  grace.”  Both  the  sentences  would  be  badly 
expressed,  if  these  prepositions  were  transposed  ; though  there 
are  perhaps  cases  in  which  either  of  them  would  be  good. 

The  preposition  among  generally  implies  a number  of  things. 
It  cannot  be  properly  used  in  conjunction  with  the  word  every, 
which  is  in  the  singular  number:  as,  “ Which  is  found  among 
every  species  of  liberty ;”  “ The  opinion  seems  to  gain  ground 
among  every  body.” 

5,  The  preposition  to  is  made  use  of  before  nouns  of  place, 
when  they  follow  verbs  and  participles  of  motion : as,  “ I went 
to  London  ;”  “ I am  going  to  town.”  But  the  preposition  at  is 
generally  used  after  the  neuter  verb  to  be:  as,  “ I have  been  at 
London ;”  “ I was  at  the  place  appointed ;”  “ I shall  be  at 
Paris.”  We  likewise  say:  “He  touched,  arrived  at  any  place.” 
The  preposition  in  is  set  before  countries,  cities,  and  large 
towns  ; as,  “He  lives  in  France,  in  London,  or  in  Birmingham.” 
But  before  villages,  single  houses,  and  cities  which  are  in  distant 


204 


SYNTAX. 


countries,  at  is  used ; as  “ He  lives  at  Hackney “ He  resides 
at  Montpelier.” 

It  is  a matter  of  indifference  with  respect  to  the  pronoun  one 
another,  whether  the  preposition  ^be  placed  between  the  two 
parts  of  it,  or  before  them  both.  We  may  say,  “They  were 
jealous  of  one  another;”  or,  “They  tvere  jealous  one  of  another;” 
but  perhaps  the  former  is  better. 

Participles  are  frequently  used  as  prepositions ; as,  excepting, 
respecting,  touching,  concerning,  according.  “ They  were  all 
in  fault  except  or  excepting  him.” 

Rule  XVHL 

Conjunctions  connect  the  same  moods  and  tenses 
of  verbs,  and  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns:  as,  “ Can- 
dour is  to  be  approved  and  practised  i'"’  “ If  thou  sincerely 
desire,  and  earnestly  jowrsMe  virtue,  she  will  assuredly 
be  found  by  thee,  and  prove  a rich  reward “ The 
master  taught  both  her  and  me  to  write;”  “ iJs  and  she 
were  school-fellows.”* 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  IS. 

A FEW  examples  of  inaccuracy  respecting  this  rule  may 
further  display  its  utility.  ‘‘If  he  prefer  a virtuous  life,  and  is 
sincere  in  his  professions,  he  will  succeed;”  “if  he  prefers^ 
“ To  deride  the  miseries  of  the  unhappy,  is  inhuman ; and  want- 
ing compassion  towards  them,  is  unchristian “ and  to  want 
compassion.”  “ The  parliament  addressed  the  king,  and  has 
been  prorogued  the  same  day  “ and  was  prorogued.”  “ His 
wealth  and  him  bid  adieu  to  each  other “ and  Ae.”  “ He 
entreated  us,  my  comrade  and  I,  to  live,  harmoniously 
“comrade  and  me.”  “My  sister  and  her  were  on  good  terms:” 
“ and  she^  “ We  often  overlook  the  blessings  which  are  in 
our  possession,  and  are  searching  after  those  which  are  out  of 
our  reach  it  ought  to  be,  “ and  search  ^fter.” 

Conjunctions  are  indeed,  frequently,  made  to  connect  dif- 
ferent moods  and  tenses  of  verbs:  but,  in  many  of  these 
instances  the  nominative  must  be  repeated ; and  perhaps,  in 
most  of  the  others,  it  may  be  resumed  with  propriety  and  ad- 
vantage. The  following  examples  illustrate  this  position.  “ JTe 
is  at  present  temperate,  though  he  teas  formerly  the  reverse 
“ Can  he  perform  the  service,  and  will  he  perform  it  ?”  “ How 
privileged  they  are,  and  how  happy  they  might  he  /”  “ He  has 

* This  rule  refers  only  to  noims  and  pronoun*!,  which  have  the  eame  bearing  or  relation,  with 
regard  to  the  othfer  part'?  of  the  ientfenec. 


RULE  XIX* 


205 


io7ie  much  for  them,  though  he  might  have  done  more  “ They 
did  all  that  was  in  their  power  to  serve  him,  and  most  assu- 
redly, they  should  not  he  reproached  for  not  doing  more  “ He 
cheerfully  supports  his  distressed  friend,  and  he  will  certainly  be 
commended  for  it “ They  have  rewarded  him  liberally,  and 
indeed,  they  could  not  do  otherwise.”  “ She  was  once  proud, 
though  she  is  now  humble.”  It  is  obvious,  that,  in  the  prece- 
ding instances,  and  in  others  of  a similar  construction,  the 
nominative  is  either  necessarily,  or  with  propriety  and  effect, 
repeated  ; and  that,  by  this,  means,  the  latter  members  of  these 
sentences  are  rendered  not  so  closely  dependent  on  the  former 
as  those  are  which  come  strictly  under  the  rule. 

When,  in  the  progress  of  a sentence,  the  current  is  inter- 
rupted, and  we  pass  from  the  affirmative  to  the  negative  form, 
or  from  the  negative  to  the  affirmative,  the  repetition  of  the 
nominative  is,  perhaps,  in  most  instances,  required  ; especially 
if  the  expression  be  emphatic  : as,  “ They  may  reside  in  India 
for  a time,  though  they  cannot  long  continue  there:”  “ They 
cannot  long  continue  in  India,  though  they  may  reside  there  for 
a time;”  “Though  I admire  him  greatly,  yei  I do  not  love 
him  “JZe  is  not  in  affluent  circumstances,  but  still  he  is  emi- 
nently useful.”  “Though  she  ivas  high-born,  beautiful,  and 
accomplished,  yet  she  was  not  perfect.” — There  appears  to 
be,  in  general,  equal  reason  for  resuming  the  nominative,  when 
the  course  of  the  sentence  is  diverted,  by  a change  of  the  mood 
or  the  tense. 

If  criticism  should  be  able  to  produce  exceptions  to  the 
eighteenth  Rule,  or  to  any  of  the  subordinate  observations,  we 
presume  they  will  nevertheless  be  found  useful  and  proper  gen- 
eral directions.  Rules  are  not  to  be  subverted,  because  they 
admit  of  exceptions.  The  positions  and  illustrations  under  the 
present  rule,  may,  at  least  serve  to  assist  the  student,  on  many 
occasions,  to  determine  when  it  is  requisite  to  repeat  the  nomi- 
native, and  when  it  may  be  properly  omitted. 

Rule  XIX. 

Some  conjunctions  require  the  indicative,  some 
the  subjunctive  mood,  after  them.  It  is  a general 
rule  that  when  something  contingent  or  doubtful  is 
implied,  the  subjunctive  ought  to  be  used  : as,  If  I 
were  to  write  he  would  not  regard  it;”  He  will  not 
be  pardoned,  unless  he  repent^*^ 

Conjunctions  that  are  of  a positive  and  absolute 
nature,  require  the  indicative  mood.  As  virtue 


206 


SYNTAX. 


advances^  so  vice  recedes  “ He  is  healthy,  because  he 
is  temperate.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  P^rt  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  19.. 

The  conjunctions  if,  though,  unless,  except,  whether, 
generally  require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them  : as,  “ If 
thou  be  afflicted,  repine  not “ Though  ^he  slay  me,  yet  will 
I trust  in  him  ‘‘  He  cannot  be  clean  unless  he  wdsh  himself 
“ No  power,  except  it  were  given  from  above  “ tVhether  it 
were  I or  they,  so  we  preach.”  But  even  these  conjunctions, 
when  the  sentence  does  not  imply  doubt,  admit  of  the  indica- 
tive : as,  ‘‘  Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  contented,” 

The  following  example  may,  in  some  measure,  serve  to  il- 
lustrate the  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  the  indi- 
cative moods ; “ Though  he  were  divin^y  inspired,  and  spoke 
therefore  as  the  oracles  of  God,  with  supreme  authority  ; though 
lie  were  endued  with  supernatural  powers,  and,  could,  there- 
fore, have  confirmed  the  truth  of  what  he  uttered,  by  mira- 
cles : yet,  in  compliance  with  the  way  in  which  human  nature 
and  reasonable  creatures  are  usually  wrought  upon,  he  reason- 
ed.” That  our  Saviour  was  divinely  inspired,  and  endued  with 
supernatural  powers,  are  portions  that  are  here  taken  for  granted, 
as  not  admitting  the  least  doubt ; they  would  therefore  have 
been  better  expressed  in  the  indicative  mood  : Though  he 
was  divinely  inspired  ; though  he  was  endued  with  supernatural 
powers.”  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  like  improper  manner, 
in  the  following  example  : “ Though  he  were  a son,  yet  learned 
he  obedience,  by  the  things  which  he  suffered.”  But  in  a similar 
passage,  the  indicative,  with  great  propriety,  is  employed  to  the 
same  purpose  : “ Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  be- 
came poor.” 

1.  Lest  and  that,  annexed  to  a command  preceding,  neces- 
sarily require  the  subjunctive  mood  : as,  “ Love  not  sleep,  lest 
thou  come  to  poverty ; “ Reprove  not  a scorner,  lest  he  hate 
thee  ;”  “ Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob.” 

/jf  with  hut  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  requires  the 
subjunctive  mood  : as,  he  do  hut  touch  the  hills,  they  shall 
smoke  If  he  he  hut  discreet,  he  will  succeed.”  But  the  in- 
dicative ought  to  be  used,  on  this  occasion,  when  future  time  is 
not  signified : as,  “ If,  in  this  expression,  he  does  hut  jest,  no 
offence  should  be  taken  ;”  ^she  is  hut  sincere,  I am  happy.” 
The  same  distinction  applies  to  the  following  forms  of  expres- 
sion : “ If  he  do  submit,  it  will  be  from  necessity ;”  “ Though 
he  does  submit,  he  is  not  convinced  ;”  “ If  thou  do  not  reward 
this  service,  he  will  be  discouraged  ;”  “ If  thou  dost  heartily  for- 
give him,  endeavour  to  forget  the  offence.” 


RULE  XIX. 


207 


2.  In  the  following  instances,  the  conjunction  that,  expressed 
or  understood,  seems  to  be  improperly  accompanied  with  the 
subjunctive  mood.  “ So  much  she  dreaded  his  tyranny,  that 
the  fate  of  her  friend  she  dare  not  lament.”  “ He  reasoned  so 
artfully  that  his  friends  would  listen,  and  think  \tliat\  he  were 
not  wrong.” 

3.  The  same  conjunction  governing  both  the  indicative  and 
the  subjunctive  moods,  in  the  same  sentence,  and  in  the  same 
circumstances,  seems  to  be  a great  impropriety ; as  in  these 
instances.  “ If  there  he  but  one  body  of  legislators,  it  is  no 
better  than  a tyranny  : if  there  are  only  two,  there  will  want  a 
casting  voice.”  If  ^ man  have  a hundred  sheep,  and  one  of 
them  is  gone  astray,”  &c. 

4.  Almost  all  the  irregularities,  in  the  construction  of  any 
language,  have  arisen  from  the  ellipsis  of  some  words,  which 
were  originally  inserted  in  the  sentence,  and  made  it  regular  ; 
and  it  is  probable,  that  this  has  been  generally  the  case  with 
respect  to  the  conjunctive  form  of  words,  now  in  use  ; which 
will  appear  from  the  following  examples  : “ We  shall  overtake 
him  though  he  run  that  is,  “ though  he  should  run  ;”  “ Unless 
be  act  prudently,  he  will  not  accomplish  his  purpose  ;”  that  isy 
“ unless  he  shall  act  prudently.”  “ If  he  succeed  and  obtain  his 
end,  he  will  not  be  the  happier  for  it :”  that  is,  “ If  he  should 
succeed,  and  should  obtain  his  end.”  These  remarks  and  ex- 
amples are  designed  to  show  the  original  of  many  of  our  present 
conjunctive  forms  of  expression ; and  to  enable  the  student  to 
examine  the  propriety  of  using  them,  by  tracing  the  words  in 
question  to  their  proper  origin  and  ancient  connexions.  But  it 
is  necessary  to  be  more  particular  on  this  subject,  and  there- 
fore we  shall  add  a few  observations  respecting  it. 

That  part  of  the  verb  wdiich  grammarians  call  the  present 
tense  of  the  conjunctive  mood,  has  a future  signification.  This 
is  effected  by  varying  the  terminations  of  'the  second  and  third 
persons  singular  of  the  indicative  : as  will  be  evident  from  the 
following  examples : “ If  thou  prosper,  thou  shouldst  be  thank- 
ful:” “Unless  he  study  more^closely,  he  will  never  be  learned.” 
Some  writers  however,  would  express  these  sentiments  with- 
out these  variations : “ If  thou  prosperestf  &c.  “ Unless  he 

studies f &c. : and  as  there  is  great  diversity  of  practice  in 
this  point,  it  is  proper  to  offer  the  learners  a few  remarks, 
to  assist  them  in  distinguishing  the  right  application  of  these 
different  forms  of  expression.  It  may  be  considered  as  a rule, 
that  the  changes  of  termination  are  necessary,  when  these  two 
circumstances  occur:  1st,  When  the  subject  is  of  a dubious 
and  contingent  nature  ; and  2d,  When  the  verb  has  a reference 
to  future  time.  In  the  following  sentences,  both  these  circum- 


308 


SYNTAX. 


stances  will  be  found  to  unite : “ If  thou  injure  another  thou 
wilt  hurt  thyself;”  “ He  has  a hard  heart;  and  if  he  continue 
impenitent,  he  must  suffer;”  “ He  will  maintain  his  principles, 
though  he  lose  his  estate;”  “ Whether  he  succeed  or  not,  his 
intention  is  laudable  ;”  ‘‘  If  he  be  not  prosperous,  he  will  not  re- 
pine ;”  “ If  a man  smite  his  servant,  and  he  die,'\  &c.  Exodus 
xxi.  20.  In  all  these  examples,  the  things  signified  by  the  verbs 
are  uncertain,  and  refer  to  future  time.  But  in  the  instances 
which  follow,  future  time  is  not  referred  to ; and  therefore  a 
different  construction  takes  place : If  thou  livest  virtuously, 
thou  art  happy  ;”  “ Unless  he  means  what  he  says,  he  is  doubly 
faithless ;”  “ If  he  allows  the  excellence  of  virtue,  he  does  not 
regard  her  precepts ;”  “ Though  he  seems  to  be  simple  and  art- 
less, he  has  deceived  us  ;”  “ Whether  virtue  is  better  than  rank 
or  wealth,  admits  not  of  any  dispute;”  If  thou  believe^t  with 
all  thy  heart,  thou  mayst,”  &c.  Acts  viii.  37. — There'  are  many 
sentences,  introduced  by  conjunctions,  in  which  neither  contin- 
gency nor  futurity  is  denoted:  as,  “Though  he  excels  her  in 
knowledge,  she  far  exceeds  him  in  virtue.”  “ I have  no  doubt 
of  his  principles : but  if  he  bdieves  the  truths  of  religion,  he  does 
not  act  according  to  them. 

That  both  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity  are 
necessary,  as  tests  of  the  propriety  of  altering  the  terminations, 
will  be  evident,  by  inspecting  the  following  examples ; which 
shows  that  there  are  instances  in  which  neither  of  the  circum- 
stances alone  implies  the  other.  In  the  three  examples  follow- 
ing, contingency  is  denoted,  but  not  futurity.  “*  If  he  thinks  as 
he  speaks,  he  may  safely  be  trusted.”  “ If  he  is  now  disposed 
to  it,  I will  perform  the  operation.”  “ He  acts  uprightly,  unless 
he  deceives  me.”  In  the  follwing  sentences,  futurity  is  signi- 
fied, but  not  contingency.  “ As  soon  as  the  sun  sets^  it  will 
be  cooler.”  “ As  the  autumn  advances^  these  birds  will  grad- 
ually emigrate.” 

It  appears  from  the  tenor  of  the  examples  adduced,  that 
the  rules  abovementioned  may  be  extended  to  assert,  that  in 
cases  wherein  contingency  and  futurity  do  not  concur,  it  is 
not  proper  to  turn  the  verb  from  its  signification  of  present 
time,  nor  to  vary  its  form  or  termination.  The  verb  would 
then  be  in  the  indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunctions  might 
attend  it. — If  these  rules  which  seem  to  form  the  true  distinc- 
tion between  the  subjunctive  and  the  indicative  moods  in  this 
tense,  were  adopted  and  established  in  practice,  we  should 
have,  on  this  point,  a principle  of  decision  simple  and  precise, 
and  readily  applicable  to  every  case  that  might  occur.  It  will, 
doubtless,  sometimes  happen,  that,  on  this  occasion,  as  well 
as  on  many  other  occasions,  a strict  adherence  to  grammatical 
rules,  would  render  the  language  stiff  and  formal ; but  when 


RULE  XIX. 


209 


cases  of  this  sort  occur,  it  is  better  to  give  the  expression  a dif- 
ferent turn,  than  to  violate  grammar  for  the  sake  of  ease,  or 
even  of  elegance.  See  Rule  14.  Note  2.  p.  193. 

5.  On  the  form  of  the  auxiliaries  in  the  compound  tenses  of 

the  subjunctive  mood,  it  seems  proper  to  make  a few  observa- 
tions. Some  writers  express  themselves  in  the  perfect  tense  as 
follows:  “ If  thou  Aaue  determined,  we  must  submit:”  “Unless 
he  have  consented,  the  writing  will  be  void  but  we  believe 
that  few  authors  of  critical  sagacity  write  in  this  manner.  The 
proper  form  seems  to  be,  “ If  thou determined  ; unless  he 
has  consented,”  &c.  conformably  to  what  we  generally  meet 
with  in  the  Bible  : “ I have  surnamed  thee,  though  thou  hast  not 
known  mev”  Isaiah,  xlv,  4.  5.  “ What  is  the  hope  of  the 

hypocrite,  though  he  hath  gained,”  &c.  Job  xxvii.  8.  See  also 
Acts  xxviii.  4. 

6.  In  the  pluperfect  and  future  tenses,  we  sometimes  meet 
with  such  expressions  as  these  : “ If  thou  had  applied  thyself 
diligently,  thou  wouldst  have  reaped  the  advantage  “ Unless 
thou  shall  speak  the  whole  truth,  we  cannot  determine “ If 
ihoMwill  undertake  the  business,  there  is  little  doubt  of  success.” 
This  mode  of  expressing  the  auxiliaries  does  not  appear  to  be 
warranted  by  the  general  practice  of  correct  writers.  They 
should  be  hadst,  shall,  and  wilt : and  we  find  them  used  in  this 
form  in  the  sacred  S^criptures. 

“If  thou  hadst  known,”  (fee.  xix.  47.  “If  thou  hadst 
been  here,”  &c.  John  xi,  21.  “ If  thou  thou  canst  make 

me  clean.”  Matt,  viii.  2.  See  also,  2 Sam,  ii.  27,  Matt.  xvii.  4. 

7.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  tense  in  the 

subjunctive  mood,  is  also  very  frequently  varied  in  its  termina- 
tion: as,  “If  \ho\x  loved  him  truly,  thou  wouldst  obey  him;” 
“Though  thou  did  conform,  thou  hast  gained  nothing  by  it.” 
This  variation,  however  appears  to  be  improper.  Our  present 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  w^e  again  refer  to,  as  a good 
grammatical  authority  in  points  of  this  nature,  decides  against 
it.  “ If  thou  knewest  the  gift,”  &c.  John  iv.  10.  “ If  thou  didst 

receive  it  why  dost  thou  glory  ?”  &c.  I Cor.  iv.  7.  See  also  Dan. 
V.  22.  But  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  the  form  of  the  verb  to 
he  when  used  subjunctively  in  the  imperfect  tense,  is  indeed 
very  considerably  and  properly  varied  from  that  which  it  has  in 
the  imperfect  of  the  indicative  mood  : as  the  learner  will  per- 
ceive by  turning  to  the  conjugation  of  that  verb.* 


* See  observations  on  the  manner  of  conjugating  the  subjunctive  mood,  at  pages  80, 
93—95 


You  I. 


29 


210 


SYNTAX. 


8.  It  may  not  be  superfluous,  also  to  observe,  that  the  auxilia- 
ries of  the  potential  mood,  when  applied  to  the  subjunctive,  do 
not  change  the  termination  of  the  second  person  singular.  We 
properly  say,  “ If  thou  mayst  or  canst  go  “ Though  thou 
mightst  live;”  “Unless  thou  read  “If  thou  wouldst 

learn  and  not,  if  thou  may  or  can  go  &c.  It  is  sufflcient 
on  this  point,  to  adduce  the  authorities  of  Johnson  and  Lowth : 
“If thou  shouldst  go  Johnson.  “If  thou  mayst,  mightst,  or 
couldst  love  Lowth.  Some  authors  think,  that  when  that  ex- 
presses the  motive  or  end,  the  termination  of  these  auxiliaries 
should  be  varied : as,  “ 1 advise  thee,  that  thou  mat/  beware 
“ checked  thee,  that  thou  should  not  presume  but  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  any  ground  for  this  exception.  If  the 
expression  of  “condition,  doubt,  contingency,”  &c.  does  not 
warrant  a change  in  the  form  of  these  auxiliaries,  why  should 
they  have  it,  when  a motive  or  end  is  expressed  ? The  trans- 
lators of  the  Scriptures  do  not  appear  to  have  made  the  distinc- 
tion contended  for.  “ Thou  buildest  the  wall,  that  thou  mayst 
be  their  king.”  Neh.  vi.  6.  “ There  is  forgiveness  with  thee, 

that  thou  mayst  be  feared.”  Psalms,  cxxx.  4. 

From  the  preceding  observations  under  this  rule,  it  appears, 
that  with  respect  to  what  is  termed  the  present  tense  of  any 
verb,  when  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity  con- 
cur, it  is  proper  to  vary  the  terminations  of  the  second  and  third 
persons  singular : that  without  the  concurrence  of  those  circum- 
stances, the  terminations  should  not  be  altered  ; and  that  the 
verb  and  the  auxiliaries  of  the  three  past  tenses,  and  the  aux- 
iliaries of  the  first  future,  undergo  no  alterations  whatever  : ex- 
cept the  imperfect  of  the  verb  to  he,  which  in  cases  denoting 
contingency,  is  varied  in  all  the  persons  of  the  singular  number. 
See  p.  80.  The  second  note. 

After  perusing  what  has  been  advanced  on  this  subject,  it 
will  be  natural  for  the  student  to  enquire,  what  is  the  extent  of 
the  subjunctive  mood?  Some  grammarians  think  it  extends 
only  to  what  is  called  the  present  tense  of  the  verbs  generally, 
under  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity ; and  to 
the  imperfect  tense  of  the  verb  to  be,  when  it  denotes  contin- 
gency, &c. : because  in  these  tenses  only,  the  form  of  the  verb 
admits  of  variation ; and  they  suppose  that  it  is  variation 
merely  which  constitutes  the  distinction  of  moods.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  other  grammarians,  (in  which  opinion  we  concur,) 
that,  besides  the  two  cases  just  mentioned,  all  verbs  in  the 
three  past,  and  the  two  future  tenses,  are  in  the  subjunctive 
mood,  when  they  denote  contingency  or  uncertainty,  though 
they  have  not  any  change  of  termination ; and  that  when 
contingency  is  not  signified,  the  verb,  through  all  these  five 
tenses,  belongs  to  the  indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunction 


RULE  XIX. 


211 


may  attend  it.  They  think,  that  the  definition  and  nature  of 
the  the  subjunctiye  mood,  have  no  refrence  to  change  of  ter- 
mination, but  that  they  refer  merely  to  the  manner  of  the 
being,  action,  or  passion,  signified  by  the  verb  ; and  that  the 
subjunctive  mood  may  as  properly  exist  without  a variation 
of  the  verb,  as  the  infinite  mood,  which  has  no  terminations 
different  from  those  of  the  indicative.  The  decision  of  this 
point  may  not,  by  some  grammarians,  be  thought  of  much 
consequence.  But  the  rules  which  ascertain  the  propriety 
of  varying  [or  not  varying,  the  terminations  of  the  verb,  will 
certainly  be  deemed  important.  These  rules  may  be  well 
observed,  without  a uniformity  of  sentiment  respecting  the 
nature  and  limits  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  For  further  re- 
marks on  the  subject,  see  pages  66 — 68,  75—77,  94,  95,  99 — 
102:* 

9.  Some  conjunctions  have  their  corresponding  conjunctions 
belonging  to  them,  so  that,  in  the  subsequent  member  of  the 
sentence,  the  latter  answers  to  the  former : as, 

1.  THOUGH — YET,  NEVERTHELESS  : as,  “ Though  he  was  rich, 
yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor.” 

2.  WHETHER — OR : as,  “ Whether  he  will  go  or  not,  I cannot 
tell.” 

3.  EITHER — OR : as,  “ I W\\\  either  send  it,  or  bring  it  myself.” 

4.  NEITHER — nor:  as,  “ Neither  ihon  nor  I am  able  to  com- 
pass it.” 

5.  AS- — AS  : expressing  a comparison  of  quality  : as,  She  is 
as  amiable  as  her  sister.” 

Wc  have  stated  for  the  student’s  information,  the  different  opinions  pf  grammarians  respecting 
the  English  Substantive  Mood  : Firsiy  that  which  supposes  there  is  no  such  mood  in  our  language  ; 
Secondly,  that  which  extends  it  no  farther  than  the  variations  of  the  verb  extend  : Thirdly,  that 
which  we  have  adopted,  and  explained  at  large  ; and  which,  in  general,  corresponds  with  the 
views  of  the  most  approved  writers  on  English  Grammar.  We  may  add  a Fourth  opinion ; which 
appears  to  possess,  at  least,  much  plausibility.  This  opinion  admits  the  arrangement  we  have 
given,  with  one  variation,  namely,  that  of  assigning  to  the  first  tense  of  the  subjunctive,  two 
forms:  Ist,  that  \^hich  simply  denotes  contingency:  as,  “If  he  desires  \i,  I will  perform  the 
operation  that  is,  “ If  he  now  desires  it 2dly,  that  which  denotes  both  contingency  and  futu- 
rity : as,^  “If  he  desire  it,  I will  perform  the  operation  that  is,  “If  he  should  hereafter  desire 
it.”  This  last  theory  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  claims  the  merit  of  rendering  the  whole  system  of 
the  moods  consistent  and  regular^  of  being  piore  conformable  than  any  other,  to'  the  definition  of 
the  subjunctive  ; and  of  not  referring  to  the  indicative  mood,  forms  of  expression,  which  ill  accord 
with  its  simplicity  andmature.  Perhaps  this  theory  will  bear  a strict  examination. 

Some  critics  assert,  that  as  the  phrase,  “ If  he  desire  it,”  has  a future  signification,  it  should 
be  considered  and  arranged  as  a future  tense.  But  as  all  our  grammarians  concur  in  classing 
this  form  gf  expression  under  the  present  tense  ; as  it  nearly  resembles  the  form  of  this  tense,  and 
appears  to  be  closely  connected  with  it ; and  as  no  possible  inconvenience  can  arise  from  adhering 
to  general  usage,  when  the  subject  is  well  explained  ; we  think  that  the  present  arrangement  is 
perfectly  justifiable.  There  is  certainly  'no  more  impropriety  in  arranging  phrases  of  this  nature 
under  the  present  tense,  than  there  is  in  classing  the  following  modes  of  expression  with  that  tense. 
“ When  he  arrives,  he  will  hear  the  news “ Before  he  decides  he  should  examine  with  care  :” 
“ The  more  she  improves  the  more  amiable  she  will  be,”  These  forms  of  expression  clearly  refer 
to  future  time,  and  yet,  even  by  our  critics  themselves,  they  arc  acknowledged  to  be  properly 
placejl  in  the  present  tense. 


212 


SYNTAX. 


6.  AS — so  : expressing  a comparison  of  equality  : ‘‘  As  the 
stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be.” 

6.  AS — so : expressing  a comparison  of  quality  : as,  “ As  the 
one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other. 

8.  so — AS : with  a verb  expressing  a comparison  of  quality  : 
as,  “ To  see  thy  glory,  so  as  I have  seen  thee  in  the 
sanctuary.” 

9.  so — as:  with  a negative  and  an  adjective  expressing  a 
comparison  of  quantity  : as,  “ Pompey  was  not  so  great  a 
man  as  Cmsar.” 

10.  so^^ — THAT  : expressing  a consequence  : as,  ‘‘  He  was  so 
fatigued,  that  he  could  scarcely  move.” 

The  conjunctions  or  and  nor  may  often  be  used,  with  nearly 
equal  propriety.  “ The  king,  whose  character  was  not  suffi- 
ciently vigorous,  nor  - decisive,  assented  to  the  measure.”  In 
this  sentence,  or  would  perhaps  have  been  better  : but,  in 
general,  nor  seems  to  repeat  the  negation  in  the  former  part 
of  the  sentence,  and  therefore  gives  more  emphasis  to  the 
expression.  . 

10.  Conjunctions  are  often  improperly  used,  both  singly  and 
in  pairs.  The  following  are  examples  of  this  impropriety.  “ The 
relations  are  so  uncertain,  as  that  they  require  a great  deal  of 
examination  : it  should  be  that  they  require,”  &c.  “ There 

was  no  man  so  sanguine,  who  did  not  apprehend  some  ill  con- 
sequences:” it  ought  to  be,  “So  sanguine  as  not  to  apprehend” 
&c.  : or,  “ no  man,  how  sanguine  soever,  who  did  not,”  &c. 

To  trust  in  him  is  no  more  but  to  acknowledge  his  power.” 
“ This  is  no  other  but  the  gate  of  paradise.”  In  both  these 
instances,  hut  should  be  than,  “ We  should  sufficiently  weigh 
the  objects  of  our  hope  ; whether  they  are  such  as  we  may 
reasonably  expect  from  them  what  they  propose,”  &c.  It 
ought  to  be,  “ that  we  may  reasonably,”  &c.  “ The  duke  had 

not  behaved  with  that  loyalty  as  he  ought  to  haV^  done ;”  “ loith 
which  he  ought.”  “In  the  order  as  they  lie  in  his  preface:” 
it  should  be,  “ in  order  as  they  lie  or,  “ in  the  order  in  which 
they  Her  “ Such  sharp  replies  that  cost  him  his  life  ;”  “ as 
cost  him,”  &c.  “ If  he  were  truly  that  scarecrow,  as  he  is  now 
commonly  painted  “ such  a scarecrow,”  &;c.  “ I wish  I 

could  do  that  justice  to  his  memory,  to  oblige  the  painters,”  &c. 

do  such  justice  as  to  oblige,”  &c. 


There  is  a peculiar  neatness  in  a sentence  beginning  with  the 
conjunctive  form  of  a verb,  Were  there  no  difference,  there 
would  be  no  choice.” 


RULE  XIX. 


213 


A double  conjunctive,  in  two  correpondent  clauses  of  a sen- 
tence, is  sometimes  made  use  of : as,  “ Had  he  done  this,  he  had 
escaped  “ Had  the  limitations  oh  the  prerogative  been  in  his 
time,  quite  fixed  and  certain,  his  integrity  had  made  him  regard 
as  sacred,  the  boundaries  of  the  constitution.”  The  sentence 
in  the  common  form  would  have  read  thus : “ If  the  limitations 
on  the  prerogative  have  been,  &c.  his  integrity  would  have 
made  him  regard,”  &c. 

The  particle  as^  when  it  is  connected  with  the  pjronoun  such, 
has  the  force  of  a relative  pronoun : as,  “ Let  such  as  presume 
to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own  conduct ; ” which  is 
equivalent  to7  “ Let  them  who  presume,”  &c.  But  when  used 
by  itself,  this  particle  is  frequently,  if  not  always,  to  be  consid- 
ered as  a conjunction,  or  perhaps  as  an  adverb. 

Some  respectable  grammarians  suppose,  that  the  word  as  is 
always  a pronoun  : and  that,  in  every  situation,  it  has  the  mean- 
ing of  it,  that,  or  which.  They  would,  however,  find  it  difficult 
to  prove,  that,  in  the  following  sentences,  this  word  has  the 
meaning  of  any  one  of  those  pronouns.  to  those  persons, 

I mustsay, 7z.9it  is  due  to  them,  that  they  wei^e  as  disinterested 
as  their  oponents.”  “ Love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself.”  For- 
give us  our  debts  we  forgive  our  debtors.”  ‘‘And  as  Paul 
was  long  preaching,  Eutychus  sunk  down.” 

Our  language  wants  a conjunction  adapted  to  familiar  style, 
equivalent  to  notwithstanding.  The  words  for  all  tkat,  se.Qm  to 
be  too  low.  The  word  was  in  the  mouth  of  every  one,  but 
for  all  that,  the  subject  may  be  still  a secret.” 

In  regard  that  is  solemn  and  antiquated  ; because  would  do 
much  betterAn  the  following  sentence.  “ It  cannot  be  other- 
wise in  regard  that  the  French  prosody  differs  from  that  of  every 
other  language.” 

The  word  except  is  far  preferable  to  other  than.  “ It  admit- 
ted of  no  effectual  cure  other  than  amputation.”  Except  is  also, 
to  be  prefered  to  all  hut.  “They  were  happy  all  but  the 
stranger.”  , 

In  the  two  following  phrases,  the  conjunction  as  is  improp- 
erly omitted  ; “ Which  nobody  presumes,  or  is  so  sanguine  a 
to  hope.”  “ I must,  however,  be  so  just  a to  own.” 

The  conjunction  that  is  often  properly  omitted,  and  under- 
stood : as,  “ I beg  you  would  come  to  me ;”  “ See  thou  do  it 
not  j”  instead  of,  “ that  you  would,”  “ that  thou  do.”  But  in  the 
following  and  many  similar  phrases,  this  conjunction  were  much 
better  inserted:  “Yet  it  is  reason  the  memory  of  their  vir- 
tues remain  to  posterity.”  It  should  be,  “ yet  it  is  just  that 
the  memory,”  &c. 


214 


SYNTAX. 


Rule  XX. 

When  the  qualities  of  different  things  are  com- 
pared, the  latter  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  governed  by 
the  conjunction,  than  or  as,  but  agrees  with  the 
verb,  oris  governed  by  the  verb  or  the  preposition 
expressed  or  understood  : as,  ‘-Thou  art  wiser  than, 
I;”  that  is,  “than  I am.”  “They  loved^him  more 
than  me;”  i.  e.  “more  than  they  loved  me.” 
“The  sentiment  is  well  expressed  by  Plato,  but 
much  better  by  Solomon  than  he;,”  that  is,  “than 
by  him.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  20. 

The  propriety  or  impropriety  of  many  phrases,  in  the 
preceding  as  well  as  in  some  other  forms,  may  be  discovered, 
by  supplying  the  words  that  are  not  expressed  ; which  will  be 
evident  from  the  following  instances  of  erroneous  construction. 

He  cah  read  better  than  me.”  He  is  as  good  as  her,” 
“ Whether  I be  present  or  no.”  Who  did  this  ? Me.  ” By 

supplying  the  words  understood  in  each  of  these  phrases,  their 
impropriety  and  governing  rule  will  appear  : as,  Better  then 
I can  read  ;”  As  good  as  she  is ; ” Present  or  not  present 

I did  it.” 

I.  By  not  attending  to  this  rule,  many  errors  have  been 
committed;  a number  of  which  is  subjoined,  as  a further 
caution  and  direction  to  the  learner..  Thou  art  a much 
greater  loser  than  me  by  his  death.”  She  suffers  hourly 
more  than  me.”  ^^We  contributed  a third  more  than  the 
Dutch,  who  were  obliged  to  the  same  proportion  more  than 
us.”  ‘‘King  Charles^,  and  more  than  him,  the  duke  and  the 
popish  faction,  where  at  liberty  to  form  new  schemes.”  “ The 
drift  of  all  his  sermons  was,  to  prepare  the  Jews  for  the  re- 
ception of  a prophet  mightier  than  him,  and  whose  shoes  he 
was  not  worthy  to  bear.”  It  was  not  the  work  of  so  emi- 
nent an  author,  as  him  to  whom  it  was  first  imputed.”  “ A 
stone  is  heavy , and  the  sand  w^eighty ; bnt  a fool’s  wrath  is 
heavier  than  them  both.”  “ If  the  king  give  us  leave,  w^e  may 
perform  the  office  as  well  as  them  that  do.”  In  these  passages 
it  ought  to  be,  /,  we^  lie^  tliey^  respectively.” 

When  the  relative  who  immediately  follows  than,  it  seems 
to  form  an  exception  to  the  80th  rule  ; for  in  that  connexion, 


RULE  XX. 


215 


the  relative  must  be  in  the  objective  case : as,  Alfred, 
wliom^  a greater  king  never  reigned,”  &c.  “ Beelzebub,  than 

wliom^  Satan  excepted,  none  higher  sat,”  &c.  It  is  remarkable 
that  in  such  instances,  if  the  personal  pronoun  were  used,  it 
would  be  in  the  nominative  case ; as,  “ A greater  king  never 
reigned  than  Ae,”  that  is,  than  he  was^"^  “ Beelzebub,  than  Ae,” 
&c. ; that  is,  “ than  he  sat,^'^  The  phrase  than  ivhom^  is,  how- 
ever avoided  by  the  best  modern  writers. 

Some  grammarians  suppose  that  the  words  than  and  but  are 
sometimes  used  as  prepositions,  and  govern  the  objective  case. 
They  adopt  this  idea  from  the  difficulty,  if  not  impossibility,  as 
they  conceive,  of  explaining  many  phrases,  on  any  other  prin- 
ciple. This  plea  of  necessity  appears,  however,  to  be  ground- 
less. The  principle  of  supplying  the  ellipsis,  is,  we  think, 
sufficient  to  resolve  every  case,  in  which  than  or  hut  occurs, 
without  wresting  these  words  from  their  true  nature,  and  giving 
them  the  character  of  prepositions.  In  the  preceding  para- 
graphs under  this  Rule,  we  have  exhibited  a number  of 
examples,  showing  that  the  supply  of  the  ellipsis  sufficiently 
explains  their  construction.  But  as  these  may  be  deemed 
obvious  cases,  we  shall  select  some,  which  appear  to  be  more 
difficult  in  their,  developement.  The  following  are  of  this 
nature.  ‘‘  I saw  nobody  but  him “ No  person  but  he  w^as 
present;”  “More  persons  than  they  saw  the  action;”  The 
secret  was  communicated  to  more  men  than  him ;”  “ This  trade 
enriched  some  people  more  than  them.”  All  these  sentences 
may  be  explained,  on  the  principle  of  supplying  the  ellipsis,  in 
the  following  manner.  In  the  first,  we  might  say,  “ I saw  no- 
body, but  I saw  him  ;”  or,  “ I saw  nobody,  but  him  I saw ;”  in 
the  second,  “ None  was  present,  but  he  was  present in  the 
third,  “ More  persons  than  they  were,  saw  the  action,”  or, 
“ More  than  these  persons  were,  saw  the  action in  the  fourth, 
“ The  secret  was  communicated  to  more  persons  than  to  him ;” 
in  the  fifth,  “ This  trade  enriched  some  people  more  than  it 
enriched  them.” — The  supply  of  the  ellipsis  certainly  gives  an 
uncouth  appearance  to  these  sentences : but  this  circumstance 
forms  no  solid  objection  to  the  truth  of  the  principle  for  which 
we  contend.  Most  of  the  idioms  in  a language  could  not  be 
literally  accounted  for,  but  by  very  awkward  modes  of  expres- 
sion. 

If  the  rule  which  has  been  recommended,  effectually  answers 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  in 
connexion  with  the  words  than  and  but,  why  should  we  have 
recourse  to  the  useless  expedient  of  changing  these  words  into 
other  parts  of  speech ; especially  when  this  expedient  would 
often  produce  ambiguity,  and  lead  into  error  ? That  it  would 
have  this  effect  might  be  shown  in  numerous  instances.  One, 


216 


SYNTAX. 


however,  will  be  sufficient.  ‘‘If  we  use  the  word  than  as  a 
preposition,  we  should  say,  ‘I  love  her  better  than  him,’  whether 
it  be  meant,  ‘ I love  her  better  than  I love  him,’  or,  ‘ I love  her 
better  than  he  does.’  By  using  the  word  as  a conjunction  the 
ambiguity  is  prevented.  For,  if  the  former  sentiment  is  implied, 
we  say,  ‘ I love  her  better  than  him  that  is,  ‘than  I love  him ;’ 
if  the  latter,  we  say,  ‘ I love  her  better  than  he,’  that  is,  “ than 
he  loves  her.’  ”, 

If  it  should  be  said,  that  but  ^nd  than  may  be  properly  sup- 
plied by  the  prepositions  except  and  besides,  and  that  therefore 
the  substitution  of  the  latter  for  the  former  niust  be  allowable ; 
we  reply,  that,  in  numerous  instances,  these  words  cannot  be 
properly  substituted  for  each  other.  But  if  this  could  be  uni- 
versally done,  it  might  still  be  said,  that  equivalence  of  meaning, 
by  no  means  implies  identity  of  grammatical  construction.  This, 
we  think,  has  been  fully  proved  in  the  sixth  Chapter  of  Etymol- 
ogy, Section  1,  pages  61,  62. 

From  what  has  been  advanced  on  the  subject,  the  follow'- 
ing  rule  may  be  laid  down.  “ When  the  pronoun  following 
but  or  than  has  exactly  the  same  bearing  and  relation  as  the 
preceding  noun  or  pronoun  has,  with  regard  to  other  parts  of 
the  sentence,  it  must  have  the  same  grammatical  construc- 
tion.” By  applying  this  rule  to  the  various  examples  already 
exhibited,  the  reader  will,  we  doubt  not,  perceive  its  propriety 
and  use. 

That  the  student  may  be  still  further  assisted,  in  his  endeav- 
ours to  discover  the  true  grammatical  construction  of  a noun 
or  pronoun  following  but  or  tharty  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
observe,  that  the  18th  Rule  of  Syntax  may  be  considered  as 
subsidiary  to  the  preceding  rule,  and  to  the  principle  of  supply- 
ing the  ellipsis.  Thus,  in  the  expression  “ I saw  nobody  but 
him,”  nobody  is  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  verb  saw; 
and  him  is  in  the  same  case,  because  conjunctions,  according  to 
Rule  the  18th,  connect  the  same  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 
In  the  phrase,  “ Nobody  but  he  was  present,”  he  is  in  the 
nominative  case,  because  it  is  connected  by  the  conjunction  but, 
with  the  noun  nobody,  which  is  in  the  nominative.  The  other 
sentences,  in  which  the  conjunction  than  is  used,  may  be  con- 
strued in  the  same  manner. 

If  the  1 8th  Rule  of  Syntax  should  not  appear  to  apply  to 
every  example,  which  has  been  produced  in  this  discussion, 
nor  to  others  which  might  be  adduced ; it  will  be  found,  on 
strict  examination,  that  the  supposed  exceptions  are,  in  fact, 
sentences  which  do  not  come  within  the  reason  and  limitation 
of  the  rule.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  “ I have  a greater 
respect  for  them  than  he,”  the  pronoun  he  is  connected  by 
the  conjunction  than  with  the  pronoun  them : and  yet  they  are 


RULE  XXI. 


21T 


not  put  in  the  same  case  ; because  they  have  not  the  same  bear- 
ing and  relation,  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence ; which 
is  requisite  according  to  rule  18,  and  its  explanatory  note.  See 
the  Note  at  page  204. 

The  two  latter  rules  are  founded  on  the  principles  of  supplying 
the  ellipsis,  and  are  intimately  connected  with  it : they  in  fact 
derive  all  their  authority  from  that  principle.  They  may,  how- 
ever, be  of  use  to  the  student,  by  presenting  the  subject  in  differ- 
ent points  of  view ; some  of  them  may  strike  his  attention  more 
than  others,  and  lead  him  to  a full  developement  of  the  subject. 

Rule  XXL 

To  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions,  and  to  express 
our  ideas  in  few  words,  an  ellipsis,  or  omission  of 
some  words,  is  frequently  admitted.  Instead  of 
saying,  “ He  was  a learned  man,  he  was  a wise 
man,  and  he  was  a good  man we  make  use  of  the 
ellipsis,  and  say,  “ He  w'as  a learned,  wise  and 
good  man.” 

When  the  omission  of  words  w'ould  obscure  the 
sentence,  weaken  its  force,  or  be  attended  with  an 
impropriety,  they  must  be  expressed.  In  the  sen- 
tence; “We  are  apt  to  love  who  love  us,”  the  word 
them  should  be  supplied.  “A  beautiful  field  and 
trees,”  is  not  proper  language.  It  should  be,  Beau- 
tiful fields  and  trees ;”  or,  “ A beautiful  field  and  fine 
trees.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  21. 

Almost  all  compounded  sentences,  are  more  or  less  elliptical ; 
some  examples  of  which  may  be  seen  under  the  different  parts 
of  speech. 

1.  The  ellipsis  of  the  article  is  thus  used:  “A  man,  woman, 
and  child  that  is,  “ a man,  a woman,  and  a child.’’  “ A house 
and  garden  ;’’  that  is,  A house  and  a garden.”  “ The  sun  and 
moon;”  that  is,  “the  sun  and  the  moon.”  “The  day  and  hour;” 
that  is,  “the  day  and  the  hour.”  In  all  these  instances,  the 
article  being  once  expressed,  the  repetition  of  it  becomes  unne- 
cessary. There  is,  however,  an  exception  to  this  observation, 
when  some  peculiar  emphasis  requires  a repetition ; as  in  the 
following  sentence  : “ Not  only  the  year,  but  the  day  and  the 

Vol.  I.  30 


218 


SYNTAXr 


hour/^  In  this  case,  the  ellipsis  of  the  last  article  would  be  im- 
proper. When  a different  form  of  the  article  is  also  properly 
repeated  : as,  “ a house,  and  an  orchard  instead  of,  “ a house 
and  orchard.” 

2.  The  noun  is  frequently  omitted  in  the  following  manner. 
‘‘The  laws  of  God  and  man  that  is,  “the  laws  of  God  and 
the  laws  of  man.”  In  some  very  emphatical  expressions,  the 
ellipsis  should  not  be  used  : as,  “ Christ  the  power  of  God,  and 
the  wisdom  of  God which  is  more  emphatical  than  “ Christ 
the  power  and  wisdom  of  God.” 

3.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adjective  is  used  in  the  following  manner. 
“ A delightful  garden  and  orchard  that  is,  a delightful  garden 
and  a delightful  orchard.”  “ A little  man  and  woman  that  is, 
“ a little  man  and  a little  woman.”  In  such  elliptical  expressions 
as  these,  the  adjective  ought  to  have  exactly  the  same  significa- 
tion, and  to  be  quite  as  proper,  when  joined  to  the  latter  substan- 
tive as  the  former ; otherwise  the  ellipsis  should  not  be  ad- 
mitted. 

Sometimes  the  ellipsis  is  improperly  applied  to  nouns  of  dif- 
ferent numbers : as,  “ A magnificent  house  and  gardens.”  In 
this  case  it  is  better  to  use  another  adjective : as,  “A  magnificent 
house  and  fine  gardens.” 

4.  The  following  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  pronoun.  “ I love  and 
fear  him  ;”  that  is,  “I  love  him,  and  I fear  him.”  “My  house 
and  lands;”  that  is,  “ my  house  and  my  lands.”  In  these  instan- 
ces the  ellipsis  may  take  place  with  propriety ; but  if  we  would 
be  more  expressive  and  emphatical,  it  must  not  be  used : as, 
“ His  friends  and  his  foes.”  “^My  sons  and  my  daughters.” 

In  some  of  the  common  forms  of  speech,  the  relative  pro- 
noun is  usually  omitted : as,  “ This  is  the  man  they  love 
instead  of,  “ This  is  the  man  whom  they  love.”  “ These  are  the 
goods  they  bought for,  “ These  are  the  goods  which  they 
bought.” 

In  complex  sentences,  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  relative 
pronoun  expressed : as  it  is  more  proper  to  say,  “ The  posture 
in  which  I lay,”  than,  “In  the  posture  I lay:”  “The  horse 
on  which  I rode,  fell  down;  than,”  “The  horse  I rode,  fell 
down.” 

The  antecedent  and  the  relative  connect  the  parts  of  a sen- 
tence together ; and,  to  prevent  obscurity  and  confusion,  they 
should  answer  to  each  other  with  great  exactness.  “ We  speak 
that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have  seen.”  Here  the 
ellipsis  is  manifestly  improper,  and  ought  to  be  supplied:  as, 
“We  speak  that  wJdch  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  which  we 
have  seen.” 


RULE  XXI. 


219 


5.  The  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the  following  instances. 

“ The  man  was  old  and  crafty that  is,  “ the  man  was  old, 
and  the  man  was  crafty.”  “ She  was  young,  and  beautiful,  and 
good  that  is,  “ She  was  young,  she  was  beautiful,  and  she 
was  good  ” “ Thou  art  poor,  and  wretched,  and  miserable,  and 

blind  and  naked.”  If  we  would  fill  up  the  ellipsis  in  the 
last  sentence,  thou  art  ought  to  be  repeated  before  each  of  the 
adjectives. 

If,  in  such  enumeration,  we  choose  to  point  out  one  prop- 
erty above  the  rest,  that  property  must  be  placed  last,  and 
the  ellipsis  supplied ; as,  “ She  is  young  and  beautiful,  and  she 
is  good.” 

“ I went  to  see  and  hear  him  ;”  that  is,  “I  went  to  see  him, 
and  I went  to  hear  him.”  In  this  instance,  there  is  not  only  an 
ellipsis  of  the  governing  verb,  I v)ent^  but  likewise  of  the  sign  of 
the  infinitive  mood,  which  is  governed  by  it. 

Do,  did,  have,  had,  shall,  will,  may,  might,  and  the  rest  of  the 
auxiliaries  of  the  compound  tenses,  are  frequently  used  alone, 
to  spare  the  repetition  of  the  verb : as,  “ He  regards  his 
word,  but  thou  dost  not:”  i.  e.  “dost  not  regard  it.”  “We 
succeeded,  but  they  did  not “ did  not  succeed.”  “ I have 
learned  my  task,  but  you  have  not ;”  “ have  not  learned.” 
“ They  must,  and  they  shall  be  punished  ;”  that  is,  “ they  must 
be  punished.” 

The  auxiliary  verbs  are  often  very  properly  omitted  before 
the  principal  verb : as,  “ I have  seen  and  heard  him  frequent- 
ly ;”  not,  “ I have  heard.”  “He  will  lose  his  estate,  and  incur 
reproach  not,  “ he  will  incur.”  But  when  any  thing  is  em- 
phatically expressed,  or  when  opposition  is  denoted,  this  ellipsis 
should  be  avoided  : as  “I  have  seen, and  I have  heard  him  too;” 
“ He  was  admired,  but  he  was  not  beloved.” 

6.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adverb  is  used  in  the  following  manner  : 
“ He  spoke  and  acted  wisely  ;”  that  is,  “ He  spoke  wisely,  and 
he  acted  wisely.”  “ Thrice  I went  and  offered  my  service 
that  is,  “ Thrice  I went,  and  thrice  I offered  my  service.  ” 

7.  The  ellipsis  of  the  preposition,  as  well  as  of  the  verb,  is 
seen  in  the  following  instances  : “ He  went  into  the  abbeys, 
halls,  and  public  buildings  that  is,  “ He  went  into  the  abbeys 
he  w^ent  into  the  halls,  and  he  went  into  the  public  buildings.” 
“ He  also  went  through  all  the  streets,  and  lanes  of  the  city 
that  is,  “ Through  all  the  streets,  and  through  all  the  lanes,  &c. 
“ He  spoke  to  every  man  and  woman  there,”  that  is,  “ to  every 
man,  and  to  every  woman.”  “This  day,  next  month,  last 
year that  is  “ on  this  day,  in  the  next  month,  in  the  last  year.” 
“ The  Lord  do  that  which  seemeth  him  good ;”  that  is,  “ which 
seemeth  to  him.” 


220 


SYNTAX. 


8.  The  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  is  as  follows : “ They  con- 
fess the  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  love,  of  their  Creator 

i.  e.  “the  power,  and  wisdom,  and  goodness,  and  love  of,  &c. 
“ Though  I love  him,  I do  not  flatter  him  that  is,  “ Though  I 
love  him,  yet  I do  not  flatter  him.”  • 

There  is  a very  common  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  that : as, 
“ He  told  me  he  would  proceed  immediately “ I desired  he 
w^'Quld  not  be  too  hasty ; “ I fear  it  comes  too  much  from  the 
heart ; instead  of,  “ He  told  me  that  he  would  proceed  imme- 
diately “ I desired  that  he  would  not  be  too  hasty “ I fear 
that  it  comes  too  much  from  the  heart.”-^ — This  ellipsis  is  toler- 
able in  conversation,  and  in  epistolary  writing ; but  it  should  be 
sparingly  indulged,  in  every  other  species  of  composition.  I'he 
French  do  not  use  this  mode  of  expression : they  avoid  the 
ellipsis  on  such  occasions. 

9.  The  ellipsis  of  the  interjection  is  not  very  common : it, 
however,  is  sometimes  used  ; as,  “ Oh  ! pity  and  shame  !”  that 
is,  “ Oh ! pity ! Oh  ! shame  !” 

As  the  ellipsis  occurs  in  almost  every  sentence  in  the  English 
language,  numerous  examples  of  it  might  be  given : but  only  a 
few  more  can  be  admitted  here. 

In  the  following  instance,  there  is  a very  considerable  one  : 
“ He  will  often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were  well 
cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one  nation  ; and  if  another,  from 
another that  is,  “ He  will  often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our 
trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one  nation,  and 
if  another  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should 
gain  from  another  nation.” 

Sometimes  a considerable  part  of  a sentence  is  properly 
omitted,  when  we  presume  that  the  nominative  case  and  its 
whole  regimen  may  be  readily  understood  : as,  “ Nature  has 
given  to  animals  one  time  to  act  and  another  to  rest instead 
of  saying : “Nature  has  given  to  animals  one  time  to  act,  and 
nature  has  given  to  animals  another  time  to  rest.” 

The  following  instances,  though  short,  contain  much  of  the 
ellipsis ; “ Wo  is  me  i.  e.  “ wo  is  to  me.”  “ To  let  blood  i.  e. 
“ to  let  out  blood.”  “ To  let  down  ;”  i.  e.  “ to  let  it  fall  or  slide 
down.”  “To  walk  a mile  i.  e.  “to  walk  through  the  space 
of  a mile.”  “ To  sleep  all  night i.  e.  “ To  sleep  through  all 
the  night.”  “ To  go  a fishing  “ To  go  a hunting i.  e.  “ to 
go  on  a fishing  voyage  or  business  “ to  go  on  a hunting  party.” 
“ I dine  at  two  o’clock  i.  e.  “ at  two  of  the  clock.”  “ By  sea, 
by  land,  on  shore;”  i.  e.  “By  the  sea,  by  the  land,  on  the 
shore.” 

It  is  very  frequent,  when  the  word  notwithstanding  agrees 
with  a number  of  words,  or  with  an  entire  clause,  to  omit  the 
whole  except  this  word:  and  in  this  use  of  notwithstanding^ 


RULE  XXI. 


221 


we  have  a striking  proof  of  the  value  of  abbreviations  in  lan- 
guage. For  example ; “ Moses  said,  let  no  man  leave  of  it  till  the 
morning:  notwithstanding^  they  hearkened  not  unto  him.”  Here 
notwithstanding  without  the  clause  to  which  it  belongs; 

and  to  complete  the  sense  in  words,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
repeat  the  whole  preceding  clause,  or  the  substance  of  it. — 
“ Moses  said,  let  no  man  leave  it  till  the  morning.  Notwith- 
standing this  command  of  Moses^  or  notwithstanding  Moses  said 
that  which  has  been  recited,  they  hearkened  not  unto  Moses.” — 
“ Folly  meets  with  success  in  this  world  : but  it  is  true,  notwith- 
standing, that  it  labours  under  disadvantages.”  This  passage, 
at  length,  would  read  thus : “ Folly  meets  with  success  in  the 
world : but  it  is  true,  notwithstanding  folly  meets  with  success  in 
the  world,  that  it  labours  under  disadvantages.” 

It  is  not  unusual  to  apply  a pronoun,  this,  that,  which,  or  what, 
to  represent  nearly  the  whole  of  a sentence : as,  “Bodies  which 
have  no  taste,  and  no  power  of  affecting  the  skin,  may,  notwith- 
standing this,  act  upon  organs  which  are  more  delicate.”  Here 
this  stands  for,  “ they  have  no  taste,  and  no  power  to  affect  the 
skinJ* 

In  the  following  example,  the  pronoun  and  participle  are 
omitted : “ Conscious  of  his  own  weight  and  importance,  the 
aid  of  others  was  not  solicited.”  Here  the  words  he  being  are 
understood,  that  is,  “ He  being  conscious  of  his  own  weight  and 
importance.”  This  clause  constitutes  the  case  absolute,  or,  the 
nominative  absolute ; which  is  not  so  obvious  before,  as  after, 
the  ellipsis  is  supplied. 

10.  The  examples  that  follow  are  produced  to  show  the  im- 
propriety of  ellipsis  in  some  particular  cases.  The  land  was 
always  possessed,  during  pleasure,  by  those  intrusted  with  the 
command  ;”  it  should  be,  “ those  jwrsons  intrusted  or,  “ those 
who  were  intrusted.”  “ If  he  had  read  further,'  he  would  have 
found  several  of  his  objections  might  have  beep  spared ;”  that 
is,  “ he  would  have  found  that  several  of  his  objections,”  &c^ 
“ There  is  nothing  men  are  more  deficient  in,  than  knowing 
their  own  characters.”  It  ought  to  be,  “ nothing  in  which 
men and,  “ than  in  knowing.”  “ I scarcely  know  any  part 
of  natural  philosophy  would  yield  more  variety  and  use ;”  it 
should  be,  “ which  would  yield,”  &c.  “ In  the  temper  of  mind 

he  was  then  ;”  i,  e.  “ in  which  he  then  was.”  “ The  little  satis- 
faction and  consistency,  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  systems  of 
divinity  I have  met  with,  made  me  betake  myself  to  the  sole 
reading  of.  the  Scriptures :”  it  ought  to  be,  “ which  are  to  be 
found,”  and, which  I have  met  with.”  “ He  desired  they  might 
go  to  the  altar  together,  and  jointly  return  their  thanks  to  whom 
only  they  were  due  ;”  i.  e,  “ to  him  to  whom,”  &c. 


222 


SYNTAX. 


Rule  XXII.  - 

All  the  parts  of  a sentence  should  correspond  to 
each  other : a regular  and  dependent  construction, 
throughout,  should  be  carefully  preserved.  The 
following  sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate : “ He 
was  more  beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired,  as 
Cinthio.”  It  should  be,  “ He  was  more  beloved  than 
Cinthio,  but  not  so  much  admired.” 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  3.  Exercises,  Chap.  i.  Rule  22. 

The  first  example  under  this  rule,  presents  a most  irregular 
construction,  namely,  “ He  was  more  beloved  as  Cinthio.”  The 
words  more  and  so  much,  are  very  improperly  stated  as  having 
the  same  regimen.  In  correcting  such  sentences,  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary to  supply  the  latter  ellipsis  of  the  corrected  sentence, 
by  saying,  “ but  not  so  much  admired  as  Cinthio  was be- 
cause the  ellipsis  cannot  lead  to  any  discordant  or  improper 
construction,  and  the  supply  would  often  be  harsh  or  inelegant. 
— See  Rule  xx.  and  the  Notes  under  it. 

As  the  22d  Rule  comprehends  all  the  preceding  rules,  it  may, 
at  the  first  view,  appear  to  be  too  general  to  be  useful.  But 
by  ranging  under  it  a number  of  sentences  peculiarly  con- 
structed, we  shall  perceive,  that  it  is  calculated  to  ascertain  the 
true  grammatical  construction  of  many  modes  of  expression, 
which  none  of  the  particular  rules  can  sufficiently  explain. 

“ This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that  has, 
is,  or  shall  be  published.”  It  ought  to  be,  “ that  has  been,  or 
shall  be  published.”  “ He  was  guided  by  interests  always  dif- 
ferent, sometimes  contrary  to,  those  of  the  community ;”  “ dif- 
ferent/rom  or,  “ always  different  from  those  of  the  commu- 
nity, and  sometimes  contrary  to  them.”  “ Will  it  be  urged 
that  these  beoks  are  as  old  or  even  older  than  tradition  ?”  The 
words,  “ as  old,”  and  “ older,”  cannot  have  a common  regimen  ; 
it  should  be,  “ as  old  as  tradition,  or  even  older.”  It  requires 
few  talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or  at  least  may 
not  acquire  ;”  “ or  which,  at  least,  they  may  not  acquire.” 
‘‘  The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  breaks  the 
teeth  of  the  common  law.  In  this  construction,  the  first  verb  is 
said  “ to  mitigate  the  teeth  of  the  common  law,”  which  is  an 
evident  solecism.  “ Mitigates  the  common  law,  and  j3reaks  the 
teeth  of  it,”  would  have  been  grammatical. 

“ They  presently  grow  into  good  humour,  and  good  lan- 
guage towards  the  crown ;”  “ grow  into  good  language,”  is 


RULE  XXII. 


223 


very  improper.  “ There  is  never  wanting  a set  of  evil  instru- 
ments, who  either  out  of  mad  zeal,  private  hatred,  or  filthy 
lucre,  are  always  ready,”  &c.  We  say  properly,  “ A man 
acts  out  of  mad  zeal,”  or,  “ out  of  private  hatred,”  but  we 
cannot  say,  if  we  would  speak  English,  “ he  acts  out  of  filthy 
lucre.”  “ To  double  her  kindness  and  caresses  of  me  the 
word  “ kindness”  requires  to  be  followed  by  either  to  or  /or, 
and  cannot  be  construed  with  the  preposition  of.  “ Never  was 
man  so  teased  or  suffered  half  the  uneasiness,  as  I have  done 
this  evening:”  the  first  and  third  clauses,  viz.  “ Never  was  man 
so  teased,  as  I have  done  this  evening,”  cannot  be  joined  with- 
out an  impropriety  : and  to  connect  the  second  and  third,  the 
word  must  be  substituted  for  ; “Or,  suffered  half  the 
uneasiness  that  I have  done  ;”  or  else,  “ half  so  much  uneasi- 
ness as  I have  suffered.” 

The  first  part  of  the  following  sentence  abounds  with  adverbs, 
and  those  such  as  are  hardly  consistent  with  one  another  : 
“ How  much  soever  the  reformation  of  this  degenerate  age  is 
almost  utterly  io  be  despaired  of,  we  may  yet  have  a more  com- 
fortable prospect  of  future  times.”  The  sentence  would  be  more 
correct  in  the  following  form  : “ Though  the  reformation  of  this 
degenerate  age  is  nearly  to  be  despaired  of,”  &c. 

“ Oh  ! shut  not  up  my  soul  with  the  sinners,  nor  my  life  with 
the  blood-thirsty  ; in  whose  hands  is  wickedness,  and  their  right 
hand  is  full  of  gifts.”  As  the  passage,  introduced  by  the  copu- 
lative conjunction  and,  was  not  intended  as  a continuation  of  the 
principal  and  independent  part  of  the  sentence,  but  of  the  de- 
pendent part,  the  relative  whose  should  have  been  used  instead 
of  the  possessive  their  ; viz.  “ and  whose  right  hand  is  full  of 
gifts.” 

The  following  sentences,  which  give  the  passive  voice  the 
regimen  of  an  active  verb,  are  very  irregular,  and  by  no  means 
to  be  imitated  : “ The  bishops  and  abbots  were  allowed  their 
seats  in  the  house  of  lords  ;”  “ Thrasea  was  forbidden  the 
presence  of  the  emperor.”  “ He  was  shown  that  very  story 
in  one  of  his  own  books.”  These  sentences  should  have  been  ; 
“ The  bishops  and  abbots  were  allowed  to  have  (or  to  take) 
their  seats  in  the  house  of  lords  ;”  or,  “ Seats  in  the  house 
of  lords  were  allowed  to  the  bishops  and  abbots “ Thrasea 
was  forbidden  to  approach  the  presence  of  the  emperor 
or,  “ The  presence  of  the  emperor  was  forbidden  to 
Thrasea  :”  “ That  very  story  was  shown  to  him  in  one  of 

his  own  books.” 

The  subsequent  paragraph  contains  forms  of  sentences, 
which,  though  they  are  not  uncommon,  have  an  irregular  con- 
struction, and  should,  with  others  of  a similar  nature,  be  care- 
fully avoided.  “ The  meeting  was  obliged  to  be  deferred  ” 


224 


SYNTAX. 


‘‘  They  are  expected  to  be  sent  for  next  week.”  He  was  forced 
to  be  lifted  into  his  carriage.”  “ The  horses  were  ordered  to  be 
exercised  every  day.” — These  sentences  may  be  corrected  in 
following  manner  : “ It  was  necessary  to  defer  the  meeting 
or,  “ The  meeting  was  necessarily  deferred.”  “ They  expect 
to  be  sent  for  next  week  or,  “ It  is  expected  they  will  be  sent 
for  next  week.”  “ He  was  under  the  necessity  of  being  lifted 
into  his  carriage  or,  It  was  necessary  to  lift  him  into  his 
carriage.”  “ Orders  were  given  to  exercise  the  horses  eve  y 
day  or,  They  ordered  that  the  horses  should  be  exercised 
every  day.” 

“ Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered 
into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath  prepared 
for  them  that  love  him.”  There  seems  to  be  an  impropriety 
in  this  sentence,  in  which  the  same  noun  serves  in  a double 
capacity,  performing  at  the  same  time  the  offices  both  of  the 
nominative  and  objective  cases.  Neither  hath  it  entered  into 
the  heart  of  man,  to  conceive  the  things,”  &c.  would  have  been 
regular. 

“ We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compound- 
ing those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  into  all  the 
varieties  of  picture  and  vision.”  It  is  very  proper  to  say, 
‘‘  altering  and  cornpoupding  those  images  which  we  have  once 
received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision but  wc 
can  with  no  propriety  say,  retaining  them  into  all  the  varie- 
ties ;”  and  yet,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  words 
are  ranged,  this  construction  is  unavoidable  : for,  retaining, 
altering,  and  compounding,”  are  participles,  each  of  which 
equally  refers  to  and  governs  the  subsequent  noun,  those  images  ; 
and  that  noun  again  is  necessarily  connected  with  the  following 
preposition,  into.  The  construction  might  easily  have  been 
rectified,  by  disjoining  the  participle,  retaining  from  the  other 
two  participles,  in  this  way  : We  have  the  power  of  retaining 
those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  and  of  altering 
and  compounding  them  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and 
vision  ;”  or,  perhaps  better  thus : We  have  the  power  of 
retaining,  altering,  and  compounding  those  images  which  we 
have  once  received,  and  of  forming  them  into  all  the  varieties 
of  picture  and  vision.” 

THE  INTERJECTION. 

The  syntax  of  the  Interjection  is  of  so  very  limited  a na- 
tere,  that  it  does  not  require  a distinct,  appropriate  rule  ; 


nULE  XXII. 


225 


especially  as  every  thing  which  relates  to  it  in  this  point  of  view, 
has  already  been  mentioned  under  other  rules.  See  Rule  v. 
Note  1 1 : and  Rule  xxi.  Note  9. 

It  may  not,  however,  be  improper  to  observe,  in  addition  to 
what  we  formerly  mentioned  respecting  the  nature  of  this  part 
of  speech,  that  the  genuine  Interjection,  which  is  always  expres- 
sive of  some  strong  sensation,  does  not  owe  its  characteristic 
expression  to  the  arbitrary  form  of  articulation ; but  derives  its 
force  from  the  tone  of  voice  and  modification  of  countenance 
and  gesture.  These  tones  and  gestures,  consequently,  express 
the  same  meaning,  or  nearly  the  same,  independently  of  any 
necessary  relation  to  the  articulation  which  they  may  assume  ; 
and  they  are  therefore  universally  understood. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  PARSING. 

As  we  have  finished  the  explanation  of  the  different  parts  of 
speech,  and  the  rules  for  forming  them  into  sentences,  it  is  now 
proper  to  give  some  examples  of  the  manner  in  which  the  learn- 
ers should  be  exercised,  in  order  to  prove  their  knowledge,  and 
to  render  it  familiar  to  them.  This  is  called  parsing.  The 
nature  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  the  adaptation  of  it  to  learners, 
requires  that  it  should  be  divided  into  two  parts ; viz.  parsing,  as 
it  respects  etymology  alone ; and  parsing,  as  it  respects  both 
etymology  and  syntax.* 


SECTION  I. 


Specimen  of  Etymological  Parsing. 

“ Virtue  ennobles  us.” 

Virtue  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the 
third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
{Decline  the  noun,)  Ennobles  is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  {Repeat  the 
present  tense,  the  imperfect  tense,  and  the  perfect  participle,)^ 
Us  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person  plural,  and  in  the 
objective  case.  {Decline  the  pronoun,) 


♦ See  Vol.ii.  parti.  Exercises  in  Parsing.  Sec.  9.  The  note, 
t The  learner  should  occasionally  repeat  all  the  moods  and  tenses  of  the  verb. 

VoL.  I.  31 


226 


SYNTAX. 


Goodness  will  be  rewarded.^' 

Goodness  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the 
third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
{Decline  it.)  Will  be  rewarded  is  a regular  verb,  in  the  passive 
voice,  the  indicative  mood,  the  first  future  tense,  and  the  third 
person  singular.  {Repeat  the  present  tense,  the  imperfect  tense, 
and  the  perfect  participle.) 

Strive  to  improve.” 

Strive  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  imperative  mood,  and 
of  the  second  person  singular.  {Repeat  the  present  tense,  (^c.) 
To  improve  is  a regular  verb  neuter,  and  in  the  infinitive  mood. 
{Repeat  the  present  tense,  ^c.) 

Time  flies,  O ! how  swiftly.” 

Time  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {De- 
cline the  noun.)  Flies  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  the  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  {Repeat 
the  present  tense,  ^.)  O ! is  an  interjection.  How  and  swiftly 
are  adverbs. 


Gratitude  is  a delightful  emotion.” 

Gratitude  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the 
third  person  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
{Decline  it.)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  {Repeat  the  pre- 
sent  tense,  ^c.)  A is  the  indefinite  article.  Delightful  is  an 
adjective  in  the  positive  state.  {Repeat  the  degrees  of  compari- 
son^ Emotion  is  a common  substantive  of  the  neuter  gender, 
the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative 
case.  {Decline  it.) 

‘‘They  who  forgive,  act  nobly.” 

They  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline  it)  Who  is  a 
relative  pronoun,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline  it.) 
Forgive  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  and  the  third  person  plural.  {Repeat  the  present  tense, 
^c.)  Act  is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  and  the  third  person  plural.  {Repeat  ^c.)  Nobly  is  an 
adverb  of  quality.  {Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.) 


PARSING. 


2i7 


**  By  living  temperately,  our  health  is  promoted.” 

By  is  a preposition,  Living  is  the  present  participle  of  the 
regular  neuter  verb  “ to  live.  ” {Repeat  the  participle,)  Tem- 
perately is  an  adverb  of  quality.  Our  is  an  adjective  pronoun, 
of  the  possessive  kind.  {Decline  it,)  Health  is  a common 
substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  person,  the  singular 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline  it,)  Is  promoted 
is  a regular  verb  passive,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and 
the  third  person  singular.  {Repeat,  ^c,) 

“ We  should  be  kind  to  them,  who  are  unkind  to  us.” 

We  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline  it.)  Should  he 
is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  potential  mood,  the  imper- 
fect tense,  and  the  first  person  plural.  {Repeat  the  present 
tense,  (^c,)  Kind  is  an  adjective,  in  the  positive  state.  {Re- 
peat  the  degrees  of  comparison,)  To  is  a preposition.  Them 
is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  plural  number, 
and  in  the  objective  case.  {Decline  it,)  Who  is  a relative 
pronoun,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  {Decline  it,)  Are  is  an 
irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the 
third  person  plural.  {Repeat,  ^c,)  Unkind  is  an  adjective  in 
the  positive  state.  {Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison,)  To  is 
a preposition.  Us  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person, 
the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case.  {Decline  it.) 

SECTION  II. 

Specimens  of  Syntactical  Parsing. 

Vice  produces  misery.” 

Vice  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the 
third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
Produces  is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative 
vice,”  according  to  rule  i.  which  says : {here  repeat  the 
rule,)  Misery  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender, 
the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  the  objective  case, 
governed  by  the  active  verb  “ produces,”  according  to  rule  xi, 
which  says,  &c. 

“ Peace  and  joy  are  virtue’s  crown.” 

Peace  is  a common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  gender, person, 
number,  and  case,)  And  is  a copulative  conjunction.  Joy  is  a 


228 


SYNTAX. 


common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  person  number  and  case,) 
Are  \s  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
and  the  third  person  plural,  agreeing  with  the  nominative  case, 
‘‘peace  and  joy,”  according  to  rule  ii.  which  says: 
repeat  the  rule.)  Virtues  is  a common  substantive,  of  the 
third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive  case, 
governed  by  the  substantive  “ crown,”  agreeably  to  rule  x. 
which  says,  &c.  Crown  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter 
gender,  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
nominative  case,  according  to  the  fourth  note  of  rule  xi. 

“ Wisdom  or  folly  governs  us.” 

Wisdom  is  a common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  gender^  per- 
son, number  and  case.)  Or  is  a disjunctive  conjunction.  Folly 
is  a common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  gender,  person,  number, 
and  case.)  is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood, 

present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its 
nominative  case  “ wisdom  ” or  “ folly,”  aecording  to  rule  hi, 
which  says,  &c.  Us  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person, 
plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the 
active  verb  “ governs,”  agreeably  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c. 

“ Every  heart  knows  its  sorrows.” 

Every  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  distributive  kind 
agreeing  with  its  substantive  “heart,”  according  to  Note  3, 
under  rule  viii.  which  says,  &c.  Heart  is  a common  sub- 
stantive. {Repeat  the  gender,  number,  person,  and  case.) 
Knows  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case 
“heart”  according  to  rule  i,  which  says,  &c.  Its  is  a per- 
sonal pronoun,  of  the  third  person  singular,  and  of  the  neuter 
gender,  to  agree  with  its  substantive  “ heart,”  according  to 
rule  V.  which  says,  &c.  : it  is  in  the  possessive  case,  governed 
by  the  noun  “ sorrows,”  according  to  rule  x.  which  says,  &c. 
Sorrows  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the 
third  person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case, 
governed  by  the  active  verb  “ knows,”  according  to  rule  xi. 
which  says,  &c. 

“ The  man  is  happy  who  lives  wisely.” 

The  is  the  definite  article.  Man  is  a common  substantive. 
{Repeat  the  gender, person,  number,  and  case.)  Is  is  an  irregular 
verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third 


PARSING. 


229 


person  singular,  agreeing  with  the  nominative  case  ‘‘  man,” 
according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c.  Happy  is  an  adjective 
in  the  positive  state.  Who  is  a relative  pronoun,  which  has  for 
its  antecedent,  man,”  with  which  it  agrees  in  gender  and  num- 
ber, according  to  rule  v.  which  says,  &c.  Lives  is  a regular 
verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singu- 
lar, agreeing  with  its  nominative  “ who,”  according  to  rule  vi. 
which  says,  &c.  Wisely  is  an  adverb  of  quality,  placed  after 
the  verb,  according  to  rule  xv. 

“ Who  preserves  us 

Who  is  a relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind,  and  in 
the  nominative  case  singular.  The  word  to  which  it  relates, 
(its  subsequent)  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  containing  the  answer 
to  the  question  ; according  to  a note  under  rule  vi.  Preserves 
is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third 
person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  “who,”  according 
to  RULE  VI.  which  says,  &c.  Us  is  a personal  pronoun.  (iJe- 
peat  the  person,  number,  case  and  7'ule,) 

“ Whose  house  is  that?  My  brother’s  and  mine. 

Who  inhabit  it  ? We.” 

Whose  is  a relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind,  and 
relates  to  the  following  words,  “ brother's”  “ and  mine,  agreeably 
to  a note  under  rule  vi.  It  is  in  the  possessive  case,  governed 
by  “ house,”  according  to  rule  x.  which  says,  &c.  House  is  a 
common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  gender,  person,  number,  and 
case,)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative 
case,  “house,”  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c.  That  is 
an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind.  My  is  an  ad- 
jective pronoun  of  the  possessive  kind.  Brothers  is  a common 
substantive,  of  the  masculine  gender,  the  third  person,  the  singu- 
lar number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  “ house,” 
understood,  according  to  rule  x.  and  a note  under  rule  vi. 
And  is  a copulative  conjunction.  Mine  is  a personal  pronoun, 
of  the  first  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive 
case,  according  to  a note  under  rule  x.  and  another  under  rule 
VI.  Who  is  a relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind,  of  the 
plural  number,  in  the  nominative  case,  and  relates  to  “ we,” 
following,  according  to  a note  under  rule  vi.  Inhabit  is  a regu- 
lar verb  active.  {Repeat  the  mood,  tense,  person,  (^c.)  It  is  a 
personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and 


230 


SYNTAX. 


in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  inhabit, 
according  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c.  TVe  is  a personal  pro- 
noun, of  the  first  person,  the  plural  number,  and  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb  inhabit”  understood.  The  words  ^‘inhabit 
it  ” are  implied  after  we  ” agreeably  to  a note  under  rule  vi. 

Remember  to  assist  the  distressed.” 

Rememher  is  a regular  verb  active,  imperative  mood,  the 
second  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  nominative  case 
‘‘  thou  ” understood.  To  assist  is  a regular  verb  active,  in  the 
infinitive  mood,  governed  by  the  preceding  verb  “remember,” 
according  to  rule  xii.  which  says,  &:c.  The  is  the  definite  arti- 
cle. Distressed  is  an  adjective  put  substantively. 

“ We  are  not  unemployed.” 

We  is  a personal  pronoun.  {Repeat  the  person^  number^  and 
case.)  Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  {Repeat  the  mood^  tense, 
person,  ^c.)  Not  is  an  adverb  of  negation.  Unemployed  is  an 
adjective  in  the  positive  state.  The  two  negatives  not  and  un^ 
form  an  affirmative  agreeably  to  rule  xvi.  which  says,  &c. 

“ This  bounty  has  relieved  you  and  us ; and  has  gratified  the 

donor.” 

This  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind.  Boun- 
ty h a common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  gender, person,  number, 
and  case.)  Has  relieved  is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative 
mood,  perfect  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its 
nominative  “bounty”  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c. 
You  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person  plural,  and  in 
the  objective  case.  {Repeat  the  government  and  rule.)  And 
is  a copulative  conjunction.  Vs  is  a personal  pronoun,  in  the 
objective  case.  You  and  us  are  put  in  the  same  case  according 
to  RULE  xviii.  which  says,  &c.  And  is  a copulative  conjunc- 
tion. Has  gratified  is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood, 
perfect  tense,  and  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nomi- 
native “ bounty  ” understood.  Has  relieved  and  has  grat- 
ified^'* are  in  the  same  mood  and  tense,  according  to  rule  xviii. 
which  says,  &c.  The  is  the  definite  article.  Donor  is  a com- 
mon substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and 
in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  “ has  gratified,” 
according  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c. — Seep-  39,  on  Gender. 


PARSING. 


231 


He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repent.” 

He  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, musculine  gender,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  Will  be 
pardoned  is  a regular  passive  verb,  indicative  mood,  first  future 
tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nomin- 
ative he,”  according  to  rule  i.  and  composed  of  the  auxiliaries 
will  be,”  and  the  perfect  participle  “ pardoned.”  Not  is  a 
negative  verb.  Unless  is  a disjunctive  conjunction.  He  is  a 
pronoun.  {Repeat  the  person^  number,  gender,  and  case!)  Re- 
pent is  a regular  verb  neuter,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
present  tense,  the  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its 
nominative  case  “ he,”  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c.  It 
is  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  because  it  implies  a future  sense, 
and  denotes  uncertainty,  signified  by  the  conjunction  “ unless,” 
agreeably  to  rule  xix.  and  the  notes. 

They  could  obtain  the  object  of  their  wishes,  if  they  would  be 
resolute.” 


They  is  a personal  pronoun.  {Repeat  the  person,  number, 
and  case,)  Could  obtain  is  a regular  verb  active,  potential 
mood,  imperfect  tense,  third  person  plural,  agreeing  with  its 
nominative  “ they”  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c.  The 
is  the  definite  article.  {Repeat  the  definition,)  Object  is  a com- 
mon substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number  and 
in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  could  ob- 
tain,” agreeably  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c.  Of  is  a prep- 
osition. Their  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  possessive  sort, 
agreeing  with  its  substantive  “ wishes,”  according  to  the  rule 
VIII.  which  says,  &c.  Wishes  is  a common  substantive,  of  the 
third  person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case, 
governed  by  the  preposition  of,  according  to  rule  xvii.  which 
says,  &c.  The  phrase,  the  object  of  their  wishes,  may  be  termed 
an  “ objective  phrase,”  governed  by  the  active  verb  “ could 
obtain,”  according  to  a note  under  rule  xi.  page  180.  ^is  a 
copulative  conjunction.  They  is  a personal  pronoun.  {Repeat 
the  person,  number,  and  case)  Would  be  is  an  irregular  verb 
neuter,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  imperfect  tense,  of  the  third 
person  plural,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  they”  in  num- 
ber and  person.  It  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  according  to  a 
note  at  page  82.  {Define  the  subjunctive  mood,)  Resolute  is 
an  adjective  in  the  positive  state,  and  belongs  to  its  substantive 
persons”  understood,  according  to  rule  viii,  which  says,  &c. 


232 


SYNTAX. 


To  be  pure  in  heart,  pious,  and  benevolent,  which  all  may  be, 
constitutes  human  happiness.” 

To  be  pure  in  hearty  pious^  and  benevolent^  is  the  antecedent 
to  the  pronoun  “ which,”  according  to  a note  under  Chapter  v. 
of  Etymology,  page  50.  This  phrase  is  also  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb  constitutes,”  according  to  note  I,  under 
RULE  1.  Which  is  a relative  pronoun,  having  for  its  antecedent 
the  phrase  before  mentioned.  It  is  in  the  nominative  case, 
according  to  rule  xi.  note  4.  All  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of 
the  indefinite  kind,  agreeing  with  its  substantive  ‘‘  persons”  un- 
derstood, according  to  rule  viii.  which  says,  &c.  May  be  is 
an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  potential  mood,  present  tense, 
and  the  third  person  plural,  agreeing  with  the  nominative  case 
^^all,”  according  to  rule  i.  which  says,  &c.  Constitutes  is  a 
regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third  person 
singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  the  phrase  above- 
mentioned.  Human  is  an  adjective,  which  agrees  with  its  sub- 
stantive happiness,”  according  to  rule  viii.  which  says,  &c. 
Happiness  is  a common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  gender^  per- 
son,  number,  case,  and  government,) 

Good  works  being  neglected,  devotion  is  false.” 

Good  works  being  neglected,  being  independent  on  the  rest  of 
the  sentence,  is  the  case  absolute,  according  to  the  fifth  note  of 
RULE  I.  Devotion  is  a common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  gen- 
der, number,  person  and  case,)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter. 
(Repeat  the  mood,  tense,  person,  ^c,)  False  is  an  adjective  in 
the  positive  state,  and  belongs  to  its  substantive  “ devotion”  un- 
derstood, agreeably  to  rule  viii.  which  says,  &c. 


The  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  was  a wise  and  virtuous 
prince.” 

The  is  the  definite  article.  Emperor  is  a common  substan- 
tive, of  the  musculine  gender,  the  third  person,  the  singular 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  Marcus  Aurelius  is  a 
proper  name  or  substantive,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  because 
it  is  put  in  apposition  with  the  substantive  emperor,”  agree- 
ably to  the  first  note  of  rule  x.  Was  is  an  irregular  verb 
neuter,  indicative  mood,  imperfect  tense,  and  the  third  person 
singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  “emperor,”  accord- 
ing to  RULE  I.  A is  the  indefinite  article.  Wise  is  an  adjective, 
and  belongs  to  its  substantive  “ prince.”  And  is  a copulative 


PARSING. 


233 


conjunction.  Virtuous  is  an  adjective  and  belongs,  &c.  Prince 
is  a common  substantive,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  according 
to  the  fourth  note  of  rule  xi. 

“To  err  is  human. 

To  err,  is  the  infinitive  mood,  and  the  nominative  case  to  the 
verb  “is.”  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its 
nominative  case  “ to  err,”  according  to  Note  1,  under  rule  the 
first.  Human  is  an  adjective,  and  belongs  to  its  substantive 
“ nature  ” understood  according  to  rule  vm.  which  says,  &c. 

“ To  countenance  persons  who  are  guilty  of  bad  actions,  is 
scarcely  one  remove  from  actually  committing  them.” 

To  countenance  persons  who  are  guilty  of  had  actions,  is  part 
of  a sentence,  which  is.  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  “ is.” 
Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  &c.  agreeing  with  the  aforemen- 
tioned part  of  a sentence,  as  its  nominative  case,  according  to 
Note  1.  under  rule  the  first.  Scarcely  is  an  adverb.  One  is  a 
numeral  adjective,  agreeing  with  its  substantive  “ remove.” 
Remove  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  accor- 
ding to  the  fourth  note  of  rule  xi.  From  is  a preposition. 
Committing  is  the  present  participle  of  the  regular  active  verb, 
“ to  commit.”  Them  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person, 
the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the 
participle  “committing,”  agreeably  to  rule  xiv.  which  says,  &c. 

“ Charles  was  ardent,  inconsiderate,  and  regardless  of  advice, 
qualities  incident  to  youth. 

Charles  is  a proper  name  or  substantive.  {Repeat  the  person^ 
number,  and  case,)  Was  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  {Repeat 
the  mood,  tense,  person,  number  and  agreement,)  Ardent,  incon-^ 
siderate,  and  regardless,  are  adjectives,  in  the  positive  state,  and 
belong  to  the  substantive  “ Charles,”  according  to  rule  viii. 
which  says,  &c.  These  adjectives  are  joined  together  by  the 
conjunction  and  expressed  between  the  two  latter,  and  under- 
stood between  the  two  former.  Of  is  a preposition.  Advice  is 
a common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number, 
and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  of,  accor- 
ding to  RULE  XVII.  which  says,  &c.  Qualities  is  a common 
substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  person,  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  This  word  “ qualities,”  is 
put  in  apposition  to  the  preceding  clause,  or  part  of  the  sentence, 
according  to  the  observations  in  the  second  paragraph  under 
VoL.  1.  32 


234 


SYNTAX. 


RULE  X.  Incident  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state,  and 
belongs  to  its  substantive  qualities,”  according  to  rule  viii. 
which  says,  &c.  To  is  a preposition.  Youtk  is  a common 
substantive  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  to,  according  to 
RULE  XVII.  which  says,  &c. 

Let  me  proceed.” 

This  sentence,  according  to  the  statement  of  grammarians  in 
general,  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  of  the  first  person,  and  the 
singular  number.  The  sentence  may,  however,  be  analyzed  in 
the  following  manner.  Let  is  an  irregular  verb  active  in  the 
imperative  mood,  of  the  second  person,  the  plural  number,  and 
agrees  with  its  nominative  case  you,”  understood : as,  do 
you  let.”  Me  is  a personal  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the 
active  verb  “ let,”  agreeably  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c.  Pro- 
ceed  is  a regular  verb  neuter,  in  the  infinitive  mood,  governed 
by  the  preceding  verb  ^‘let,”  according  to  rule  xii.  which 
says,  &c. 

Living  expensively  and  luxuriously  destroys  health.  By  living 
frugally  and  temperately,  health  is  preserved.” 

Living  expensively  and  luxuriously,  is  the  nominative  case  to 
the  verb  “destroys,”  according  to  Note  1,  under  rule  i.  Living 
frugally  and  temperately,  is  a substantive  phrase  in  the  objec- 
tive case,  governed  by  the  preposition  “ by,”  according  to  Note 
2,  under  rule  xiv. 

The  preceding  specimens  of  parsing,  if  carefully  studied  by 
the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufficiently  explicit,  to  enable  him  to 
comprehend  the  nature  of  this  employment;  and  sufficiently 
diversified,  to  qualify  him,  in  other  exercises,  to  point  out  and 
apply  the  remaining  rules,  both  principal  and  subordinate. 

The  student  may  derive  some  advantage  in  the  business  of 
Parsing,  and  some  improvement  in  the  radical  knowledge  of 
many  of  the  rules  of  syntax,  by  consulting  the  second  chapter 
of  the  Exercises  in  Parsing,  contained  in  volume  2,  of  this  work: 
especially  the  ninth  section  of  that  chapter,  entitled,  “ Mode  of 
verbally  correcting  erroneous  sentences.” 


PART  IV. 


PROSODY. 

Prosody  consists  of  two  parts  : the  former  teaches 
the  true  pronunciation  of  words,  comprising  accent, 
QUANTITY,  EMPHASIS,  PAUSE,  and  TONE ; and  the  latter, 
the  laws  of  versification. 


CHAPTER  1. 
OF  pronunciation. 


SECTION  I. 

Of  Accent 

Accent  is  the  laying  of  a peculiar  stress  of  the 
voice,  on  a certain  letter  or  syllable  in  a word, 
that  it  may  be  better  heard  than  the  rest,  or  dis- 
tinguished from  them:  as,  in  ihe  wovA presume^  the 
stress  of  the  voice  must  be  on  the  letter  w,  and  second 
syllable,  sunie^  which  take  the  accent. 

As  words  may  be  formed  of  a different  number  of  syllables, 
from  one  to  eight  or  nine,  it  was  necessary  to  have  some  pecu- 
liar mark  to  distinguish  words  from  mere  syllables:  other- 
wise speech  would  be  only  a continued  succession  of  syllables, 
without  conveying  ideas  : for,  as  words  are  the  marks  of  ideas, 
any  confusion  in  the  marks,  must  cause  the  same  in  the  ideas 
for  which  they  stand.  It  was  therefore  necessary,  that  the 
mind  should  at  once  perceive  what  number  of  syllables  belongs 
to  each  word,  in  utterance.  This  might  be  done  by  a per- 
ceptible pause  at  the  end  of  each  word  in  speaking,  as  we 
form  a certain  distance  between  them  in  writing  and  printing. 


236 


PROSODY. 


But  this  would  make  discourse  extremely  tedious  ; and  though 
it  might  render  words  distinct,  would  make  the  meaning  of 
sentences  confused.  Syllables  might  also  be  sufficiently  dis- 
tinguished, by  a certain  elevation  or  depression  of  voice  upon 
one  syllable  of  each  word,  which  was  the  practice  of  some 
nations.  But  the  English  tongue  has,  for  this  purpose,  adopted 
a mark  of  the  easiest  and  simplest  kind,  which  is  called  accent, 
and  which  effectually  answers  the  end. 

Every  word  in  our  language,  of  more  than  one  syllable,  has 
one  of  them  distinguished  from  the  rest  in  this  manner : and 
some  writers  assert,  that  every  monosyllable  of  two  or  more 
letters  has  one  of  its  letters  thus  distinguished. 

Accent  is  either  principal  or  secondary.  The  principal 
accent  is  that  which  necessarily  distinguishes  one  syllable  in 
a word  from  the  rest.  The  secondary  accent  is  that  stress, 
which  we  may  occasionally  place  upon  another  syllable, 
besides  that  which  is  the  principal  accent : in  order  to  pro- 
nounce every  part  of  the  word  more  distinctly,  forcibly,  and 
harmoniously  : thus,  “ Complaisant,  caravan,”  and  violin,” 
have  frequently  an  accent  on  the  first  as  w^ell  as  on  the  last 
syllable,  though  a somewhat  less  forcible  one.  The  same 
may  be  observed  of  ‘^Repartee,  referee,  privateer,  domi- 
neer,” &c.  But  it  must  be  observed,  that  though  an  accent 
is  allowed  on  the  first  syllable  of  these  w^ords,  it  is  by  no 
means  necessary  ; they  may  all  be  pronounced  with  one  accent, 
and  that  on  the  last  syllable,  without  the  least  deviation  from 
propriety. 

As  emphasis  evidently  points  out  the  most  significant  word 
in  a sentence ; so  where  other  reasons  do  not  forbid,  the  ac- 
cent always  dwells  with  greatest  force,  on  that  part  of  the 
word,  w.jch,  from  its  importance,  the  hearer  has  alw^ays  the 
greatest  occasion  to  observe : and  this  is  necessarily  the  root 
or  body  of  the  word.  But  as  harmony  of  termination  fre- 
quently attracts  the  accent  from  the  root  to  the  branches  of 
words,  so  the  first  and  most  natural  law  of  accentuation  seems 
to  operate  less  in  fixing  the  stress  than  any  other.  Our  own 
Saxon  terminations,  indeed,  with  perfect  uniformity,  leave  the 
principal  part  of  the  word  in  quiet  possession  of  what  seems 
its  lawful  property  ; but  Latin  and  Greek  terminations,  of  which 
our  language  is  full,  assume  a right  of  preserving  their  original 
accent,  and  subject  almost  every  word  they  bestow  upon  us  to 
their  own  classical  laws. 

Accent,  therefore,  seems  to  be  regulated,  in  a great  measure, 
by  etymology.  In  words  from  the  Saxon,  the  accent  is 
generally  on  the  root : in  words  from  the  learned  languages, 
it  is  generally  on  the  termination  ; and  if  to  these  we  add  the 


ACCENT. 


237 


different  accent  we  lay  on  some  words,  to  distinguish  them 
from  others,  we  seem  to  have  the  three  great  principles  of 
accentuation ; namely,  the  radical^  the  terminaiional^  and  the 
distinctive.  The  radical : as,  Love,  lovely,  loveliness the 
terminational : as,  Harmony,  harmonious  f ’ the  distinctive : 
as,  Convert,  to  convert.” 

ACCENT  ON  DISSYLLABLES. 

Words  of  two  syllables  have  necessarily  one  of  them  ac- 
cented, and  but  one.  It  is  true,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  we 
sometimes  lay  an  equal  stress  upon  two  successive  syllables : as, 
“ Di-rect,  some-times  but  when  these  words  are  pronounced 
alone,  they  have  never  more  than  one  accent.  The  word 
‘‘  amen,”  is  the  only  word  which  is  pronounced  with  two  ac- 
cents when  alone. 

Of  dissyllables,  formed  by  affixing  a termination,  thft  former 
syllable  is  commonly  accented  : as,  “ Childish,  kingdom,  actest, 
acted,  toilsome,  lover  scoffer,  fairer,  foremost,  zealous,  fulness, 
meekly,  artist.” 

Dissyllables,  formed  by  prefixing  a syllable  to  the  radical 
word,  have  commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter  : as,  To  beseem, 
to  bestow,  to  return.” 

Of  dissyllables,  which  are  at  once  nouns  and  verbs,  the  verb 
has  commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter,  and  the  noun,  on  the 
former  syllable  : as,  To  cement,  a cement ; to  contract,  a con- 
tract : to  presage,  a presage.” 

This  rule  has  many  exceptions.  Though  verbs  seldom 
have  their  accent  on  the  former,  yet  nouns  often  have  it  on 
the  latter  syllable:  as,  “Delight,  perfume.”  Those  nouns 
which  in  the  common  order  of  language,  must  have  preceded 
the  verbs,  often  transmit  their  accent  to  the  verbs  they  form, 
and  inversely.  Thus,  the  noun  “ water,”  must  have  preceded 
the  verb  “ to  water,”  as  the  verb  “ to  correspond,”  must 
have  preceded  the  noun  “ correspondent :”  and  “ to  pursue” 
claims  priority  to  “ pursuit.”  So  that  we  may  conclude,  wher- 
ever verbs  deviate  from  the  rule,  it  is  seldom  by  chance,  and 
generally  in  those  words  only  where  a superior  lav/  of  accent 
takes  place. 

All  dissyllables  ending  in  y,  our^  ow^  Zc,  ish,  ic^  ter^  age^  en^  et 
as,  “ Cranny,  labour,  willow,  wallow  ; (except  “ allow,  avow, 
endow,  below,  bestow  ;)  battle,  banish,  cambric,  batter,  cour- 
age, fasten,  quiet accent  the  former  syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns  in  er : as,  “ Canker,  butter,”  have  the 
accent  on  the  former  syllable. 

Dissylable  verbs,  terminating  in  a consonant  and  e final : as, 
“ Comprise,  escape  ;”  or  having  a dipthong  in  the  last  syllable ; 


238 


PROSODY. 


as,  “ Appease,  reveal or  ending  in  two  consonants ; as, 
Attend  have  the  accent  on  the  latter  syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns,  having  a dipthong  in  the  latter  syllable, 
have  commonly  their  accent  on  the  latter  syllable : as,  Ap- 
plause;” except  some  words  in  ain:  as,  ‘^Villain,  curtain, 
mountain.” 

Dissyllables  that  have  two  vowels,  which  are  separated  in 
the  pronunciation,  have  always  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable  : 
as,  “ Lion,  riot,  quiet,  liar,  ruin except  “ create,” 

ACCENT  ON  TRIS SYLLABLES. 

Trisyllables  formed  by  adding  a termination,  or  prefixing  a 
syllable,  retain  the  accent  of  the  radical  word  : as,  “ Loveli- 
ness, tenderness,  contemner,  wagoner,  phy'sical,  bespatter,  com- 
menting, commending,  assurance.” 

Trissyllables  ending  in  ous^  al,  ion  : as,  “ arduous,  capital,  men- 
tion,” accent  the  first. 

Trissyllables  ending  in  ce,  ent,  and  ate^  accent  the  first  sylla- 
ble : as,  “ Countenance,  continence,  armament,  imminent,  ele- 
gant, propagate  unless  they  are  derived  from  words  having 
the  accent  on  the  last  : as,  “ Connivance,  acquaintance and 
unless  the  middle  syllable  has  a vowel  before  two  consonants  : 
as,  “ Promulgate.” 

Trissyllables  ending  in  y,  as,  entity,  specify,  liberty,  victory, 
subsidy,”  commonly  accent  the  first  syllable. 

Trissyllables  ending  in  re  or  Ze,  accent  the  first,  syllable  : as, 
“ Legible,  theatre  except  “ Deciple,”  and  some  words  which 
have  a preposition  : as,  “Example,  indenture.” 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ude,  commonly  accent  the  first  syllable  : 
as,  “ Plenitude,  habitude,  rectitude.” 

Trysyllables  ending  in  ator,  have  the  accent  on  tne  middle 
syllables : as,  “ Spectator,  creator,”  &c; ; except  “ orator,  sena- 
tor, barrator,  legator.” 

Trisyllables  which  have  in  the  middle  syllable  a dipthong : as, 
“ Endeavour  ;”  or  a vowel  before  two  consonants  ; as,  “ Do- 
mestic ;”  accent  the  middle  syllable. 

Trisyllables  that  have  their  accent  on  the  last  syllable  are 
commonly  French  ; as,  “ Acquiesce,  repartee,  magazine ;”  or 
they  are  words  formed  by  prefixing  one  or  two  syllables  to  a 
long  syllable:  as,  “ Immature,  overcharge.” 

ACCENT  ON  POLYSYLLABLES. 

Polysyllables,  or  words  of  more  than  three  syllables,  gene- 
rally follow  the  accent  of  the  words  from  which  they  are 


QUANTITY. 


239 


derived  : as,  arrogating,  cdntinency,  incontinently,  commen- 
dable, communicableness.”  ^ 

Words  ending  in  ator  have  the  accent  generally  on  the  penul- 
timate, or  last  syllable  but  one : as,  Emendator,  gladiator, 
equivocator,  prevaricator.” 

Words  ending  in  le  commonly  have  the  accent  on  the  first 
syllable  : as  amicable,  despicable  :”  unless  the  second  syllable 
has  a vowel  before  two  consonants : as,  “ combustible,  con- 
demnable.” 

Words  ending  in  ion,  ous,  and  ty,  have  their  accent  on  the 
antepenultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  two : as,  “ Salvation, 
victorious,  activity.” 

Words  which  end  in  ia,  io,  and  cal,  have  the  accent  on  the 
antepenult;  as,  “ Cyclopaedia,  punctilo,  despoticah” 

The  rules  respecting  accent,  are  not  advanced  as  complete  or 
infallible,  but  proposed  as  useful.  Almost  every  rule  of  every 
language  has  its  exceptions  ; and,  in  English,  as  in  other  tongues, 
much  must  be  learned  by  example  and  authority. 

It  may  be  further  observed,  that  though  the  syllable  on  w^hich 
the  principal  accent  is  placed,  is  fixed  and  certain,  yet  we  may, 
and  do,  frequently  make  the  secondary  principal,  and  the  prin- 
cipal secondary  : thus,  Caravan,  complaisant,  violin,  repartee, 
referee,  privateer,  domineer,”  may  all  have  the  greater  stress 
on  the  first,  and  the  less  on  the  last  syllable,  without  any  violent 
offence  to  the  ear : nay,  it  may  be  asserted,  that  the  principal 
accent  on  the  first  syllable  of  these  words,  and  none  at  all  on  the 
last,  though  certainly  improper,  has  nothing  in  it  grating  or  dis- 
cordant ; but  placing  an  accent  on  the  second  syllable  of  these 
words,  would  entirely  derange  them,  and  produce  a great  harsh- 
ness and  dissonance.  The  same  observations  may  be  applied  to 
demonstration,  lamentation,  provocation,  navigator,  propa- 
gator, alligator,”  and  every  similar  word  in  the  language. 


SECTION  II. 

Of  Quantity. 

The  quantity  of  a syllable,  is  that  time  which  is 
occupied  in  pronouncing  it.  It  is  considered  as 

LONG  or  SHORT. 

A vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  accent  is  on 
the  vowel;  which  occasions  it  to  be  slowly  joined  in 
the  pronunciation  with  the  following  letters:  as, 
‘^Fall,  bale,  mood,  house,  feature.” 


240 


PROSODY. 


A syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  con- 
sonant: which  occasions  the  vowel  to  be  quickly 
joined  to  the  succeeding  letter;  as,  ant,  bonnet, 
hunger. 

A long  syllable  generally  requires  double  the  time 
of  a short  one  in  pronouncing  it : thus,  Mate,”  and 
^^Note”  should  be  pronounced  as  slowly  again  as, 
^^Mat”  and  Not.” 

Unaccented  syllables  are  generally  short : as,  ‘‘  admire, 
boldness,  sinner.  But  to  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions ; 
as,  “also,  exile,  gangrene,  umpire,  foretaste,”  &c. 

When  the  accent  is  on  a consonant,  the  syllable  is  often  more 
or  less  short,  as  it  ends  with  a single  consonant,  or  with  more 
than  one  ; as,  “ Sadly,  robber ; persist,  matchless.” 

When  the  accent  is  on  the  semi-vowel,  the  time  of  the  sylla- 
ble may  be  protracted,  by  dwelling  upon  the  semi-vowel  : as, 
“ Cur',  can',  fulfil  but  when  the  accent  falls  on  a mute,  the 
syllable  cannot  be  lengthened  in  the  same  manner  : as,  “ Bubble, 
captain,  totter.” 

The  quantity  of  vowels  has,  in  some  measure,  been  consid- 
ered under  the  first  part  of  grammar,  which  treats  of  the  dif- 
ferent sounds  of  the  letters  ; and  therefore,  we  shall  only  add  a 
few  general  rules  on  the  subject,  and  some  observations  respect- 
ing the  various  degrees  of  length  in  the  time  of  the  vowels. 

1st.  All  vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the  termina- 
tions ia^  to,  and  ion,  preceded  by  a single  consonant,  are  pro- 
nounced long:  as,  ‘‘Regalia,  folio,  adhesion,  explosion,  con- 
fusion :”  except  the  vowel  i,  w hich  in  that  situation  is  short : as, 
“ Militia,  punctilio,  decision,  contrition.”  The  only  exceptions 
to  this  rule  seem  to  be,  “ Discretion,  battalion,  national,  and 
rational.” 

2d.  All  vowels  that  immediately  precede  the  terminations, 
ity,  and  ety,  are  pronocnced  long : as,  “ Deity,  piety,  sponta- 
neity.” But  if  one  consonant  precedes  these  two  terminations, 
every  preceding  accented  vowel  is  short ; except  u,  and  the  a 
in  “ security,”  and  “ rarity:”  as,  “ Polarity,  severity,  divinity, 
curiosity  ; — impunity.”  Even  u before  two  consonants  contracts 
itself : as,  “ Curvity,  taci-urnity,”  &c. 

3.  Vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the  terminations 
ic,  and  ical,  preceded  by  a single  consonant,  are  pronounced 
short  ; thus,  “ Satanic,  pathetic,  elliptic,  harmonic,”  have  the 
vowel  short ; while,  “ Tunic,  runic,  cubic,”  have  the  ac- 
cented vowel  long : and  “ Fannatical,  poetical,  levitical,  canon- 
ical,” have  the  vowel  short ; but  “ Cubical,  musical,”  &c. 
have  the  u long. 


QUANTITY. 


241 


4th,  The  vowel  in  the  antepenultimate  syllable  of  words, 
with  the  following  terminations,  is  always  pronounced  short. 


loquy:  as,  obloquy. 
strophe : as,  apostrophe. 
meter : as,  barometer. 
gonal : as,  diagonal. 
vorous : as,  carnivorous. 
ferous:  as,  somniferous. 
fluous.:  as,  superfluous. 
fluent : as,  melifluent. 


parous : as,  oviparous. 
cracy : as,  aristocracy. 
gony : as,  cosmogony. 
phony:  as,  symphony. 
nomy : as,  astronomy. 
tomy : as,  anatomy. 
pathy : as,  antipathy. 


As  no  utterance  which  is  void  of  proportion,  can  be  agreeable 
to  the  ear ; and  as  quantity,  or  proportion  of  time  in  utterance, 
greatly  depends  on  a due  attention  to  the  accent ; it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  every  person,  who  would  attain  a just  and 
pleasing  delivery,  to  be  master  of  that  point. 


In  this  work,  and  in  the  author’s  Spelling-book,  the  vowels 
e and  o,  in  the  first  syllable  of  such  words  as,  behave,  prejudge, 
domain,  purpose ; and  in  the  second  syllable  of  such  as,  pulley, 
turkey,  borrow,  follow  ; are  considered  as  long  vowels.  The 
second  syllables  in  such  words  as,  baby,  spicy,  holy,  fury,  are 
also  considered  as  long  syllables.  This  arrangement  is  founded 
on  the  general  practice  of  good  speakers ; and  is  supported  by 
the  authority  of  the  judicious  Walker,  author  of  The  Critical 
Pronouncing  Dictionary who  has  uniformly,  throughout  his 
celebrated  work,  assigned  to  the  vowels  e and  o a long  sound, 
in  the  syllables  just  mentioned,  and  in  all  others  of  a similar 
nature.  It  might  reasonably  have  been  supposed,  that  the  very 
general  approbation,  which  this  performance  of  Walker  has  re- 
ceived from  the  public,  would  have  settled  the  pronunciation  of 
the  vowels  and  syllables  in  question.  But  there  are  some  crit- 
ical writers,  who  dispute  the  propriety  of  his  arrangement ; and 
assert,  that  the  vowels  e and  o,  in  the  construction  mentioned, 
are  short  vowels,  and  that  the  syllables  which  contain  them,  are 
consequently,  short  syllables.  These  WTiters  seem  to  think, 
that  all  long  syllables  are  equally  long ; that  there  are  no  de- 
grees in  the  length  of  them.  In  this  supposition,  they  are, 
however,  evidentl}^  mistaken.  It  will  doubtless  be  admitted, 
that  the  Second  syllable  of  the  word  degree^  is  longer  than  the 
second  of  the  word  coffee ; and  that  the  latter  syllables  of  both 
these  words  are  long.  In  the  words  scarecrow,  wherefore,  both 
the  syllables  are  unquestionably  long,  but  not  of  equal  length. 
We  presume,  therefore,  that  the  syllables  under  consideration, 
may  also  be  properly  styled  long  syllables,  though  their  length 
VoL.  I.  33 


242 


PROSODY. 


is  not  equal  to  that  of  some  others : or,  at  least,  that  there  can 
be  no  objection  to  a syllable’s  being  long,  on  the  ground  of  its 
not  being  so  long,  or  so  much  protracted,  as  some  other  long 
syllables  are. 

Will  the  opponents  of  the  positions  for  which  we  contend, 
assert,  that  the  syllables  referred  to,  in  behave,  domain,  pulley, 
borrow,  holy,  fury,  &c.  are  short  syllables  ? If  they  are  sucli, 
the  words  must  be  pronounced,  beh  ave,  dom  ain,  pul  leh, 
bor  roh,  ho  lih,  fu  rih,  &c.  There  are  no  other  sounds  to  denote 
e and  o short.  But  it  is  manifest  that  e and  o short,  cannot  be 
the  true  sounds  of  the  vowels  in  these  words : and  that,  there- 
fore, they  must  have  the  less  protracted  sounds  of  e and  o long. 
— It  will  not,  however,  follow^  (as  the  critics  insist,)  that,  on 
our  principles,  the  words  should  be  pronounced  bee-have  do-o- 
main,  pul-lee,  ho-lee,  fu-ree,  &c.  protracting  or  drawling  out 
the  syllable,  to  a considerable  extent.  To  do  so,  would  be  to 
accent  both  the  syllables.  If  the  accent  is  fairly  preserved  on 
the  proper  syllable,  this  drawling  sound  will  never  be  heard : 
the  sound  of  e and  o long,  in  their  due  degrees,  will  be  pre- 
served, and  clearly  distinguished.  In  the  words  methinks^  me- 
thought,  who  would  pronounce  the  first  syllable  mee  ? And  who 
would  assert,  that  it  ought  to  be  pronounced  short,  like  e in 
met  ? But  we  have,  perhaps,  dwelt  too  long  on  this  subject ; 
and  bestowed  too  much  attention,  in  controverting  a point, 
which  appears  to  be  so  little  capable  of  defence;  and  against 
which  the  authority  of  Walker,  and  public  opinion,  are  so  ex- 
press and  decisive. 

SECTION  in. 

Of  Emphasis, 

By  emphasis  is  meant  a stronger  and  fuller  sound 
of  voice,  by  which  we  distinguish  some  word  or 
words  on  which  we  design  to  lay  particular  stress, 
and  to  show  how  they  affect  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 
Sometimes  the  emphatic  words  must  be  distinguished 
by  a particular  tone  of  voice,  as  well  as  by  a greater 
stress. 

On  the  right  management  of  the  emphasis  depends  the  life  of 
pronunciation.  If  no  emphasis  be  placed  on  any  words,  not 
only  will  discourse  be  rendered  heavy  and  lifeless,  but  the  mean- 
ing often  left  ambiguous.  If  the  emphasis  be  placed  wrong,  we 
shall  pervert  and  confound  the  meaning  wholly. 

To  give  a common  instance':  such  a simple  question  as  this, 
‘‘  Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?”  is  capable  of  no  fewer  than 
four  different  acceptations,  according  as  the  emphasis  is  differ- 
ently placed  on  the  words. 


EMPHASIS. 


243 


If  it  be  pronounced  thus : “ Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ? ” 
the  answer  may  naturally  be,  “ No,  we  send  a servant  in  our 
stead.” 

If  thus  : Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ? ” answer,  “ No,  we 
intend  to  walk. 

“ Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ? ” “ No,  we  ride  into  the 

country.” 

Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ? ” “ No,  but  w^e  shall  to- 

morrow.” 

In  like  manner,  in  solemn  discourse,  the  whole  force  and 
beauty  of  an  expression  often  depend  on  the  emphatic  word  ; 
and  we  may  present  to  the  hearers  quite  different  views  of  the 
sentiment,  by  placing  the  emphasis  differently.  In  the  follow- 
ing words  of  our  Saviour,  observe  in  what  different  lights  the 
thought  is  placed,  according  as  the  words  are  pronounced. 

‘‘Judas,  betrayest  thou  the  Son  of  man  with  a kiss?” 
trayest  thou,”  makes  the  reproach  turn  on  the  infamy  of 
treachery.  “ Betrayest  thou^\  makes  it  rest  upon  Judas’s  con- 
nexion with  his  master.  “ Betrayest  thou  the  Son  of  manf 
rests  it  upon  our  Saviour’s  personal  character  and  eminence. 
“ Betrayest  thou  the  Son  of  man  with  a kiss  1 ” turns  it  upon  his 
prostituting  the  signal  of  peace  and  friendship,  to  the  purpose  of 
destruction. 

The  emphasis  often  lies  on  the  word  that  asks  a question  ; 
as,  “ Who  said  so  ?”  “ When  will  he  come  ?”  “ What  shall  I 
do?”  ‘^Whither  shall  I go?”  “ fTAy  dost  thou  weep?”  And 
when  two  words  are  set  in  contrast,  or  in  opposition  to  one 
another,  they  are  both  emphatic : as,  “ He  is  the  tyrant^  not  the 
father  of  his  people “ His  subjects  fear  him  but  they  do  not 
love  him.” 

Some  sentences  are  so  full  and  comprehensive,  that  almost 
every  word  is  emphatical : as,  ‘‘  Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers, 
woods,  and  plains : ” or,  as  that  emphatic  expostulation  in  the 
prophecy  of  Ezekiel,  “ Why  will  ye  die  ! ” In  the  latter  short 
sentence,  every  word  is  emphatical ; and  on  whichever  word 
we  lay  the  emphasis,  whether  on  the  first,  second,  third,  or 
fourth,  it  strikes  out  a different  sense,  and  opens  a new  subject 
of  moving  expostulation. 

Emphasis  often  falls  not  only  on  single  words,  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  sentence,  but  it  is  frequently  required  to  be 
continued,  with  a little  variation,  on  two,  and  sometimes 
more  words  together.  The  following  sentences  exemplify 
both  the  parts  of  this  position : “ If  you  seek  to  make  one 

rich,,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires^^ 
“The  Mexican  figures,  or  picture-writing,  represent  things^ 
not  words : they  exhibit  images  to  the  eye,  not  ideas  to  the  un- 
derstanding. 


244 


PROSODY. 


As  accent  dignifies  the  syllable  on  which  it  is  laid,  and 
makes  it  more  distinguished  by  the  ear  than  the  rest ; so  em- 
phasis ennobles  the  word  to  which  it  belongs,  and  presents  it 
in  a stronger  light  to  the  understanding.  Were  there  no  ac- 
cents, words  would  be  resolved  into  their  original  syllables* ; 
were  there  no  emphasis,^  sentences  would  be  resolved  into  their 
original  words  ; and,  in  this  case,  the  hearer  would  be  under 
the  painful  necessity  first,  of  making  out  the  words,  and  after- 
ward, their  meaning. 

Empahsis  has  been  variously  divded  by  different  writers. 
We  shall  present  the  student  with  a view  of  some  of  these  ar- 
rangements ; from  which  he  will  probably  derive  clearer  and 
more  comprehensive  ideas  of  the  subject. 

Emphasis  is  said,  by  some  of  them  to  consist  of  two  kinds, 
the  simple,  and  the  complex  emphasis.  Simple,  when  it  serves 
to  point  out  only  the  plain  meaning  of  any  proposition  : com- 
plex, when,  besides  the  meaning,  it  marks  also  some  affection 
or  emotion  of  the  mind;  or  gives  a meaning  to  words,  which 
they  would  not  have  in  their  usual  acceptation.  In  the  former 
case,  emphasis  is  scarcely  more  than  a stronger  accent,  with  lit- 
tle or  no  change  of  tone ; when  it  is  complex,  besides  force, 
there  is  always  superadded  a manifest  change  of  tone. 

The  following  sentence  contains  an  example. of  simple  em- 
phasis ; 

And  Nathan  said  to  David,  “ Thou  aii;  the  man.”  The 
emphasis  on  thou,  serves  only  to  point  out  the  meaning  of  the 
speaker.  But  in  the  sentence  which  follows,  we  perceive  an 
emotion  of  the  speaker  superadded  to  the  simple  meaning : 
‘‘Why  will  ye  die?” 

Emphasis  has  been  further  distinguished  into  the  weaker 
and  stronger  emphasis.  In  the  sentence,  “Exercise  and  tem- 
perance strengthen  the  constitution  we  perceive  more  force 
on  the  word  strengthen,  than  on  any  other ; though  it  is  not 
equal  to  the  stress  which  we  apply  to  the  word  indifferent,  in 
the  following  sentence  : “ Exercise  and  temperance  strength- 
en even  an  indifferent  constitution.”  It  is  also  proper  to  re- 
mark, that  the  words  exercise,  temperance,  constiution,  in  the 
last  example  but  one,  are  pronounced  with  greater  force, 
than  the  particles  and  and  the ; and  yet  those  words  cannot 
properly  be  called  emphatical : for  the  stress  that  is  laid  on 
them  is  no  more  than  sufficient  to  convey  distinctly  the  mean- 
ing of  each  word. — From  these  observations  it  appears,  that 
the  smaller  parts  of  speech,  namely  articles,  conjunctions, 
prepositions,  &c.  are,  in  general,  obscurely  and  feebly  ex- 
pressed ; that  the  substantives,  verbs,  and  more  significant 
words,  are  firmly  and  distinctly  pronounced  ; and  that  the 
emphatical  words,  those  which  mark  the  meaning  of  a phrase, 


EMPHASIS. 


245 


are  pronounced  with  peculiar  stress  and  energy^  though  varied 
according  to  the  degree  of  their  importance. 

Emphasis  has  also  been  divided  into  the  superior  and  the 
INFERIOR  emphasis.  The  superior  emphasis  determines  the 
meaning  of  a sentence,  with  reference  to  something  said  before, 
presupposed  by  the  author  as  general  knowledge ; or  removes 
an  ambiguity,  where  a passage  may  have  more  senses  than  one. 
The  inferior  emphasis  enforces,  graces,  and  enlivens,  but  does 
not  fix  the  meaning  of  any  passage.  The  words  to  which  this 
latter  emphasis  is  given,  are,  in  general,  such  as  seem  the  most 
important  in  the  sentence,  or,  on  other  accounts,  to  merit  this 
distinction.  The  following  passage  will  serve  to  exemplify  the 
superior  emphasis. 

“ Of  man’s  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  wo,  &c. 

Sing  heav’nly  Muse  !” 

Supposing  that  originally  other  beings  besides  men,  had 
disobeyed  the  commands  of  the  Almighty,  and  that  the  circum- 
stance were  well  known  to  us,  there  would  fall  an  emphasis 
upon  the  word  man^s  in  the  first  line ; and  hence  it  would  be 
read  thus : 

Of  man’s  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit  &c. 

But  if  it  were  a notorious  truth,  that  mankind  had  trans- 
gressed in  a peculiar  manner  more  than  once,  the  emphasis 
would  fall  on  first ; and  the  line  be  read ; 

Of  man’s  first  disobedience,”  &c. 

Again,  admitting  death  (as  was  really  the  case)  to  have  been 
an  unheard-of  and  dreadful  punishment,  brought  upon  man  in 
consequence  of  his  transgression ; on  that  supposition  the  third 
line  would  be  read ; 

‘‘  Brought  death  into  the  world,”  &c. 

But  if  we  were  to  suppose,  that  mankind  knew  there  was 
such  an  evil  as  death  in  other  regions,  though  the  place  they 
inhabited  had  been  free  from  it  till  their  transgression,  the  line 
would  run  thus : 

Brought  death  into  the  ivorld.”  &c. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  nature  and  use  of  the 
inferior  emphasis ; 

“ Many  persons  mistake  the  love,  for  the  practice  of  virtue.” 

“ Shall  I reward  his  services  with  falsehood  ? Shall  I forget 
him  who  cannot  forget  me 

“ If  his  principles  are  false,  no  apology  from  himself  can 
make  them  right : if  founded  in  truth,  no  censure  from  others 
can  make  them  wrong. 


246 


PROSODY. 


” “ Though  deep  yet  clear ; though  gentle^  yet  not  dull; 

Strong,  without  rage  ; without  overflowing,  fulU^ 

‘‘  A friend  exaggerates  a man’s  virtues;  an  enemy,  his  crimes^ 

“ The  wise  man  is  happy,  when  he  gains  his  own  approbation  ; 
ihQ  fool,  when  he  gains  that  of  others 

The  superior  emphasis,  in  reading  as  in  speaking,  must  be 
determined  entirely  by  the  sense  of  the  passage,  and  always 
niade  alike:  but  as  to  the  inferior  emphasis,  taste  alone  seems 
to  have  the  right  of  fixing  its  situation  and  quantity. 

Among  the  number  of  persons,  who  have  had  proper  oppor- 
tunities of  learning  to  read,  in  the  best  rnanner  it  is  now  taught, 
very  few  could  be  selected,  who,  in  a. given  instance,  would  use 
the  inferior  emphasis  alike,  either  as  to  place  or  quantity.  Some 
persons,  indeed,  use  scarcely  any  degree  of  it : and  others  do 
not  scruple  to  carry  it  far  beyond  any  thing  to  be  found  in 
common  discourse ; and  even  sometimes  throw  it  upon  words 
so  very  trifling  in  themselves,  that  it  is  evidently  done  with  no 
other  view,  than  to  give  a greater  variety  to  the  modulation.* 
Notwithstanding  this  diversity  of  practice,  there  are  certainly 
proper  boundaries,  within  which  this  emphasis  must  be  re- 
strained, in  order  to  make  it  meet  the  approbation  of  sound 
judgment  and  correct  taste.  It  will  doubtless  have  different 
degrees  of  exertion,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  degree  of 
importance  of  the  words  upon  which  it  operates ; and  there 
may  be  very  properly  some  variety  in  the  use  of  it : but  its 
application  is  not  arbitrary,  depending  on  the  caprice  of  readers. 

Emphasis,  besides  its  other  offices,  is  the  great  regulator  of 
quantity.  Though  the  quantity  of  our  syllables  is  fixed,  in 
words  separately  pronounced,  yet  it  is  mutable,  when  these 
words  are  ranged  in  sentences ; the  long  being  changed  into 
short,  the  short  into  long,  according  to  the  importance  of  the 
words  with  regard  to  meaning : and  as  it  is  by  emphasis  only, 
that  the  meaning  can  be  pointed  out,  emphasis  must  be  the 
regulator  of  the  quantity.  A few  examples  will  make  this  point 
very  evident. 

Pleas’d  thou  shalt  hear — and  learn  the  secret  power,  &c. 
Pleas’d  thou  shalt  hear — and  thou  alone  shalt  hear — 

Pleas’d  thou  shalt  hear — in  spite  of  them  shalt  hear — 

Pleas’d  thou  shalt  hear — though  not  behold  the  fair — 

In  the  first  of  these  instances,  the  words  pleased  and  hear, 
being  equally  emphatical,  are  both  long ; whilst  the  two  in- 


By  modulation  is  meant  that  pleasing  variety  of  voice,  which  is  perceived  in  uttering  a sen- 
tence, and  which,  in  its  nature,  is  perfectly  distinct  from  emphasis,  and  the  tones  of  emotion  and 
passion.  The  young  reader  should  be  very  careful  to  render  his  modulation  correct  and  easyj 
and,  for  this  purpose,  should  form  it  upon  the  model  of  the  most  judicious  and  accurate  speakers. 


EMPHASIS. 


247 


termediate  words,  thou  and  shalt,  being  rapidly  passed  over,  as 
the  sense  demands,  are  reduced  to  a short  quantity. 

In  the  second  instance,  the  word  thoii,  by  being  the  most 
important,  obtains  the  chief,  or  rather  the  sole  emphasis  ; and 
thus,  it  is  not  only  restored  to  its  natural  long  quantity,  but 
obtains  from  emphasis  a still  greater  degree  of  length,  than 
when  pronounced  in  its  separate  state.  The  greater  degree  of 
length,  is  compensated  by  the  diminution  of  quantity  in  the 
words  pleased  and  hear,  which  are  sounded  shorter  than  in  the 
preceding  instance.  The  word  shalt  still  continues  short. 
Here  we  may  also  observe,  that  though  thou  is  long  in  the  first 
part  of  the  verse,  it  becomes  short  when  repeated  in  the  second, 
on  account  of  the  more  forcible  emphasis  belonging  to  the 
word  alone,  which  follows  it.^ 

In  the  third  instance,  the  word  shalt,  having  the  empahsis, 
obtains  a long  quantity.  And  though  it  is  impossible  to  prolong 
the  sound  of  this  word,  as  it  ends  in  a pure  mute,  yet  in  this,  as 
in  all  similar  instances,  the  additional  quantity  is  to  be  made 
out  by  a rest  of  the  voice,  proportioned  to  the  importance  of 
the  word.  In  this  instance,  we  may  also  observe,  that  the  word 
shalt,  repeated  in  the  second  part  of  the  line,  is  reduced  again 
to  a short  quantity. 

In  the  fourth  instance,  the  word  hear,  placed  in  opposition 
to  the  word  hehhld,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  line,  obtains  from 
the  sense  the  chief  emphasis,  and  a proportionate  length.  The 
words  thou  and  shalt,  are  ^ again  reduced  to  short  quantities ; 
and  the  word  pleas'd  lends  some  of  the  time  which  it  possessed, 
to  the  important  word  hear. 

From  these  instances,  it  is  evident,  that  the  quantity  of  our 
syllables  is  not  fixed;  but  governed  by  emphasis.— To  observe 
a due  measurement  of  time,  on  all  occasions,  is  doubtless,  very 
difficult : but  by  instruction,  attention,  and  practice,  the  diffi- 
culty may  be  overcome. 

Emphasis  changes,  not  only  the  quantity  of  words  and  sylla- 
bles, but  also  in  particular  cases,  the  seat  of  the  accent.  This 
is  demonstrable  from  the  following  examples  : He  shall  m- 
crease,  but  I shall  cZ^crease.”  “There  is  a difference  between 
giving  and  forgwmg.^^  “ In  this  species  of  composition,  plausi- 
bility  is  much  more  essential  than  j^r^bability.”  In  these  ex- 
amples, the  emphasis  requires  the  accent  to  be  placed  on  sylla- 
bles, to  which  it  does  hot  commonly  belong. 

In  order  to  acquire  the  proper  management  of  the  empha- 
sis, the  great  rule,  and  indeed  the  only  rule,  possible  to  be 
given,  is,  that  the  speaker  or  reader  study  to  attain  a just 
conception  of  the  force  and  spirit  of  the  sentiments  which  he 
is  to  pronounce.  For  to  lay  the  emphasis  with  exact  pro- 
priety, is  a constant  exercise  of  good  sense  and  attention.  It 


248 


PROSODY. 


is  far  from  being  an  inconsiderable  attainment.  It  is  one  of 
the  greatest  trials  of  a true  and  just  taste  : and  must  arise  from 
feeling  delicately  ourselves,  and  from  judging  accurately,  of 
what  is  fittest  to  strike  the  feelings  of  others. 

There  is  one  error,  against  which  it  is  particularly  proper  to 
caution  the  learner ; namely,  tjiat  of  multiplying  emphatical 
w^ords  too  much.  It  is  only  by  a prudent  reserve  in  the  use  of 
them,  that  we  can  give  them  any  w^eight.  If  they  recur  too 
often ; if  a speaker  or  reader  attempts  to  render  every  thing 
which  he  expresses  of  high  importance,  by  a multitude  of 
strong  emphases,  we  soon  learn  to  pay  little  regard  to  them. 
To  crowd  every  sentence  with  emphatical  words,  is  like  crowd- 
ing all  the  pages  of  a book  with  Italic  characters,  which,  as  to 
effect,  is  just  the  same  as  to  use  no  such  distinctions  at  all, 

SECTION  IV. 

Of  Pauses. 

Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are  a 
total  cessation  of  the  voice  during  a perceptible, 
and,  in  many  cases,  measurable  space  of  time. 

Pauses  are  equally  necessary  to  the  speaker,  and  the  hearer. 
To  the  speaker,  that  he  may  take  breath,  without  w^hich  he 
cannot  proceed  far  in  delivery  ;•  and  that  he  may,  by  these 
temporary  rests,  relieve  the  organs  of  speech,  which  otherwise 
would  be  soon  tired  by  continued  action  : to  the  hearer,  that 
the  ear  also  may  be  relieved  from  the  fatigue,  which  it  would 
otherwise  endure  from  a continuity  of  sound  ; and  that  the 
understanding  may  have  sufficient  time  to  mark  the  distinction 
of  sentences,  and  their  several  members. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pauses : first,  emphatical  pauses ; 
and  next,  such  as  mark  the  distinctions  of  the  sense.  An  em- 
phatical pause  is  made,  after  something  has  been  said  of  peculiar 
moment,  and  on  which  we  desire  to  fix  the  hearer’s  attention. 
Sometimes  before  such  a thing  is  said,  w^e  usher  it  in  with  a 
pause  of  this  nature.  Such  pauses  have  the  same  effect  as  a 
strong  emphasis ; and  are  subject  to  the  same  rule^ ; especially 
to  the  caution  just  now  given,  of  not  repeating  them  too  fre- 
quently. For  as  they  excite  uncommon  attention,  and  of  course 
raise  expectation,  if  the  importance  of  the  matter  is  not  fully 
answerable  to  such  expectation,  they  occasion  disappointment 
and  disgust. 

But  the  most  frequent  and  the  principal  use  of  pauses,  is,  to 
mark  the  divisions  of  the  sense,  and  at  the  same  to  allow 


PAUSES, 


249 


the  speaker  Iq  draw  his  breath  ; and  the  proper  and  delicate 
adjustment  of  su<?.h  pauses,  is  one  of  the  most  nice  and  difficult 
articles  of  delivery.  In  all  reading,  and  public  speaking,  the 
management  of  the  breath  requires  a good  deal  of  care,  so  as 
not  to  oblige  us  to  divide  words  from  one  another,  which 
have  so  Intimate  a connexion,  that  they  ought  to  be  pro- 
nounced with  the  same  breath,  and  without  the  least  separa- 
tion. Many  sentences  are  miserably  mangled,  and  the  force 
of  the  emphasis  totally  lost,  by  the  divisions  being  made  in  the 
. wrong  place.  To  avoid  this,  every  one,  while  he  is  speaking, 
or  reading,  should  be  very  careful  to  provide  a full  supply  of 
breath  for  what  he  is  to  utter.  It  is  a great  mistake  to  imagine, 
that  the  breath  must  be  drawn  only  at  the  end  of  a period, 
when  the  voice  is  allowed  to  fall.  It  may  easily  be  gathered 
at  the  intervals  of  the  period,  when  the  voice  is  only  suspended 
for  a moment ; and,  by  this  management,  one  may  always  have 
a sufficient  stock  for  carrying  on  the  longest  sentence,  without 
improper  interruptions. 

Pauses  in  reading  and  public  discourse  must  be  formed 
upon  the  manner  in  which  we  utter  ourselves  in  ordinary, 
sensible  conversation ; and  not  upon  the  stiff  artificial  manner 
which  we  acquire,  from  reading  books  according  to  the  com- 
mon punctuation.  It  will  by  no  means  be  sufficient  to  attend  to 
the  points  used  in  printing ; for  these  are  far  from  marking  all 
the  pauses  which  ought  to  be  made  in  speaking.  A mechanical 
attention  to  these  resting-places,  has  perhaps  been  one  cause  of 
monotony,  by  leading  the  reader  to  a similar  tone  at  every  stop, 
and  a uniform  cadence  at  every  period.  The  primary  use  of 
points  is,  to  assist  the  reader  in  discerning  the  grammatical  con- 
struction ; and  it  is  only  as  a secondary  object,  that  they  regu- 
late his  pronunciation. 

To  render  pauses  pleasing  and  expressive,  they  must  not 
only  be  made  in  the  right  place,  but  also  accompanied  with  a 
proper  tone  of  voice,  by  which  the  nature  of  these  pauses  is 
intimated  : much  more  than  by  the  length  of  them,  which  can 
seldom  be  exactly  measured.  Sometimes  it  is  only  a slight 
and  simple  suspension  of  voice  that  is  proper ; sometimes  a 
degree  of  cadence  in  the  voice  is  required  ; and  sometimes 
that  peculiar  tone  and  cadence  which  denote  the  sentence 
to  be  finished.  In  all  these  cases,  we  are  to  regulate  our- 
selves, by  attending  to  the  manner  in  which  nature  teaches  us 
to  speak,  when  engaged  in  real  and  earnest  discourse  with 
others. 

It  is  a general  rule,  that  the  suspending  pause  should  be 
used  when  the  sense  is  incomplete  ; and  the  closing  pause 
when  it  is  finished.  But  there  are  phrases,  in  which,  though 
VoL.  I.  34 


250 


PROSODY. 


the  sense  is  not  completed,  the  voice  takes  the  c/osing,  rather 
than  the  suspending  pause ; and  others,  in  \v/iich  the  sentence 
finishes  by  the  pause  of  suspension. 

The  closing  pause  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  fall  of 
the  voice,  or  cadence^  with  which  many  readers  uniformly  finish 
a sentence.  Nothing  is  more  destructive  of  propriety  and 
energy  than  this  habit.  The  tones  and  inflections  of  the\oice 
at  the  close  of  a sentence,  ought  to  be  diversified,  according  to 
the  general  nature  of  the  discourse,  and  the  particular  con- 
struction and  meaning  of  the  sentence.  In  plain  narrative, 
and  especially  in  argumentation,  a small  attention  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  we  relate  a fact,  or  maintain  an  argument  in 
conversation,  will  show,  that  it  is  frequently  more  proper  to 
raise  the  voice,  than  to  let  it  fall,  at  the  end  of  a sentence. 
Some  sentences  are  so  constructed,  that  the  last  words  require 
a stronger  emphasis  than  any  of  the  preceding ; while  others 
admit  of  being  closed  with  a soft  and  gentle  sound.  Where 
there  is  nothing  in  the  sense  which  requires  the  last  sound  to 
be  elevated  or  emphatical,  an  easy  fall,  sufficient  to  show  that 
the  sense  is  finished,  will  be  proper.  And  in  pathetic  pieces, 
especially  those  of  the  plaintive,  tender,  or  solemn  kind,  the 
tone  of  the  passion  will  often  require  a still  greater  cadence  of 
the  voice.  The  best  method  of  correcting  a uniform  cadence, 
is  frequently  to  read  select  sentences^  in  which  the  style  is 
pointed,  and  in  which  antitheses  are  frequently  introduced  ; and 
argumentative  pieces,  or  such  as  abound  with  interrogatives,  or 
earnest  exclamation. 


' SECTION  V. 

Of  Tones, 

“ Tones  are  different  both  from  emphasis  and 
pauses;  consisting  in  the  modulation  of  the  voice, 
the  notes  or  variations  of  sound  which  we  employ, 
in  the  expression  of  our  sentiments. 

Emphasis  affects  particular  words  and  phrases,  with  a de- 
gree of  tone  or  inflection  of  the  voice  ; but  tones,  peculiarly  so 
called,  affect  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  sometimes  even  the 
whole  of  a discourse. 

To  show  the  use  and  necessity  of  tones,  we  need  only  ob- 
serve, that  the  mind  in  communicating  its  ideas,  is  in  a con- 
tinual state  of  activity,  emotion.  Or  agitation,  from  the  different 
effects  which  those  ideas  produce  in  the  speaker.  Now  the 


TONES. 


251 


end  of  such  communication  being,  not  merely  to  lay  open 
the  ideas,  but  also  the  different  feelings  which  they  excite  in  him 
who  utters  them,  there  must  be  other  signs  than  words,  to 
manifest  those  feelings  ; as  words  uttered  in  a monotonous 
manner,  can  represent  only  a similar  state  of  mind,  perfectly 
free  from  all  activity  or  emotion.  As  the  communication  of 
these  internal  feelings,  was  of  much  more  consequence  in  our 
social  intercourse,  than  the  mere  conveyance  of  ideas,  the 
Author  of  our  being  did  not,  as  in  that  conveyance,  leave  the 
invention  of  the  language  of  emotion  to  man  ; but  impressed 
it  himself  upon  our  nature,  in  the  same  manner  as  he  has 
done  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the  animal  world  ; all  of  which 
express  their  various  feelings,  by  various  tones.  Ours,  indeed, 
from  the  superior  rank  that  we  hold,  are  in  a high  degree 
more  comprehensive ; as  there  is  not  an  act  of  the  mind, 
an  exertion  of  the  fancy,  or  an  emotion  of  the  heart,  which 
has  not  its  peculiar  tone,  or  note  of  the  voice,  by  which  it  is 
to  be  expressed ; and  which  is  suited  exactly  to  the  degree 
of  internal  feeling.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  proper  use  of  these 
tones,  that  the  life,  spirit,  beauty,  and  harmony  of  delivery 
consist. 

An  extract  from  the  beautiful  lamentation  of  David  over  Saul 
and  Jonathan,  may  serve  as  an  example  of  what  has  been 
said  on  this  subject. — “ The  beauty  of  Israel  is  slain  upon 
thy  high  places.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  ! Tell  it  not- in 
Gath ; publish  it  not  in  the  streets  of  Askelon  ; lest  the 
daughters  of  the  Philistines  rejoice  ; lest  the  daughters  of 
the  uncircumcised  triumph.  Ye  mountains  of  Gilboa,  let  there 
be  no  dew,  nor  rain  upon  you,  nor  fields  of  offerings  : for  there 
the  shield  of  the  mighty  was  vilely  cast  away  ; the  shield 
of  Saul,  as  though  he  had  not  been  anointed  with  oil  !”  The 
first  of  these  divisions  expresses  sorrow  and  lamentation ; 
therefore  the  note  is  low.  The  next  contains  a spirited  com- 
mand, and  should  be  pronounced  much  higher.  The  other 
sentence,  in  which  he  makes  a pathetic  address  to  the  moun- 
tains w^here  his  friends  were  slain,  must  be  expressed  in  a 
note  quite  different  from  the  tw^o  former  ; not  so  low  as  the 
first,  nor  so  high  as  the  second,  in  a manly,  firm,  and  yet 
plaintive  tone.* 

This  correct  and  natural  language  of  the  emotions,  is  not 
so  difficult  to  be  attained,  as  most  readers  seem  to  imagine. 
If  we  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  author’s  sentiments,  as  well 


* Herries. 


252 


PROSODY. 


as  into  the  meaning  of  his  words,  we  shall  not  fail  to  deliver  the 
words  in  properly  varied  tones.  For  there  are  few  people  who 
speak  English  without  a provincial  tone,  that  have  not  an  accu- 
rate use  of  emphasis,  pauses,  and  tones,  when  they  utter  their 
sentiments  in  earnest  discourse  ; and  the  reason  that  they 
have  not  the  same  use  of  them,  in  reading  aloud  the  senti- 
ments of  others,  may  be  traced  to  the  very  defective  and  erro- 
neous method  in  which  the  art  of  reading  is  taught ; whereby 
all  the  various,  natural  expressive  tones  of  speech,  are  suppressed, 
and  a few  artificial,  unmeaning,  reading  notes,  are  substituted 
for  them. 

But  when  we  recommend  to  readers,  an  attention  to  the  tone 
and  language  of  emotions,  we  must  be  understood  to  do  it  with 
proper  limitation.  Moderation  is  necessary  in  this  point,  as  it  is 
in  other  things.  For  when  reading  becomes  strictly  imitative, 
it  assumes  a theatrical  manner,  and  must  be  highly  improper, 
as  well  as  give  offence  to  the  hearers  ; because  it  is  inconsistent 
with  that  delicacy  and  modesty,  which,  on  all  occasions,  are 
indispensable. 

CHAPTER  II. 

OP  VERSIFICATION. 

As  there  are  few  persons  who  do  not  sometimes  read  poet- 
ical composition,  it  seems  necessary  to  give  the  student  some 
idea  of  that  part  of  grammar,  which  explains  the  principles  of 
versification  ; that,  in  reading  poetry,  he  may  be  the  better 
able  to  judge  of  its  correctness,  and  relish  its  beauties.  When 
this  lively  mode  of  exhibiting  nature  and  sentiment,  is  per- 
fectly chaste,  it  is  often  found  to  be  highly  interesting  and  in- 
structive. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a certain 
number  and  variety  of  syllables,  according  to  certain 
laws. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound  of 
one  verse,  to  the  last  sound  or  syllable  of  another. 

Feet  and  pauses  are  the  constituent  parts  of  verse.  We  shall 
consider  these  separately. 

OF  POETICAL  FEET. 

A certain  number  of  syllables  connected,  form  a foot. 
They  are  called  feet,  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the  voice, 
as  it  were,  steps  along  through  the  verse  in  a measured  pace : 


VERSIFICATION. 


253 


and  it  is  necessary  that  the  syllables  which  mark  this  regular 
movement  of  the  voice,  should,  in  some  manner,  be  distinguished 
from  the  others.  This  distinction  was  made  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  by  dividing  their  syllables  into  long  and  short,  and 
ascertaining  their  quantity,  by  an  exact  proportion  of  time  in 
sounding  them ; the  long  being  to  the  short,  as  two  to  one  ; and 
the  long  syllables,  being  thus  the  more  important,  marked  the 
movement.  In  English,  syllables  are  divided  into  accented  and 
unaccented  ; and  the  accented  syllables  being  as  strongly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  unaccented,  by  the  peculiar  stress  of  the 
voice  upon  them,  are  equally  capable  of  marking  the  movement, 
and  pointing  out  the  regular  paces  of  the  voice,  as  the  long  syl- 
lables were  by  their  quantity,  among  the  Romans. 

When  the  feet  are  formed  by  an  accent  on  vowels,  they  are 
exactly  of  the  same  nature  as  the  ancient  feet,  and  have  the 
same  just  quantity  in  their  syllables.  So  that,  in  this  respect, 
we  have  all  that  the  ancients  had,  and  something  which  they 
had  not.  We  have  in  fact  duplicates  of  each  foot,  yet  with 
such  a difference,  as  to  fit  them  for  different  purposes,  to  be 
applied  at  our  pleasure. 

Every  foot  has,  from  nature,  powers  peculiar  to  itself ; and 
it  is  upon  the  knowledge  and  right  application  of  these  powers, 
that  the  pleasure  and  effect  of  numbers  chiefly  depend. 

All  feet  used  in  poetry  consist  either  of  two,  or  of  three  sylla- 
bles ; and  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds ; four  of  two  syllables, 
and  four  of  three,  as  follows : 


DISSYLLABLE. 

A Trochee  - ^ 
An  Iambus  yj  - 
A Spondee  — 
A Pyrrhic  u o 


TRISYLLABLE. 

A Dactyl  - w w 
An  Amphibrach  u - w 
An  Anapaest  u - 
A Tribrach  w o 


A Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last  unac- 
cented : as,  “ Hateful,  pettish.” 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  last 
accented : as,  “ Betray,  consist.” 

A Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented : as, 
‘‘  The  pale  moon.” 

^A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented : as, 
‘‘  On  the  tall  tree.” 

A Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  latter 
unaccented : as,  ‘‘  Labourer,  possible.” 


I 


PROSODY. 


254 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unaccented  ; 
and  the  middle  one  accented  : as,  Delightful,  domestic.’^ 

An  Anapaest  has  the  first  two  syllables  unaccented,  and  the 
last  accented  : as,  Contravene,  acquiesce.” 

A Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented : as,  Numerable, 
conquerable.” 

Some  of  these  feet  may  be  denominated  principal  feet ; as 
pieces  of  poetry  may  be  wholly,  or  chiefly  formed  of  any  of 
them.  Such  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee,  Dactyl,  and  Anapaest. 
The  others  may  be  termed  secondary  feet ; because  their  chief 
use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers,  and  to  improve  the  verse. 

We  shall  first  explain  the  nature  of  the  principal  feet. 

IAMBIC  verses  may  be  divided  into  several  species,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  feet  or  syllables  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. 

1.  The  shortest  form  of  the  English  lambic  consists  of  an 
Iambus,  with  an  additional  short  syllable : as, 

Disdainmg, 

Complaining, 

Consenting, 

Repenting. 

We  have  no  poem  of  this  measure,  but  it  may  be  met  with  in 
stanzas.  The  Iambus,  with  this  addition,  coincides  with  the 
Amphibrach. 

2.  The  second  form  of  our  lambic,  is  also  too  short  to  be 
continued  through  any  great  number  of  lines.  It  consists  of 
two  Iambuses. 

What  place  is  here? 

What  scenes  appear  ? 

To  me  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 

It  sometimes  takes,  or  may  take,  an  additional  short  syllable : 
as, 

upon  a mountain 
Beside  a fountain. 

3.  The  third  form  consists  of  three  Iambuses. 

In  places  far  or  near, 

Or  famous  or  obscure, 

Where  wholesome  is  the  air. 

Or  where  the  most  impure. 


VERSIFICATION. 


255 


It  sometimes  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable : as, 

Our  hearts  no  longer  languish. 

4.  The  fourth  form  is  made  up  of  four  Iambuses. 

xj 

And  may  at  last  my  weary  age, 

Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage. 

5.  The  iSfth  species  of  English  lambic,  consists  of  five 
Iambuses. 

How  lov’d,  how  valh’d  once,  avails  thee  not. 

To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot ; 

A heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee ; 

’Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Be  wise  to  day,  ’tis  madness  to  defer ; 

Next  day  the  fatal  precedent  will  plead ; 

Thus  on,  till  wisdom  is  push’d  out  of  life. 

This  is  called  the  heroic  measure.  In  its  simplest  form  it 
consists  of  five  Iambuses  but  by  the  admission  of  other  feet,  as 
Trochees,  Dactyls,  Anap*sts,  &c.  it  is  capable  of  many  varieties. 
Indeed,  most  of  the  English  common  measures  may  be  yaricd 
in  the  same  way,  as  well  as  by  the  different  position  of  their 
pauses. 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  our  lambic,  is  commonly  called  the 
Alexandrine  measure.  It  consists  of  six  Iambuses. 

For  thou  art  but  of  dust ; be  humble  and  be  wise. 

The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  introduced  into  heroic  rhyme  ; 
and  when  used  sparingly,  and  with  judgment,  occasions  an 
agreeable  variety. 

The  seas  shall  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decay. 

Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away; 

But  fix’d  his  word,  his  saving  pow’r  remains : 

Thy  realm  for  ever  lasts,  thy  own  Messiah  reigns. 

7.  The  seventh  and  last  form  of  our  lambic  measure,  is  made 
up  of  seven  Iambuses. 

The  Lord  descended  from  above,  and  bow’d  the  heavens  high. 

This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line  ; but  it  is  now  broken 
into  two  ; the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the  second  three  : 


256 


PROSODY. 


When  all  thy  mercies  6 G5d ! 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 

Transported  with  the  view,  Pm  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 

In  all  these  measures,  the  accents  are  to  be  placed  on  even 
syllables;  and  every  line  considered  by  itself,  is,  in  general, 
more  melodious,  as  this  rule  is  more  strictly  observed. 

TROCHAIC  verse  is  of  several  kinds. 

1.  The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  in  our  language,  consists  of 
one  Trochee  and  a long  syllable. 

Tumult  cease, . 

Sink  to  peace. 

This  measure  is  defective  in  dignity,  and  can  seldom  be  used 
on  serious  occasions. 

2.  The  second  English  form  of  the  Trochaic  consists  of  two 
feet ; and  is  likewise  so  brief,  that  it  is  rarely  used  for  any  very 
serious  purpose. 

On  the  mountain 
By  a fountain. 

It  sometimes  contains  two  feet  of  trochees,  with  an  additional 
long  syllable,  as, 


in  the  days  of  5ld 
Fables  plainly  told. 

3.  The  third  species  consists  of  three  trochees : as. 

When  our  hearts  are  mourning : 

or  of  three  trochees,  with  an  additional  long  syllable  : as, 

Restless  m5rtals  toil  for  nought ; 

Bliss  in  vain  from  earth  is  sought ; 

Bliss  a native  of  the  sky, 

Never  wanders.  Mortals,  try  ; 

There  you  cannot  seek  in  vain ; 

For  to  seek  her  is  to  gain. 

4.  The  fourth  Trochaic  species  consists  of  four  trochees  ; as. 


Round  iis  roars  th^  tempest  louder. 


VERSIFICATION. 


257 


This  form  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable  as  follows : 

Idle  after  dinner  in  his  chair, 

Sat  a farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fnir. 

But  this  measure  is  very  uncommon. 

5.  The  fifth  Trochaic  species  is  likewise  uncommon.  It  is 
composed  of  jive  trochees. 

All  that  walk  on  foot  dr  ride  m chariots, 

All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  the  English  Trochaic  consists  of  six 
trochees ; as, 

On  a mountain,  stretch’d  beneath  a hoary  willow. 

Lay  a shepherd  swain,  and  view’d  the  rolling  billow. 

This  seems  to  be  the  longest  Trochaic  line  that  our  language 
admits. 

In  all  these  Trochaic  measures,  the  accent  is  to  be  placed  on 
the  odd  syllables. 

The  DACTYLIC  measure  being  very  uncommon,  we  shall 
give  only  one  example  of  one  species  of  it : 

From  the  low  pleasures  of  this  fallen  nature, 

Rise  we  to  higher,  &c. 

ANAPiESTIC  verses  are  divided  into  several  species. 

1.  The  shortest  anapaestic  verse  must  be  a single  anapaest: 
as, 

But  m vain. 

They  complain. 

This  meausure  is,  however,  ambiguous ; for  by  laying  the 
\ stress  of  the  voice  on  the  first  and  third  syllables,  we  might 
make  a trochaic.  And  therefore  the  first  and  simplest  form 
of  our  genuine  Anapaestic  verse,  is  made  up  of  two  Anapaests ; 
as, 

But  his  courage  ’gan  fail. 

For  no  arts  could  avail. 

This  form  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable. 

VoL.  I.  35 


258 


PROSODY. 


Then  hts  courage  ,gan  fail  hYm, 

For  no  arts  cbuld  avail  him. 

2.  The  second  species  consists  of  three  Anapaests. 

0 ye  woods,  spread  your  branches  apace  ; 

To  your  deepest  recesses  I fly  ; 

1 would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase  ; 

I would  vanish  from  every  eye. 

This  is  a very  pleasing  measure,  and  much  used,  both  in 
solemn  and  cheerful  subjects. 

3.  The  third  kind  of  the  English  Anapaestic,  consists  of  four 
Anapaests. 

May  I govern  my  passions  with  absolute  sway  ; 

And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 

This  measure  will  admit  of  a short  syllable  at  the  end : as. 

On  the  warm  cheek  of  youth,  smiles  and  roses  are  blending. 

The  preceding  are  the  different  kinds  of  the  principal  feet, 
in  their  more  simple  forms.  They  are  capable  of  numerous  vari- 
ations, by  the  intermixture  of  those  feet  with  each  other ; and 
by  the  admission  of  the  secondary  feet. 

We  have  observed,  that  English  verse  is  composed  of  feet 
formed  by  accent ; and  that  when  the  accent  falls  on  vowels, 
the  feet  are  equivalent  to  those  formed  by  quantity.  That  the 
student  may  clearly  perceive  this  difference,  we  shall  produce  a 
specimen  of  each  kind. 

O’er  heaps  of  ruins  stalk’d  the  stately  hind. 

Here  we  see  the  accent  is  upon  the  vowel  in  each  second 
syllable.  In  the  following  line,  we  shall  find  the  same  lambic 
movement,  but  formed  by  accent  on  consonants,  except  the 
last  syllable. 

Then  rustling,  cracking,  crashing,  thunder  down. 

Here  the  time  of  the  short  acccented  syllables,  is  compensa- 
ted by  a short  pause,  at  the  end  of  each  word  to  which  they 
belong. 

We  now  proceed  to  show  the  manner  in  which  poetry  is 
varied  and  improved,  by  the  admission  of  secondary  feet  into 
its  composition. 


VEIt^lFICATlON. 


259 


Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night. 

The  first  foot  here  is  a Dactyl  ; the  rest  are  lambics. 

* 

O’er  many  a frozen,  many  a fiery  Alp. 

This  line  contains  three  Amphibrachs  mixed  with  lambics. 

Innumerable  before  the  Almighty’s  throne. 

Here,  in  the  second  foot,  we  find  a Tribrach. 

See  the  bold  youth  strain  up  the  threat’ning  steep. 

In  this  line,  the  first  foot  is  a Trochee  ; the  second  a genuine 
Spondee  by  quantity ; the  third  a Spondee  by  accent. 

In  the  following  line,  the  first  foot  is  a Pyrrhic,  the  second  a 
Spondee. 

That  on  weak  wings  from  far  pursues  your  flight. 

From  the  preceding  view  of  English  versification,  we  may 
see  what  a copious  stock  of  materials  it  possesses.  For  we  are 
not  only  allowed  the  use  of  all  the  ancient  poetic  feet,  in  our 
heroic  measure,  but  we  have  as  before  observed,  duplicates  of 
each  agreeing  in  movement,  though  differing  in  measure,*  and 
which  make  different  impressions  on  the  ear;  an  opulence 
peculiar  to  our  language,  and  which  may  be  the  source  of  a 
boundless  variety. 


OF  POETICAL  PAUSES. 


There  are  two  sorts  of  pauses,  one  for  sense,  and  one  for 
melody,  perfectly  distinct  from  each  other.  The  former  may 
be  called  sentential^  the  latter  harmonic  pauses. 

The  sentential  pauses  are  those  which  are  known  to  us  by 
the  name  of  stops,  and  which  have  names  given  them ; as  the 
comma,  semicolon,  colon,  and  period. 


Movement  and  measure  are  thus  distinguished.  Movement  expresses  the  progressive  order 
of  sounds,  whether  from  strong  to  weak,  from  long  to  short,  or  vice  versa.  Measure  signifies 
the  proporiion  of  time,  both  in  sounds  aud  pauses. 


260 


PROSODY. 


The  harmonic  pauses  may  be  subdivided  into  the  final  pause 
and  the  ccBsural  pause.  These  sometimes  coincide  with  the 
sentential  pause,  sometimes  have  an  independent  state,  that  is, 
exist  where  there  is  no  stop  in  the  sense.  ^ 

The  final  pause  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  line,  closes  the 
verse,  and  marks  the  measure  : the  caesural  divides  it  into  equal 
or  unequal  parts. 

The  final  pause  preserves  the  melody  without  interfering  with 
the  sense.  For  the  pause  itself  perfectly  marks  the  bounds  of 
the  metre  ; and  being  made  only  by  a suspension  of  the  voice, 
not  by  any  change  of  note,  it  can  never  affect  the  sense.  This 
is  not  the  only  advantage  gained  to  numbers,  by  this  final  pause 
or  stop  of  suspension.  It  also  prevents  that  monotony,  that 
sameness  of  note  at  the  end  of  lines,  which,  however  pleasing 
to  a rude,  is  disgusting  to  a delicate  ear.  For  as  this  final  pause 
has  no  peculiar  note  of  its  own,  but  always  takes  that  which 
belongs  to  the  preceding  word,  it  changes  continually  with  the 
matter,  and  is  as  various  as  the  sense. 

It  is  the  final  pause  which  alone,  on  many  occasions,  marks 
the  difference  between  prose  and  verse  ; which  will  be  evident 
from  the  following  arrangement  of  a few  poetical  lines. 

“ Of  man’s  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit  of  that  forbidden 
tree,  whose  mortal  taste  brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all 
our  wo,  with  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man  restore  us,  and 
regain  the  blissful  seat,  sing  heavenly  muse  !” 

A stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  that  this  is 
verse;  but  would  take  it  for  poetical  prose.  By  properly 
adjusting  the  final  pause,  we  shall  restore  the  passage  to  its  true 
state  of  verse. 

Of  man’s  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  wo, 

With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 

Sing  heavenly  muse ! 

These  examples  show  the  necessity  of  reading  blank  verse, 
in  such  a manner,  as  to  make  every  line  sensible  to  the  ear ; 
for,  what  is  the  use  of  melody,  or  for  what  end  has  the  poet 
composed  in  verse,  if,  in  reading  his  lines,  we  suppress  his 
numbers,  by  omitting  the  final  pause  ; and  degrade  them,  by 
our  pronunciation,  into  mere  prose  ! 

The  caesura  is  commonly  on  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  syllable 
of  heroic  verse. 


VERSIFICATION. 


261 


On  the  fourth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  second  foot : 
as, 


The  silver  eef'  in  shining  volumes  roll’d. 

The  yellow  carp"  in  scales  bedropp’d  with  gold. 

On  the  fifth  syllable,  or  in  the  rniddle  of  the  third  foot : as. 

Round  broken  columns"  clasping  ivy  twin’d. 

O’er  heaps  of  ruin"  stalk’d  the  stately  hind. 

On  the  sixth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot : as, 

Oh  say  what  stranger  cause"  yet  unexplor’d,  , 

Could  make  a gentle  belle"  reject  a lord. 

A line  may  be  divided  into  three  portions,  by  two  caesuras  : 
as. 

Outstretch’d  he  lay"  on  the  cold  ground"  and  oft" 

Look’d  up  to  heav’n. 

There  is  another  mode  of  dividing  lines,  well  suited  to  the 
nature  of  the  couplet,  by  introducing  semi-pauses,  which  di- 
vide the  line  into  four  pauses.  This  semi-pause  may  be  called 
a demi-ccesura. 

The  following  lines  admit  of,  and  exemplify  it. 

Glows'  while  he  reads"  but  trembles'  as  he  writes, 

Reason  'the  card"  but  passion'  is  the  gale. 

Rides'  in  the  whirlwind"  and  directs'  the  storm. 


OF  MELODY,  HARMONY,  AND  EXPRESSION. 

Having  shewn  the  general  nature  of  feet  and  pauses,  the 
constituent  parts  of  verse,  we  shall  now  point  out,  more  par- 
ticularly, their  use  and  importance. 

Melody,  harmony,  and  expression,  are  the  three  great  ob- 
jects of  poetic  numbers.  By  melody  is  meant,  a pleasing 
effect  produced  on  the  ear,  from  an  apt  arrangement  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  verse,  according  to  the  laws  of  measure 
and  movement.  By  harmony,  an  effect  produced  by  an  ac- 
tion of  the  mind,  in  comparing  the  different  members  of  a 
verse  with  each  other,  and  perceiving  a due  and  beautiful 
proportion  between  them.  By  expression,  such  a choice  and 


262 


PROSODY. 


arrangement  of  the  constituent  parts  of  verse,  as  serve  to  en- 
force and  illustrate  the  thought  or  the  sentiment. 

We  shall  consider  each  of  these  three  objects  in  versification, 
both  with  respect  to  the  feet  and  the  pauses. 

1st,  With  regard  to  melody. 

From  the  examples  which  we  have  given  of  verses  composed 
in  all  the  principal  feet,  it  is  evident  that  a considerable  por- 
tion of  melody  is  found  in  each  of  them,  though  in  different 
degrees.  Verses  made  up  of  pure  lambics  have  an  excellent 
melody. 

That  the  final  and  caesural  pauses  contribute  to  melody, 
cannot  be  doubted  by  any  person  who  review^s  the  instances, 
which  we  have  already  given  to  those  pauses.  To  form  lines 
of  the  first  melody,  the  caesura  must  be  at  the  end  of  the  second, 
or  of  the  third  foot,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  third. 

2d,  With  respect  to  harmony. 

Verses  composed  of  lambics  have  indeed  a fine  harmony  ; 
but  as  the  stress  of  the  voice,  in  repeating  such  verse,  is  al- 
ways in  the  same  places,  that  is,  on  every  second  syllable,  such 
a uniformity  would  disgust  the  ear  in  a long  succession ; and 
therefore  such  changes  were  sought  for,  as  might  introduce  the 
pleasure  of  variety,  without  prejudice  to  melody;  or  which 
might  even  contribute  to  its  improvement.  Of  this  nature  was 
the  introduction  of  the  Trochee,  to  form  the  first  foot  of  an  he- 
roic verse : as. 

Favours  to  none,  to  all  she  smiles  extends, 

O'ft  she  rejects,  but  never  once  offends. 

Each  of  these  lines  begins  with  a Trochee  ; the  remaining  feet 
are  in  the  lambic  movement.  In  the  following  line  of  the  same 
movement,  the  fourth  foot  is  a Trochee. 

All  these  our  notions  vain,  sees  and  derides. 

The  next  change  admitted  for  the  sake  of  variety,  without 
prejudice  to  melody,  is  the  intermixture  of  Pyrrhics  and  Spon- 
dees ; in  which,  two  impressions  in  the  one  foot  make  up  for  the 
want  of  one  in  the  other ; and  two  long  syllables  compensate 
two  short  ones,  so  as  to  make  the  sum  of  the  quantity  of  the 
feet,  equal  to  two  lambics. 


VERSIFICATION. 


263 


On  the  green  bank  to  look  into  the  clear 
Smooth  lake  that  to  me  seem’d  another  sky. 

Stood  rul’d  stood  vast  infinitude  confin’d. 

The  next  variety  admitted,  is  that  of  the  Amphibrachs* 

Which  many  a bard  had  chaunted  many  a day. 

In  this  line  we  find  that  two  of  the  feet  are  Amphibrachs  5 
and  three  lambics. 

We  have  before  shown  that  the  caesura  improves  the  melody 
of  verse ; and  we  shall  now  speak  of  its  other  more  important 
office,  that  of  being  the  chief  source  of  harmony  in  numbers. 

The  first  and  lowest  perception  of  harmony,  by  means  of  the 
caesura,  arises  from  comparing  two  members  of  the  same  line 
with  each  other,  divided  in  the  manner  to  be  seen  in  the  instances 
before  mentioned ; because  the  beauty  of  proportion  in  the 
members,  according  to  each  of  these  divisions,  is  founded  in 
nature  ; being  as  one  to  two — two  to  three — or  three  to  two. 

The  next  degree  arises  from  comparing  the  members  of  a 
couplet,  or  two  contiguous  lines : as, " 

See  the  bold  youth"  strain  up  the  threat’ning  steep, 

Rush  thro’  the  thickets"  down  the  valleys  sweep. 

Here  we  find  the  caesura  of  the  first  line,  at  the  end  of  the 
second  foot ; and  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot,  in  the  last  line. 

Hang  o’er  their  coursers’  heads"  with  eager  speed, 

And  earth  roils  back"  beneath  the  flying  steed. 

In  this  couplet,  the  caesura  is  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  in 
the  first  line  ; and  of  the  second,  in  the  latter  line. 

The  next  perception  of  harmony  arises  from  comparing  a 
greater  number  of  lines,  and  observing  the  relative  proportion 
of  the  couplets  to  each  other,  in  point  of  similarity  and  diver- 
sity: as. 

Thy  forests  Windsor"  and  thy  green  retreats, 

At  once  the  monarch’s"  and  the  muse’s  seats. 

Invite  my  lays."  Be  present  Sylvan  maids. 

Unlock  your  springs”  and  open  all  your  shades. 

Not  half  so  swift”  the  trembling  doves  can  fly. 

When  the  fierce  eagle”  cleaves  .the  liquid  sky ; 

Not  half  so  swiftly”  the  fierce  eagle  moves. 

When  through  the  clouds”  he  drives  the  trembling  doves. 


264 


PKOSODY. 


In  this  way,  the  comparison  of  lines  variously  apportioned 
by  the  different  seats  of  the  three  caesuras,  may  be  the  source 
of  a great  variety  of  harmony,  consistent  with  the  finest  melody. 
This  is  still  increased  by  the  introduction  of  two  caesuras,  and 
much  more  by  that  of  semi-pauses.  The  semi-pauses  double 
every  where  the  terms  of  comparison ; give  a more  distinct 
view  of  the  whole  and  the  parts;  afford  new  proportions  of 
measurement,  and  an  ampler  scope  for  diversity  and  equality, 
those  sources  of  beauty  in  harmony. 

Warms'  in  the  sun”  refreshes’  in  the  breeze. 

Glows’  in  the  stars”  and  blossoms’  in  the  trees  ; 

Lives’  through  all  life”  extends’  through  all  extent, 

Spreads’  undivided”  operates’  unspent. 

3d,  The  last  object,  in  versification,  regards  expression. 

When  men  express  their  sentiments  by  words,  they  naturally 
fall  into  that  sort  of  movement  of  the  voice,  which  is  consonant 
to  that  produced  by  the  emotion  in  the  mind ; and  the  Dactylic 
or  Anapaestic,  the  Trochaic,  lambic,  or  Spondaic,  prevails  even 
in  common  discourse,  according  to  the  different  nature  of  the 
sentiments  expressed.  To  imitate  nature,  therefore,  the  poet, 
in  arranging  his  words  in  the  artificial  composition  of  verse, 
must  take  care  to  make  the  movement  correspond  to  the  senti- 
ment, by  the  proper  use  of  the  several  kinds  of  feet ; and  this 
is  the  first  and  most  general  source  of  expression  in  numbers. 

That  a judicious  management  of  the  feet  and  pauses,  may  be 
peculiarly  expressive  of  particular  operations  and  sentiments, 
will  sufficiently  appear  to  the  learner,  by  a few  select  examples 
under  each  of  those  heads. 

In  the  following  instance,  the  vast  dimensions  of  Satan  are 
shown  by  an  uncommon  succession  of  long  syllables  which 
detain  us  to  survey  the  huge  arch  fiend,  in  his  fixed  posture. 

So  stretch’d  out  huge  in  length  the  arch  fiend  lay  : 

The  next  example  affords  instances  of  the  power  of  a Tro- 
chee beginning  a line,  when  succeeded  by  an  Iambus. 

and  sheer  within 

Lights  on  his  feet : as  when  a prowling  wolf 
Leaps  o’er  the  fence  with  ease  into  the  fold. 

The  Trochee  which  begins  the  line,  shows  Satan  in  the  act 
of  lighting ; the  Iambus  that  follows,  fixes  him — “ Lights  on  his 
feet.” 


VERSIFICATION. 


265 


The  same  artifice,  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  line,  makes  us 
see  the  wolf — ‘Meap  o’er  the  fence.” — But  as  the  mere  act  of 
leaping  over  the  fenco,  is  not  the  only  circumstance  to  be  attended 
to,  but  also  the  facility  with  which  it  is  done,  this  is  strongly 
marked,  not  only  by  the  smooth  foot  which  follows — “ with  ease” 
— itself  very  expressive,  but  likewise  by  a pyrrhic  preceding  the 
last  foot — “ into  the  fold” — which  indeed  carries  the  wolf — with 
ease  into  the  fold.” 

The  following  instances  show  the  effects  produced  by  csesuras, 
so  placed  as  to  divide  the  line  into  very  unequal  portions : such 
as  that  after  the  first,  and  before  the  last  semipede. 

thus  with  the  year 

Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day"  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn. 

Here  the  caesura  after  the  first  semipede  Day,  stops  us  un- 
expectedly, and  forcibly  impresses  the  imagination  with  the  great- 
ness of  the  author’s  loss,  the  loss  of  sight. 

No  sooner  had  th’  Almighty  ceas’d,  but  all 
The  multitude  of  angels,  with  a shout 
Loud"  as  from  numbers  without  number"  sweet 
As  from  blest  voices  uttering  joy. 

There  is  something  very  striking  in  this  uncommon  caesura, 
which  suddenly  stops  the  reader,  to  reflect  on  the  importance  of 
a particular  word. 

We  shall  close  the  subject,  with  an  example  containing  the 
united  powers  of  many  of  the  principles  which  have  been 
explained. 

Dire  was  the  tossing"  deep  the  groans"  Despair" 

Tended  the  sick"  busiest  from  codch  to  couch” 

And  over  them  triumphant  death"  his  dart" 

Shook"  but  delay’d  to  strike. 

Many  of  the  rules  and  observations  respecting  Prosody,  are 
taken  from  “ Sheridan’s  Art  of  Reading to  which  book  the 
Compiler  refers  the  ingenious  student,  for  more  extensive 
information  on  the  subject. 


Von.  I. 


36 


PUNCTUATION. 


\ 

Punctuation*  is  the  art  of  dividing  a written  com- 
position into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences,  by 
points  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  marking  the  dif- 
ferent pauses  which  the  sense,  and  an  accurate  pro- 
nunciation require. 

The  Comma  represents  the  shortest  pause ; the 

Semicolon,  a pause  double  that  of  the  comma;  the 

Colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon  ; and  the  Period, 

double  that  of  the  colon. 

• 

Punctuation  is  a modern,  art.  The  ancients  were  entirely 
unacquainted  with  the  use  of  our  commas,  colons,  &c. ; and 
wrote  not  only  without  any  distinction  of  members  and  periods, 
but  also  without  distinction  of  w^ords : which  custom  continued 
till  the  year  360  before  Christ.  How  the  ancients  read  their 
works,  written  in  this  manner,  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive.  After 
the  practice  of  joining  words  together  had  ceased,  notes  of  dis- 
tinction were  placed  at  the  end  of  every  word.  This  practice, 
with  some  variation,  continued  a considerable  time. 

As  it  appears  that  the  present  usage  of  stops  did  not  take  place, 
whilst  manuscripts  and  monumental  inscriptions  were  the  only 
known  methods  of  conveying  knowledge,  we  must  conclude  that 
it  was  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing.  The  introduction 
was,  however,  gradual ; all  the  points  did  not  appear  at  once. 
The  colon,  semicolon,  and  note  of  admiration,  were  produced 
sometime  after  the  others.  The  whole  set,  as  they  are  now  used, 
came  to  be  established,  when  learning  and  refinement  had  made 
considerable  progress. 

As  the  several  articulate  sounds,  the  syllables  and  words, 
of  which  sentences  consist,  are  marked  by  letters  ; so  the  rests 

* As  punctuation  is  intended  to  aid  both  the  sense,  and  the  pronunciation  of  a sentence,  it  could 
not  have  been  exclusively  discussed  under  the  part  of  Syntax,  or  of  Prosody.  The  nature  of  the 
subject,  its  extent  and  importance,  and  the  grammatical  knowledge  which  it  presupposes,  have 
induced  us  to  make  it  a distinct  and  subsequent  article. 


PUNCTUATION. 


267 


and  pauses,  between  sentences  and  their  parts,  are  marked  by 
points.  But  though  the  several  articulate  sounds,  are  pretty 
fully  and  exactly  denoted  by  letters  of  known  and  determinate 
power ; yet  the  several  pauses,  which  are  used  in  a just  pronun- 
ciation of  discourse,  are  very  imperfectly  expressed  by  points. 
For  the  different  degrees  of  connexion  between  the  several 
, parts  of  sentences,  and  the  different  pauses  into  a just  pronun- 
ciation, which  express  those  degrees  of  connexion  according  to 
their  proper  value,  admit  of  great  variety : but  the  whole  num- 
ber of  points,  which  we  have  to  express  this  variety,  amounts 
only  to  four.  Hence  it  is,  that  we  are  under  a necessity  of  ex- 
pressing pauses  of  the  same  quantity,  on  different  occasions,  by 
different  points  ^ and  more  frequently  of  expressing  pauses  of 
different  quantity  by  the  same  points. 

From  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  is  evident  that  the  doctrine 
of  Punctuation  must  be  very  imperfect.  Few  precise  rules 
can  be  given,  which  will  hold,  without  exception,  in  all  cases ; 
but  much  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  and  taste  of  the  writer. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  a greater  number  of  marks  were  invented, 
to  express  all  the  possible  different  pauses  of  pronunciation ; 
the  doctrine  of  them  would  be  very  perplexed  and  difficult,  and 
the  use  of  them  would  rather  embarrass  than  assist  the  reader. 
It  remains,  therefore,  that  we  be  content  with  the  Rules  of 
Punctuation,  laid  down  with  as  much  exactness  as  the  nature  of 
the  subject  will  admit : such  as  may  serve  for  a general  direc- 
tion, to  be  accommodated  to  different  occasions ; and  to  be 
supplied,  where  deficient,  by  the  writer’s  judgment. 

The  precise  quantity  or  duration  of  each  pause  cannot  be 
defined ; for  it  varies  with  the  time  of  the  whole.  The  same 
composition  may  be  rehearsed  in  a quicker  or  a slower  time ; 
but  the  proportion  between  the  pauses  should  be  ever  invari- 
able. 

In  order  more  clearly  to  determine  the  proper  application  of 
the  points,  we  must  distinguish  between  an  imperfect  phrase,  a 
simple  sentence,  and  a compound  sentence. 

An  imperfect  phrase  contains  no  assertion,  or  does  not 
amount  to  a proposition  or  sentence:  as,  ^‘Therefore;  in  haste; 
studious  of  praise.” 

A simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject,  and  one  finite  verb, 
expressed  or  implied : as,  Temperance  preserves  health.” 

A compound  sentence  has  more  than  one  subject,  or  one 
finite  verb,  either  expressed  or  understood ; 6y  it  consists  of 
two  or  more  simple  sentences  connected  together  : as,  Good 
nature  mends  and  beautifies  all  objects  Virtue  refines  the 
affection,  but  vice  debases  them.” 


268 


PUNCTUATION. 


In  a sentence,  the  subject  and  the  verb,  or  either  of  them, 
may  be  accompanied  with  several  adjuncts:  as,  the  object,  the 
end,  the  circumstance  of  time,  place,  manner,  and  the  like : and 
the  subject  or  verb  may  be  either  immediately  connected  with 
them,  or  mediately ; that  is,  by  being  connected  with  something 
which  is  connected  with  some  other, and  so  on,  as,  “The  mind, 
unoccupied  with  useful  knowledge,  becomes  a magazine  of 
trifles  and  follies.” 

Members  of  sentences  may  be  divided  into  simple  and  com- 
pound members.  See  page  141. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF  THE  COMMA. 

The  Comma  usually  separates  those  parts  of  a 
sentence,  which,  though  very  closely  connected  in 
sense  and  construction,  require  a pause  between 
them. 


Rule  I. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  1. 

With  respect  to  a simple  sentence,  the  several  words  of 
which  it  consists  have  so  near  a relation  to  each  other,  that,  in 
general,  no  points  are  requisite,  except  a full  stop  at  the  end  of 
it : as,  “ The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.^’ 
“ Every  part  of  matter  swarms  with  living  creatures.” 

A simple  sentence,  however,  when  it  is  a long  one,  and  the 
nominative  case  is  accompanied  with  inseparable  adjuncts,  may 
admit  of  a pause  immediately  before  the  verb : as,  “ The  good 
taste  of  the  present  age,  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  English  language.”  “ To  be  totally  indifferent  to 
praise  or  censure,  is  a real  defect  in  character.” 

Rule  II. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  2. 

When  the  connection  of  the  different  parts  of  a simple  sen- 
tence is  interrupted  by  an  imperfect  phrase,  a comma  is  usu- 
ally introduced  before  the  beginning,  and  at  the  end  of  this 


COMMA. 


269 


phrase : as,  “ I remember,  with  gratitude^  his  goodness  to  me 
‘‘  His  work  is  in  many  respects^  very  imperfect.  It  is,  therefore^ 
not  much  approved.”  But  wheh  these  interruptions  are  slight 
and  unimportant,  the  comma  is  better  omitted : as,  “ Flattery  is 
certainly  pernicious “ There  is  surely  a pleasure  in  benefi- 
cence.” 

In  the  generality  of  compound  sentences,  there  is  frequent 
occasion  for  commas.  This  will  appear  from  the  following 
rules ; some  of  which  apply  to  simple,  as  well  as  to  compound 
sentences. 

Rule  III. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part.  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  3. 

When  two  or  more  nouns  occur  in  the  same  construction, 
they  are  parted  by  a comma*:  *as,  ‘^Reason,  virtue,  answer  one 
great  aim The  husband,  wife,  and  children,  suffered  ex- 
tremely;”* “They  took  away  their  furniture,  clothes,  and 
stock  in  trade  “ He  is  alternately  supported  by  his  father, 
his  uncle,  and  his  elder  brother.” 

From  this  rule  there  is  mostly  an  exception,  with  regard  to 
two  nouns  closely  connected  by  a conjunction : as,  “ Virtue 
and  vice  form  a strong  contrast  to  each  other  ;”  “ Libertines 
call  religion  bigotry  or  superstition  ;”  “ There  is  a natural  dif- 
ference between  merit  and  demerit,  virtue  and  vice,  wisdom 
and  folly.”  But  if  the  parts  connected  are  not  short,  a comma 
may  be  inserted,  though  the  conjunction  is  expressed:  as, 
“ Romances  may  be  said  to  be  miserable  rhapsodies,  or  dan- 
gerous incentives  to  evil  ;”  “ Intemperance  destroys  the 
strength  of  our  bodies,  and  the  vigour  of  our  minds.” 


Rule  IV. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  4. 

Two  or  more  adjectives  belonging  to  the  same  substantive, 
are  likewise  separated  by  commas:  as,  “Plain,  honest  truth, 
wants  no  artificial  covering;  “David  was  a brave,  wise,  and 
pious  man ;”  “ A woman,  gentle,  sensible,  well-educated,  and 
religious ;”  “ The  most  innocent  pleasures  are  the  sweetest,  the 
most  rational,  the  most  affecting,  and  the  most  lasting.” 

As  a considerable  pause  in  pronunciation  is  necessary  between  the  last  noun  and  the  verb,  a 
comma  should  be  inserted  to  denote  it.  But  no  pause  is  allowed  between  the  last  adjective  and 
the  noun,  under  Rule  IV.  the  comma  is  there  properly  omitted. 

See  WALKER’S  Elements  of  Elocution, 


270 


PUNCTUATIOX. 


But  two  adjectives,  immediately  connected  by  a conjunction, 
are  not  separated  by  a comma : as,  “ True  worth  is  modest 
and  retired  “ Truth  is  fail’  and  artless,  simple  and  sincere, 
uniform  and  consistent.”  “We  must  be  wise  or  foolish : there 
is  no  medium.” 


RriiE  V. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1,  Rule  5, 

Two  or  more  verbs,  having  the  same  nominative  case,  and 
immediately  following  one  another,  are  also  separated  by  com- 
mas: as,  “Virtue  supports  in  adversity,  moderates  in  pros- 
perity “ In  a letter,  we  may  advise,  exhort,  comfort,  request, 
and  discuss.” 

Two  verbs  immediately  connected  by  a conjunction,  are  an 
exception  to  the  above  rule  : as,  The  study  of  natural  history 
expand  and  elevates  the  mind ; “ Whether  we  eat  or  drink, 
labour  or  sleep,  we  should  be  moderate.” 

Two  or  more  participles  are  subject  to  a similar  rule,  and 
exception  : as,  “ A man,  fearing,  serving,  and  loving  his  Crea- 
tor “ He  was  happy  in  being  loved,  esteemed,  and  respected 
“ By  being  admired  and  flattered,  we  are  often  corrupted.” 

Rule  VI. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  6. 

Two  or  more  adverbs  immediately  succeeding  one  another, 
must  be  separated  by  commas : as,  “ We  are  fearfully,  wonder- 
fully framed;”  “ Success  generally  depends  on  acting  pru- 
dently, steadily,  and  vigorously,  in  what  we  undertake.” 

But  when  two  adverbs  are  joined  by  a conjunction,  they  are 
not  parted  by  the  comma : as,  “ Some  men  sin  deliberately 
and  presumptuously ;”  “ There  is  no  middle  state ; we  must 
live  virtuously  or  viciously.” 


Rule  VII. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  7. 

When  participles  are  followed  by  something  that  depends 
on  them,  they  are  generally  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  a comma  : as,  “ The  king,  approving  the  plan^  put 
it  in  execution  ;”  “ His  tajents,  formed  for  great  enterprises 


COMMA. 


271 


could  not  fail  of  rendering  him  conspicuous  “ All  mankind 
compose  one  family,  assembled  under  the  eye  of  one  common 
Father.” 

Rule  VIII, 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  8. 

When  a conjunction  is  divided  by  a phrase  or  sentence, 
from  the  verb  to  which  it  belongs,  such  intervening  phrase 
has  usually  a comma  at  each  extremity : as,  “ They  set  out 
early,  and,  before  the  close  of  the  day,  arrived  at  the  destined 
place/’ 

Rule  IX. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  9. 

Expressions  in  a direct  address,  are  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas : as,  “ My  son,  give  me  thy 
heart  f ‘‘  I am  obliged  to  you,  my  friends,  for  your  many 
favours.” 

Rule  X. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  10. 

The  case  or  nominative  absolute,  and  the  infinite  mood 
absolute,  are  separated  by  commas  from  the  body  of  the  sen- 
tence : as,  “ His  father  dying,  he  succeeded  to  the  estate 
‘‘  At  length,  their  ministry  performed,  and  race  w^ell  run,  they 
left  the  world  in  peace  / To  confess  the  truth,  I was  much  in 
fault.” 

Rule  XI. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  11. 

Nouns  in  apposition,  that  is,  nouns  added  to  other  nouns  in 
the  same  case,  by  way  of  explication  or  illustration,  when 
accompanied  with  adjuncts,  are  set  off  by  commas  : as,  “ Paul, 
the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was  eminent  for  his  zeal  and  know- 
ledge “ The  butterfly,  child  of  the  summer,  flutters  in  the 
sun.” 

But  if  such  nouns  are  single,  or  only  form  a proper  name,  they 
are  not  divided : as,  “ Paul  the  apostle  ‘‘  The  emperor  Anto- 
ninus wrote  an  excellent  book.” 


272 


COMMA, 


Rule  XIL 


See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  12. 

Simple  members  of  sentences  connected  by  comparatives, 
are,  for  the  most  part  distinguished  by  a comma : as,  “ As  the 
hart  panteth  after  the  water-brooks,  so  doth  my  soul  pant  after 
thee  “ Better  is  a dinner  of  herbs  with  love,  than  a stalled 
ox  and  hatred  with  it.” 

If  the  members  in  comparative  sentences  are  short,  the 
comma  is,  in  general,  better  omitted : as,  “ How  much  letter 
is  it  to  get  wisdom  than  gold  P ‘‘  Mankind  act  oftener  from 
caprice  than  reason.” 

Rule  XIII. 

See  VoLii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap  1.  Rule  13. 

When  words  are  placed  in  opposition  to  each  other,  or  with 
some  marked  variety,  they  require  to  be  distinguished  by  a 
comma  : as, 

Tho’  deep,  yet  clear  : tho’  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 

“ Strong,  without  rage  ; without  o’erflowing,  full.” 

“ Good  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  state,  are  often  found, 
not  only  in  union  with,  but  in  opposition  to,  the  views  and 
conduct  of  one  another.”  • 

Sometimes,  when  the  word  with  which  the  last  preposition 
agrees,  is  single,  it  is  better  to  ornk  the  comma  before  it : as. 
Many  states  were  in  alliance  with,  and  under  the  protection 
pf  Rome.” 

The  same  rule  and  restriction  must  be  applied,  when  two  or 
more  nouns  refer  to  the  same  proposition  : as,  He  was  com- 
posed, both  under  the  threatening,  and  at  the  approach  of  a 
cruel  and  lingering  death  “ He  was  not  only  the  king,  but 
the  father  of  his  people.” 


Rule  XIV. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  14;  • 

A remarkable  expression,  or  a short  observation,  somewhat 
in  the  manner  of  a quotation,  may  be  properly  marked  with  a 
comma : as,  “ It  hurts  a man’s  pride  to  say,  I do  not  know 
“ Plutarch  calls  lying,  the  vice  of  slaves.” 


COMMA. 


273 


Rule  XV. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  15. 

Relative  pronouns  are  connective  words^  and  generally  ad^ 
mit  a comma  before  them : as,  “ He  preaches  sublimely,  who 
lives  a sober,  righteous,  and  pious  life  “ There  is  no  charm  in 
the  female  sex,  which  can  supply  the  place  of  virtue.’^ 

But  when  two  members,  or  phrases,  are  closely  connected  by 
a relative,  restraining  the  general  notion  of  the  antecedent  to  a 
particular  sense,  the  comma  should  be  omitted : as  “ Self-de- 
nial is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make  f A man  who  is 
of  a detracting  spirit,  will  misconstrue  the  most  innocent  words 
that  can  be  put  together.”  In  the  latter  example,  the  assertion 
is  not  of  “ a man  in  general,”  but  of  “ a man  who  is  of  a detract- 
ing spirit and  therefore  they  should  not  be  separated. 

The  fifteenth  rule  applies  equally  to  cases  in  which  the  rela- 
tive is  not  expressed,  but  understood : as  “ It  was  from  piety, 
warm,  and  unaffected,  that  his  morals  derived  strength.”  “ This 
sentiment,'  habitual  and  strong,  influenced  his  whole  conduct.” 
In  both  of  these  examples,  the  relative  and  the  verb  which  was, 
are  understood. 


Rule  XVL 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  16. 

A simple  member  of  a sentence,  contained  within  another, 
or  following  another,  must  be  distinguished  by  the  comma:  as, 
to  improve  time,  whilst  we  are  blessed  with  health,  will 
smooth  the  bed  of  sickness.”  “ Very  often,  while  we  are  com- 
plaining of  the  vanity,  and  the  evils  of  human  life,  we  make 
that  vanity,  and  we  increase  those  evils.” 

If,  however,  the  members  succeeding  each  other,  are  very 
closely  connected,  the  comma  is  unnecessary : as,  “ Revelation 
tells  us  how  we  may  attain  happiness.” 

When  a verb  in  the  infinite  mood  follows  its  governing  verb, 
with  several  words  between  them,  those  words  should 
generally  have  a comma  at  the  end  of  them  ; as,  “ It  ill  be- 
comes good  and  wise  men,  to  oppose  and  degrade  one  an- 
other.” 

Several  verbs  in  the  infinite  mood,  having  a common  de- 
pendence, and  succeeding  one  another,  are  also  divided  by 

VoL.  I 37 


274 


PUNCTtFATlON. 


commas  : as  ‘‘  To  relieve  the  indigent,  to  comfort  the  afflicted, 
to  protect  the  innocent,  to  reward  the  deserving,  are  humane 
and  noble  employments. 


Rule  XVII. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4-  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  17. 

When  the  verb  to  he  is  followed  by  a verb  in  the  infinite  mood, 
which,  by  transposition,  might  be  made  the  nominative  case  to 
it,  the  former  is  generally  separated  from  the  latter  verb,  by  a 
comma  : as,  “ The  most  obvious -remedy  is^  to  withdraw  from 
all  associations  with  bad  men.”  “ The  first  and  most  obvious 
remedy  against  the  infection, ^ is,  to  withdraw  from  all  associa- 
tions with  bad  men.”  .5,  - 


Rule  XVIII.  f • v 

See  vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  18.  ‘ 

• 

When  adjuncts  or  circumstances  are  of  importance,  and 
often  when  the  natural  order  of  them  is  inverted,  they  may*  be 
setoff  by  commas:  as,  “Virtue  must  be  formed  and  supported, 
not  by  unfrequent  acts,  but  by  daily  and  repeated . exertions.” 
“ Vices,  like  shadows,  towards- the  evening  of  life,  grow  great 
and  monstrous.”  Our  intei^ests  are  interwoven  by  threads  in- 
numerable “ By  threads  innumeraWe,  our  interests  are 
interwoven.” 

Rule  XIX. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part.  4.  < Exercises,  Chap.  1.  Rule  19. 

Where  a verb  is  understood,  a comma  may  often  be  prop- 
erly introduced.  This  is  a general  rule,  which,  besides  com- 
prising some  of  the  preceding  rules,?  will  apply  to  many  cases 
not  determined  by  any  of  them : as,  “ From  law  anses  secu- 
rity ; from  security  curiosity;  from  curiosity  knowledge.”  In 
this  example,  the  verb  “ arises”  is  understood  before  “ curios- 
ity” and  “ knowledge  at  which  w^ords  a considerable  pause 
is  necessary. 


SEMICOLON. 


275 


Rule  XX. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  1.  Rule  20. 

The  words  nay^  so,  hence,  again,  first,  secondly,  formerly, 
note,  lastly,  once  more,  above  ally  on  the  contrary,  in  the  next 
place,  in  short,  and  all  other  words  and  phrases  of  the  same 
kind,  must  generally  be  separated  from  the  context,  by  a com- 
ma; as,.  “ Remember  thy  best  and  first  friend  ; formerly, 
the  supporter  of  thy  infancy,,  and  the  guide  of  thy  childhood  ; 
Tzott;,  the  guardian  of  thy  youth,  and  the  hope  of  thy  coming 
yeai*s.”  ‘‘He  feared  want,  henc^,  he  over-valued  riches.’’ 
“ This  conduct  may  heal  the  difference,  nay,  it  may  constantly 
prevent  any  in  future.”  “ Finally,  I shall  only  repeat  what  has 
been  often  justly  said.”  “ If  the  spring  put  forth  no  blossoms, 
in  summer  there  will  be  no  beauty,' and  in  the  autumn,  no  fruit ; 
so,  if  youth  be  trifled  away  without  improvement,  riper  years 
may  be  contemptible,  and  old  age  miserable.” 

In  many  of  the  foregoing  rules  and  examples,  great  regard 
must  be  paid  to  the  length  of  the  clauses,  and  the  proportion 
which  they  bear  to  one  anothef . An  attention  to  the  sense  of 
any  passage,  and  to  the  clear,  easy  communication  of  it,  will, 
it  is  presumed,  with  the  aid  of  the  preceding  rules,  enable  the 
student  to  adjust  the^iroper  pauses,  and  the  places  for  inserting 
the  commas. 


CHAPTER  H. 


OF  THE^  SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolan  is  used  for  dividing  a compound 
sentence  into  two  or  more  parts,  not  so  closely  con- 
nected as  those  which  are  sejparated  by  a comma, 
nor  yet  so  little  dependent  on  each  other,  as  those 
which  are  distinguished  by  a colon. 

See  Vol.  ii.,Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  2. 

The  semicolon  is  sometimes  used,  when  the  preceding 
member  of  the  sentence  does  not  of  itself  give  a complete 
sense,  but  depends  on  the  following  clause:  and  sometimes 
when  the  sense  of  that  member  would  be  complete  without 


276 


PUNCTUATION. 


the  concluding  one : as  in  the  following  instances : “ As 

the  desire  of  approbation,  when  its  works  according  to  reason, 
improves  the  amiable  part  of  our  species  in  every  thing  that  is 
laudable;  so,  nothing  is  more  destructive  to  them,  when  it  is 
governed  by  vanity  and  folly.” 

“ Experience  ’teaches  us,  that  an  entire  retreat  from  wordly 
affairs,  is  not  what  religion  requires ; nor  does  it  even  enjoin  a 
long  retreat  from  them.” 

“ Straws  swim  upon  the  surface  ; but  pearls  lie  at  the  bot- 
tom.” ^ - 

“ Philosophers  assert,  that  nature  is  unlimited  in  her  ope^ 
rations ; that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ; 
that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive  ; and  that  all  future 
generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries,  of  which  we 
have  not  the  least  idea. 

But  all  subsists  by  elemental  strife  ; 

And  passions  are  the  elements  of  life.” 


CHAPTER  III. 

v:" . 

OF  THE  COLON.  " ’ ! 

The  Colon  is  used  to  divide  a sentence  into  two 
or  more  parts,  less  connected  than  those  which  are 
separated  by  a semicolon;  but  not  so  independent 
as  separate  distinct  sentences. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Chap.  3.  * 

The  Colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  three  following 

cases.  . ir  1 

1.  When  a member  of  a sentence  is  complete  in  itself,  but 
followed  by  some  supplemental  remarks,  or  further  illustration 
of  the  subject:  as,  “Nature  felt  her  inability  to  extricate 
herself  from  -the  consequences  of  guilt : the  Gospel  reveals  the 
plan  of  divine  interpositicm  qnd  aid.”  ^ “Nature  confesseth 
some  atonement  to  be  necessary : the  Gospel  discovers  that 
the  necessary  atonement  is  made.” 

“ Great  works  are  performed,  not  hy  strength,  but  per- 
severence : yonder  palace  was  raised  by  single  atones  ; yet  you 
see  its  height  and  spaciousness.” 

“ In  faith  and  hope  the  world  will  disagree ; 

“ But  all  mankind’s  concern  is  charity 
“ All  must  be  false  that  thwarts  this  one  great  end  ; 

“ And  all  of  God,  that  bless  mankind  or  mend.” 


PERIOD. 


277 


2.  When  a semicolon,  or  more  than  one,  have  preceded,  and 
a still  greater  pause  is  necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  connect- 
ing or  concluding  sentiment : as,  “ As  we  perceive  the  shadow 
to  have  moved  along  the  dial,  but  did  not  perceive  it  moving ; 
and  it  appears  that  the  grass  has  grown,  though  nobody  ever 
saw  it  grow : so  the  advances  we  make  in  knowledge,  as  they 
consist  of  such  insensible  steps,  are  only  perceivable  by  the 
distance.” 

“A  Divine  Legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from  heaven;  an 
Almighty  Governor, ..stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  re- 
ward; informing  us  of  perpetual  rest  prepared  ^ereafter  for 
the  righteous,  and  of  indignation  and  wrath  awaiting  the  wicked : 
these,  are  the  considerations  which  overawe  the  world,  which 
support  integrity,  and  check  guilt.” 

3.  The  Colon  is  commonly  used  when  an  example,  a quota- 

tion, or  a speech,  is  introduced  : as,  “ The  Scriptures  give  us  an 
amiable  representation  of  the  Deity,  in  these  words : ‘ God  is 
love.’  ” “ He  was  often  heard  to  say  : ‘ I have  done  with  the 

world,  and  I am  willing  to  leave  it.^  ” 

The  propriety  of  using  a;coloh,  or  semicolon,  is  sometimes 
determined  by  a conjunction’s  being  expressed,  or  not  expressed  : 
as,  “ Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the  hope  of  perfect  happi- 
ness : there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world.”  “ Do  not  flatter 
yourselves  with  the  hope  of  perfect  happiness  ; /or  there  is  no 
such  thing  in  the  world 

“ Wher^  grows  ? — where  grows  it  not  ? If  vain  our  toil, 

We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil  : 

“Fix’d  to  no  spot  is  happiness  sincere ; 

“ ’Tis  no  where  to  be  found,  or  ev’ry  where.” 


; CHAPTER  IV. 

OP  THE  PERIOD. 

When-  a Sentence  is  complete  and  independent, 
and  not. connected  in  construction  with  the  following 
sentence,  it  is  marked  with  a period. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  4. 

Some  sentences  are  independent  of  each  other,  both  in 
their  sense  and  constructiorf:  as,  “Pear  God.  Honour  the 
King.  Have  charity  towards  all  men.”  Others  are  independ- 
ent only  in  their  grammatical  construction : as,  “ The  Su- 
preme Being  changes  not,  either  in  his  desire  to  promote 


278 


PUNCTUATION. 


our  happiness,  or  in  the  plan  of  his  administration.  One  light 
always  shines  upon  us  from  above.  One  clear  and  direct  path 
is  always  pointed  out  to  man.” 

A period  may  sometimes  be  admitted  betw^n  two  senten- 
ces, though  they  are  joined  by  a disjunctive  or  copulative  con- 
junction. For  the  quality  of  the  point  does  not  always  depend 
on  the  connective  particle,  but  on  the  sense  and  structure  of 
sentences:  as,  “Recreations,  though  they  may  be  of  an  inno- 
cent kind,  require  stead}"  government  to  keep  them  within  a 
due  and  limited  province.  But  such  as  are  of  an  irregular  and 
vicious  nature,  are  not  to  be  governed,  but  to  be  banished  from 
every  well-regulated  mind.” 

“ He  who  lifts  himself  up  to-the  observation  and  notice  of  the 
world,  is,  of  all  men,  the  least  likely  to  avoid  censure.  For  he 
draws  upon  himself  a thousand  eyes,  that  will  narrowly  inspect 
him  in  every  part.” 

The  period  should  be  used  after  every  abbreviated  word 
as,  “M.S.  P.  S.  N.B.  A.  D.  O..S.  N.S.”  &c. 


chapter  V.  • ‘ 

OP  THE  PASH,  NOTES  OF  INTERROGATION  AND  EXCLAMATION, 
AND  THE  parenthesis. 

See  VgI.  ii.  Part  4.  Exercises.  Chap.  5. 

SECTION  I. 

Of  the  Dash. 

The  Dash,  though  often  med  improperly  by  hasty  and  in- 
coherent writers,  may  be  introduced  with  propriety,  where 
the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly  : where  a significant  pause  is 
required  ; or  where  there  is  an  unexpected  turn  in  the  senti-. 
ment : as,  “ If  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once — but,  oh  ! 
how  fallen  ! how  degraded  !”  “ If  acting  conformably  to  the 

will  of  our  Creator; — if  promoting  the  welfare,  of  mankind 
around  us; — if  securing  our  own  happiness; — are^objects  of 
the  highest  moment: — then  we  are  loudly  called  upon  to  cul- 
tivate and  extend  the  great  interests  of  religion  and  virtue.” 
A dash  following  a stop,  denotes  that  the  pause  is  to  be  great- 
er than  if  the  stop  were  alone ; and  when  used  by  itself,  re- 
quires a pause  of  such  length  as  the  sense  alone  can  deter- 
mine. 

“ Here  lies  the  great False  marble,  where  ? 

“ Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here.” 


INTERROGATION. 


279 


“ Whatever  is,  is  right — This  world,  ’tis  true, 

Was  made  for  Csesar — but  for  Titus  too.’’ 

Besides  the  points  which  mark  the  pauses  in  discourse, 
there  are  characters,  which  denote  a different  modulation  of 
voice,  in  correspondence  to  the  sense.  These  are, 

The  point  of  Interrogation,  ? 

* ' . The  point  of  Exclamation,  ! 

The  Parenthesis,  * () 

section  II. 

Of  the  Interrogatory  Point.  ^ 

9 . 

A NOTE  of  interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  the  interrogative 
sentence  ; that  is,  when  a question  is  asked  : as,  “ Who  will 
accompany  me  “ Shall  we  always  be  friends 

Questions  which  a person  asks  himself  in  contemplation, 
ought  to  be  determined  by  points  of  interrogation : as,  “ Who 
adorned  the  heavens  with  such  exquisite  beauty  ?”  At  whose 
command  do  the  planets  perform  their  constant  revolutions?” 

“ To  whom  can  riches  give  repute  or  trust, 

“ Content  or  pleasure,  but  the  good  and  just?” 

A point  of  interrogation  is  improper  after  sentences  which 
are  not  questions,  but  only  expressions  of  admiration,  or  of  some 
other  emotion.  ~ 

*‘How  many  instances  have  we  of  chastity  and  excellence  in 
the  fair  sex !” 

“ With  what  prudence  does  the  son  of  Sirach  advise  us^  in 
the  choice  t>f  our  companions  !”  .. 

A note  of  interrogation  should  not  be  employed,  in  cases 
where  it  is  only  said  a question  has  beefi  asked,  and  where  the 
words  are  not  used  as  a question.  “ The  Cyprians  asked  me 
why  I wept.”  To  give  this  sentence  the  interrogative  form,  it 
should  be  expressed  thus  : “ The  Cyprians  said  to  me,  ‘‘  Why 
dost  thou  weep  ?”  * 

SECTION  III. 

Of  the  Exclamatory  Point. 

The  note  of  exclamation  is  applied  to  expressions  of  sudden 
emotion,  surprise,  joy,  grief,  &c.  and  also  to  invocations  or 
addresses  : as,  “ My  friend  ! this  conduct  amazes  me  !”  “ Bless 
the  Lord,  O my  soul ! and  forget  not  all  his  benefits  !” 


280 


PUNCTUATION. 


“ Oh ! had  we  both  our  humble  state  maintain’d, 

“ And  safe  in  peace  and  poverty  remained  ! 

Hear  me,  0 Lord  ! for  thy  loving  kindness  is  great !” 

It  is  difficult  in  some  cases,  to  distinguish  between  an  inter- 
rogative and  exclamatory  sentence : but  a sentence,  in  which 
any  wonder  or  admiration  is  expressed,  and  ho  answer  either 
expected  or  implied,  may  be  always  properly  terminated  by  a 
note  of  exclamation  : as?,  “ How  much  vanity  in  the  pursuits  of 
men !”  “ Who  cah  sufficiently  express  the  goodness  of  our 
Creator !”  ‘‘  What  is  more  amiable  than  virtue  !” 

The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  indeterminate 
as  to  their  quantity  of  time,  and,  may  be  equivalent  in  that 
respect  to  a seipicolon,  a colon,  or  a period,  as  the  sense  may 
require.  They  mark  an  elevation  of  the  voice: 

The  utility  of  the  paints  of  Interrogation  and  Exclamation, 
appears  from  the  following  examples,  in  which  the  meaning  is 
signified  and  di^riminated  solely  by  the  points. 

What  condescension 
‘‘  Wffiat  condescension  ?’  ' ' • 

How  great  was  the  sacrifice !” 

‘‘  How  great  was  the  sacrifice  v> 

SECTIpN  IV. 

Of  the  Parenthesis. 

A Parenthesis  is  a clause  containing  some  necessary  inform* 
mation,  or  useful  remark,  introduced  into  the  body  of  a sentence 
obliquely,  and  which  may  be  omitted  without  injuring  the 
grammatical  construction : as, 

Know  then  this  truth,  ,(enoi:^h  for  man  to  know,) 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below.”* 

‘‘  And  was  the  ransom  paid?  It  was  ; and  paid 
(What  can  exalt  his  bounty  more  ?)  for  thee.” 

‘‘  To  gain  a posthumous  Teputation,  is  to  save  four  or  five 
letters  (for  what  is  a name  besides  ?)  from  oblivion.”  “ Know 
ye  not,  brethren,  (for  I speak  to  them  that  know  the  law,)  how 
that  the  law  hath  dominion  over  a man  as  long  as  he  liveth  ?” 

If  the  incidental  clause  is  short,  or  perfectly  coincides  vvith 
the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  proper  to  use  the  pjarenthetical 


281 


APOSTROPHE,  &C. 

characters.  The  following  instances  are  therefore  improper 
uses  of  the  parenthesis.  “ Speak  you  (who  saw)  his  wonders 
in  the  deep.”  “Every  planet  (as  the  Creator  has  made  nothing 
in  vain)  is  most  probably  inhabited.”  “ He  found  them  asleep 
again ; (for  their  eyes  were  heavy ;)  neither  knew  they  what  to 
answer  him.” 

The  parenthesis  generally  marks  a moderate  depression  of 
the  voice,  and  may  be  accompanied  with  every  point  which 
the  sense  would  require,  if  the  parenthetical  characters  were 
omitted.  It  ought  to  terminate  with  the  same  kind  of  stop 
which  the  member  has  that  precedes  it ; and  to  contain  that 
stop  within  the  parenthetical  marks.*  We  must,  however,  ex- 
cept cases  of  interrogation  and  exclamation : as,  “ While  they 
wish  to  please,  (and  why  should  they  not  wish  it  ?)  they  disdain 
dishonourable  means.”  “ It  was  represented  by  an  analogy, 
(Oh,  how  inadequate  !)  which  was  borrowed  from  the  religion 
of  paganism.” 


CHAPTER  VI. 


OF  THE  APOSTROPHE,  CARET,  &C. 


There  are  other  characters,  which  are  frequently  made 
use  of  in  composition,  and  which  may  be  explained  in  this 
place,  viz. 


An  Apostrophe,  marked  thus  ’ is  used  to  abbreviate  or  shorten 
a word ; as,  “ ’tis  for  it  is ; tho’  for  though ; e’en  for  even  ; judged 
ior  judged."  Its  chief  use  is  to  show  the  genitive  case  of  nouns; 
as,  “ A man’s  property  ; a woman’s  ornament.” 


* As  the  parenthesis  includes  the  whole  clause,  and  the  point  is  a part  of  the  clause,  and  prop-^ 
erly  belongs  to  it,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  point  should  be  contained  loithin  the  parenthetical 
marks.  To  place  it  on  the  outside  of  the  parenthetical  characters,  would  be,  to  point  those  char- 
acters, and  not  the  clause.  The  phrase  which  precedes  the  parenthesis  should,  doubtless,  have  its 
proper  point  and  pause  attached  to  it ; and  not  be  left  without  its  necessary  appendages  till  the 
parenthesis  is  completed : the  suspense  is  forced  and  irregular.  That  the  parenthesis  itself  does 
not  supply  the  place  of  a point  between  the  parenthetic  clause  and  the  word  immediately  pre-> 
ceding  it,  is  evident  from  this  circumstance,  that  the  preceding  clause  frequently  requires  a point 
and  tone  essentially  different  from  those  which  belong  to  the  parenthetic  clause.  This  will  be  seen 
in  the  following  sentence  : “ If  I grant  this  request,  (and  who  could  refuse  it  7)  I shall  secure  his 
esteem  and  attachment.”  The  real  and  prijper  office  of  the  parenthetical  marks,  is  simply  to  de- 
note, not  a point,  but  the  parenthetical  clause, — We  should  not  have  so  far  extended  this  note,  * 
were  it  not  that  many  writers,  and  some  grammarians,  are  divided  in  their  opinions  and  practice, 
on  this  subject. 

VoL.  I.  38 


282 


PUNCTUATION* 


A Caret,  marked  thus  a is  placed  where  some  word  happens 
to  be  left  out  in  writing,  and  which  is  inserted  over  the  line. 
This  mark  is  also  called  a circumflex,  when  placed  over  a par- 
ticular vowel,  to  denote  a long  syllable  ; as,  “ EuphratCTs.” 

A Hyphen,  marked  thus  - is  employed  in  connecting  com- 
pounded words : as,  “ Lap-dog,  tea-pot,  pre-existence,  self-love, 
to-morrow,  mother-in-  law.” 

It  is  also  used,  when  a word  is  divided,  and  the  former  part 
is  written  or  printed  at  the  end  of  one  line,  and  the  latter  part 
at  the  beginning  of  another.  In  this  case,  it  is  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  first  line,  not  the  beginning  of  the  second. 

The  Acute  Accent  is  marked  thus: ' as,  ‘‘ Fancy The  Grave, 
thus : ’ as,  “ Favour.’^ 

In  English,  the  accentual  marks  are  chiefly  used  in  spelling- 
books  and  dictionaries,  to  mark  the  syllables  which  require  a 
particular  stress  of  the  voice  in  pronunciation. 

The  stress  is  laid  on  long  and  short  syllables  indiscriminately. 
In  order  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  some  writers  of 
dictionaries  have  placed  the  grave  on  the  former,  and  the  acute 
on  the  latter,  in  this  manner : “ Minor,  mineral,  lively,  lived, 
rival,  river.” 

The  proper  mark  to  distinguish  a long  syllable  is  this : ”*  as, 
“ Rosy :”  and  a short  one  this : ^ as  “ Folly.”  This  last  mark 
is  called  a breve. 

A Diaeresis,  thus  marked,  **  consists  of  two  points  placed 
over  one  of  the  two  vowels  that  would  otherwise  make  a diph- 
thong, and  parts  them  into  syllables  : as,  “ Creator,  coadjutor, 
aerial.” 

A Section  marked  thus,  § is  the  division  of  a discourse,  or 
chapter,  into  less  parts  or  portions. 

A Paragraph  denotes  the  beginning  of  a new  subject,  or  a 
sentence  not  connected  with  the  foregoing.  This  character  is 
chiefly  used  in  the  Old,  and  in  the  New  Testaments. 

A Quotation.  “ ” Two  inverted  commas  are  generally 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  a phrase  or  a passage,  which  is 
quoted  or  transcribed  from  the  speaker  or  author  in  his  own 


APOSTROPHE,  &C.  283 

words  ; and  two  commas  in  their  direct  position,  are  placed  at 
the  conclusion : as. 

The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man.” 

Crotchets  or  brackets  [ ] serve  to  enclose  a word  or  sentence, 
which  is  to  be  explained  in  a note,  or  the  explanation  itself,  or  a 
word  or  sentence  which  is  intended  to  supply  some  deficiency 
or  to  rectify  some  mistake. 

An  Index  or  hand  DCj^  points  out  a remarkable  passage,  or 
something  that  requires  particular  attention. 

A Brace  | is  used  in  poetry  at  the  end  of  a triplet  or  three 
lines,  which  have  the  same  rhyme. 

Braces  are  also  used  to  connect  a number  of  words  with  one 
common  term,  and  are  introduced  to  prevent  a repetition  in 
writing  or  printing. 

An  Asterisk,  or  little  star  * directs  the  reader  to  some  note 
in  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Two  or  three 
asterisks  generally  denote  the  omission  of  some  letters  in  a word, 
or  some  bold  or  indelicate  expression,  or  some  defect  in  the 
manuscript. 

An  Ellipsis is  also  used,  when  some  letters  in  a w^ord, 

or  some  words  in  a verse,  are  omitted , as,  “the  k — g,”  for  “the 
king.” 

An  Obelisk,  which  is  marked  thus,  f and  Parallels  thus,  || 
together  with  the  letters  of  the  Alphabet,  and  figures,  are  used 
as  references  to  the  margin,  or  bottom  of  the  page. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

DIRECTIONS  RESPECTING  THE  USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

As  the  commencement  of  every  sentence  is  distinguished  by  a 
capital  letter,  and  as  capitals  frequently  occur  in  other  parts  of  a 
sentence ; it  is  necessary  to  give  the  learner  some  directions 
respecting  their  proper  application. 


284 


CAPITAL  LETTERS. 


It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  every  noun  with  a capi- 
tal : but  as  this  practice  was  troublesome,  and  gave  the  writing 
or  printing  a crowded  and  confused  appearance,  it  has  been 
discontinued.  It  is,  however,  very  proper  to  begin  with  a 
capital. 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or  any 
other  piece  of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a period  ; and  if  the  two  sentences 
are  totally  independenU  after  a note  of  interrogation  or  exclama- 
tion. 

But  if  a number  of  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sentences, 
are  thrown  into  one  general  group  ; or  if  the  construction  of  the 
latter  sentences  depends  on  the  former,  all  of  them,  except  the 
first,  may  begin  with  a small  letter : as,  “ How  long,  ye  simple 
ones,  will  ye  love  simplicity  ? and  the  scorners  delight  in  their 
scorning  ? and  fools  hate  knowledge  Alas  ! how  different ! 
yet  how  like  the  same  !” 

3.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity : as,  “ God,  Jehovah,  the 
Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence,  the  Mes- 
siah, the  Holy  Spirit.” 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains,  rivers, 
ships : as,  “ George,  York,  the  Strand,  the  Alps,  the  Thames, 
the  Seahorse.” 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places ; as, 
‘‘  Grecian,  Roman,  English,  French,  and  Italian.” 

6.  The  first  word  of  a quotation,  introduced  after  a colon,  or 

when  it  is  in  a direct  form ; as,  “ Always  remember  this  ancient 
maxim : ‘ Know  thyself.’  ” ‘‘  Our  great  lawgiver  says,  ‘ Take 

up  thy  cross  daily,  and  follow  me.’  ” But  when  a quotation  is 
brought  in  obliquely  after  a comma,  a capital  is  unnecessary : 
as,  “ Solomon  observes,  ‘ that  pride  goes  before  destruction.’  ” 

The  first  word  of  an  example  may  also  very  properly  begin 
with  a capital : as,  “ Temptation  proves  our  virtue.” 

7.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of  books : 
as,  “ Johnson’s  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language “ Thom- 
sons Season’s “ Rollin’s  Ancient  History.” 

8.  The  first  line  of  every  word  in  poetry. 


PARAGRAPHS. 


285 


9.  The  pronoun  7,  and  the  interjection  O,  are  written  in  capi- 
tals : as,  “ I write  “ Hear  O earth.” 

Other  words  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals, 
when  they  are  remarkably  emphatical,  or  the  principal  subject 
of  the  composition. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF  PARAGRAPHS. 

As  every  species  of  composition  admits  of  being  divided  into 
parapraphs,  it  appears  to  be  proper  to  explain  the  nature  and 
use  of  these  divisions,  more  particularly  than  they  have  been  ex- 
plained in  Chapter  VI.  page  281.  The  following  rules  on  this 
subject  will  afford  the  student  some  instruction. 

1.  Different  subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very 
numerous  in  small  compass,  should  be  separated  into  para- 
graphs. 

2.  When  one  subject  is  continued  to  a considerable  length, 
the  larger  divisions  of  it  should  be  put  into  paragraphs.  And 
it  will  have  a good  effect  to  form  the  breaks,  when  it  can  prop- 
erly be  done,  as  sentiments  of  the  most  weight,  or  that  call  for 
particular  attention. 

3.  The  facts,  premises,  and  conclusions,  of  a subject,  some- 
times naturally  point  out  the  separations  into  paragraphs : and 
each  of  these,  when  of  great  length,  will  again  require  subdi- 
visions at  their  most  distinct  parts.  By  showing  the  learner 
how  some  of  those  divisions  may  be  introduced,  he  will  more 
easily  comprehend  their  nature.  They  may  be  expressed  in 
the  following  manner,  or  in  any  other  similar  forms  of  expres- 
sion,— “ From  this  enumeration  of  particulars,  it  appears  to  fob 
low,  that  ” &c.  “ The  natural  consequence  of  this  deduction  of 
facts,  is,”  &c.  “ The  legitimate  inference  from  these  premises, 
seems  to  be,”  &c.  “ From  the  preceding  statement,  we  are  war^ 
ranted  in  concluding,”  &c. 

4.  In  cases  which  require  a connected  subject  to  be  formed 
into  several  paragraphs,  a suitable  turn  of  expression,  exhibit- 
ing the  connexion  of  the  broken  parts,  will  give  beauty  and 
force  to  the  division.  This  rule  will  be  more  intelligible  to 


286 


PARAGRAPHS. 


the  student,  by  the  following  phrases,  which  point  out,  in  a few 
instances,  how  separated  paragraphs  may  be  connected  in  senti- 
ment. “This  idea  was  indeed,  no  more  than  conjecture  ; but  it 
was  cofirmed  by,’’  &c.  “ What  has  been  related  is  not,  in  itself, 

very  important ; but  connected  with  subsequent  facts,  it  has 
great  weight ,”  &c.  “ Happy  as  he  appears  to  have  been,  in  this 
situation,  his  felicity  was  augmented  by  another  event : this 
was,”  &c  “ These  are  the  miseries  of  vice  ; let  us  now  describe 
the  happiness  of  virtue,”  &c. 

In  the  following  letter,  some  of  the  preceding  rules  respect- 
ing paragraphs,  are  distinctly  exemplified:  and  we  present  it 
to  the  student,  as  an  illustration  and  confirmation  of  those 
rules.  To  elucidate  them  all  would  require  a greater  number 
of  pages,  than  can  be  properly  assigned  for  that  purpose  in  the 
present  work. 

“ According  to  my  promise,  I now  send  you  the  fine  sen- 
timents of  Addison,  upon  Gratitude.  But  before  I exhibit  this 
virtue,  I shall  present  you  with  a few  maxims  and  observations, 
which,  to  young  persons  in  particular,  are  of  great  import- 
ance ; and  which  I am  persuaded  will  meet  your  most  cordial 
approbation. 

Time  once  past,  never  returns : the  moment  which  is  lost,  is 
lost  forever. 

He  that  waits  for  an  opportunity  to  do  much  at  once,  may 
breathe  out  his  life  in  idle  wishes ; and  regret,  in  the  last  hour, 
his  useless  intentions,  and  barren  zeal. 

The  best  preparation  for  all  the  uncertainties  of  futurity, 
consists  in  a well  ordered  mind,  a good  conscience,  and  a cheer- 
ful submission  to  the  will  of  Heaven. 

The  appearances  of  our  security  are  frequently  deceitful. 
When  our  sky  seems  most  settled  and  serene,  in  some  unob- 
served quarter  gathers  the  little  black  cloud,  in  which  the  tem- 
pest ferments,  and  prepares  to  discharge  itself  on  our  head. 

To  sensual  persons,  hardly  anything  is  what  it  appears  to 
be : and  what  flatters  most  is  always  farthest  from  reality. 
There  are  voices  which  sing  around  them ; but  whose  strains 
allure  to  ruin.  There  is  a banquet  spread,  w^here  poison  is  in 
every  dish.  There  is  a coach  which  invites  them  to  repose : 
but  to  slumber  upon  it  is  death. 

We  should  cherish  sentiments  of  charity  towards  all  men. 
The  Author  of  all  good  nourishes  much  piety  and  virtue  in 
hearts  that  are  unknown  to  us;  and  beholds  repentance  ready 
to  spring  up  among  many,  whom  we  consider  as  reprobates. 

Let  him  that  desires  to  see  others  happy^  make  haste  to  give 


PARAGUAPHS. 


287 


while  his  gifts  can  be  enjoyed ; and  remember,  that  every 
moment  of  delay,  takes  away  something  from  the  value  of  his 
benefaction.  And  let  him  who  proposes  his  own  happiness 
reflect,  that  while  he  forms  his  purpose,  the  day  rolls  on,  and 
‘ the  night  cometh,  when  no  man  can  work.’ 

There  is  certainly  no  greater  felicity  than  to  be  able  to  look 
back  on  a life  usefully  and  virtuously  employed ; to  trace  our 
own  progress  in  existence,  by  such  tokens  as  excite  neither 
shame  nor  sorrow.  It  ought  therefore  to  be  the  care  of  those 
who  wish  to  pass  the  last  hours  with  comfort,  to  lay  up  such  a 
treasure  of  pleasing  ideas,  as  shall  support  the  expenses  of  that 
time,  which  is  to  depend  wholly  upon  the  fund  already  acquired. 

The  beautiful  piece  of  Addison,  on  the  duty  and  pleasure  of 
being  grateful  to  our  benefactors,  is  as  follows. 

‘ There  is  not  (says  he)  a more  pleasing  exercise  of  the  mind, 
than  gratitude.  It  is  accompanied  with  so  great  inward  satis- 
faction, that  the  duty  is  sufficiently  rew^arded  by  the  perform- 
ance. It  is  not,  like  the  practice  of  many  other  virtues,  difficult 
and  painful ; but  attended  with  so  much  pleasure,  that  were 
there  no  positive  command  which  enjoined  it,  nor  any  recom- 
pense laid  up  for  it  hereafter,  a generous  mind  would  indulge 
in  it,  for  the  natural  gratification  it  affords. 

If  gratitude  is  due  from  man  to  man,  how  much  more  from 
man  to  his  Maker  ?— The  Supreme  Being  does  not  only  confer 
upon  us  those  bounties,  which  proceed  more  immediately  from 
his  hand,  but  even  those  benefits  which  are  conveyed  to  us  by 
others.  Every  blessing  we  enjoy,  by  what  means  soever  it 
may  be  derived  upon  us,  is  the  gift  of  him,  who  is  the  great 
author  of  good,  and  the  Father  of  mercies. 

If  gratitude,  w hen  exerted  towards  one  another,  naturally 
produces  a very  pleasing  sensation  in  the  mind  of  a grateful 
man,  it  exalts  the  soul  into  rapture,  when  it  is  employed  on  this 
great  object  of  gratitude : on  this  beneficent  Being,  who  has 
given  us  every  thing  we  already  possess,  and  from  whom  we 
expect  every  thing  we  yet  hope  for.’ 

I hope  that  the  maxims  and  observations,  and  the  sentiments 
on  gratitude,  which  are  contained  in  this  letter,  will  be  con- 
sidered by  you  of  so  much  importance,  as  to  be  worthy  of 
being  impressed  on  your  memory. 


Yours  most  affectionately.” 


(288)  . 


CONCLUSION. 


Having  finished  the  present  treatise  on  the  several  parts  of 
Grammar,  we  shall  conclude  this  portion  of  our  work,  with 
expressing  a few  sentiments,  in  vindication  of  the  subject  and 
labours  in  which  we  have  been  engaged.  These  sentiments 
have  been  principally  taken  from  Harris’s  Hermes. 

An  objector  to  this  system  of  grammatical  rules  and  princi- 
ples, may  demand,  with  an  air  of  pleasantry  and  ridicule, — 

Is  there  no  speaking  then’ without  all  this  trouble?  Do  we 
not  all  converse  together  without  difficulty,  and  clearly  com- 
municate our  ideas ; not  only  the  learned  but  the  unlearned, 
not  only  profound  philosophers,  but  also  poor  and  simple  pea- 
sants ?”  We  may  answer,  by  interrogating  on  our  part ; Do 
not  those  same  poor  peasants  use  the  LeVer  and  the  Wedge, 
and  mafny  other  instruments,  with  much  habitual  readiness  ? 
And  yet  have  they  any  conception  of  those  geometrical  princi- 
ples, from  which  those  machines  derive  their  efficacy  and  force? 
And  is  the  ignorance  of  these  peasants  a reason  for  others  to 
remain  ignorant;  or  to  render  the  subject  a less  becoming 
inquiry  ? Think  of  animals,  and  vegetables,  that  occur  every 
day  ; of  time,  of  place,  and  of  motion  ; of  light,  of  colours,  and 
of  gravitation ; of  our  very  senses  and  intellect,  by  which  we 
perceive  every  thing  else  ; that  they  are,  we  all  know,  and  are 
perfectly  satisfied  ; what  they  are,  is  a subject  of  much  obscurity 
and  doubt.  Were  we  to  reject  this  last  question,  because  we 
are  certain  of  the  first  position,  we  should  banish  all  philosophy 
at  once  out  of  the  world. 

But  a graver  objector  now  accosts  us.  What  (says  he)  is 
the  utility  ? Whence  the  j)rofit,  where  the  gain  ?”  Every 
science  whatever  (we  may  answer)  has  its  use.  Arithmetic  is 
excellent  for  the  guaging  of  liquors ; geometry,  for  the  measur- 
ing of  estates ; astronomy,  for  the  making  of  almanacs ; and 
grammar,  perhaps,  for  the  drawing  of  bonds  and  conveyances. 

Thus  much  to  the  Interested.  If  the  Liberal  ask  for  something 
better  than  this,  we  may  answer  and  assure  them,  from  the 
best  authorities,  that  every  exercise  of  the  mind  upon  theorems 
of  science,  like  generous  and  manly  exercise  of  the  body,  tends 
to  call  forth  and  strengthen  nature’s  original  vigour.  Be  the 


CONCLUSION. 


289 


subject  immediately  lucrative,  or  not,  the  nerves  of  reason  are 
braced  by  the  mere  employ ; and  we  become  abler  actors  in 
the  drama  of  life,  whether  our  part  be  of  the  busier,  or  of  the 
sedater  kind. 

Perhaps  too,  there  is  a pleasure,  even  in  science  itself,  distinct 
from  any  end,  to  which  it  may  be  farther  conducive.  Are  not 
health  and  strength  of  body,  desirable  for  their  own  sakes, 
though  we  happen  not  to  be  destined  for  porters  or  draymen  ? 
And  have  not  health  and  strength  of  mind  their  intrinsic  worth 
also,  though  not  assigned  to  the  pursuits  of  emolument  ? Why 
should  there  not  be  a good,  (could  we  have  the  virtue  to 
recognise  it,)  in  the  mere  energy  of  our  intellect,  as  much  as  in 
energies  of  lower  degree  ? 

If  there  be  supposed  then  a pleasure,  a satisfaction,  a good, 
a something  valuable  for  itself  without  a view  to  any  thing 
farther,  in  so  many  objects  of  the  subordinate  kind,  shall  we  not 
allow  the  same  praise  to  the  sublime  objects  of  the  mind? 
Shall  the  intellect  alone  feel  no  pleasures  in  its  energy,  when 
we  allow  them  to  the  gross  energies  of  appetite  and  sense  ? 
Whatever  may  be  urged  in  behalf  of  the  enjoyment  of  the 
senses,  we  may  safely  affirm  of  intellectual  good,  that  is  the  good  ^ 
of  that  part,  which  is  most  excellent  within  us ; that  it  is  a 
good  accommodated  to  all  places  and  times ; which  neither 
depends  on  the  will  of  others,  nor  on  the  affiuence  of  external 
fortune  ; that  it  is  a good  which  decays  not  with  decaying 
appetites,  but  often  arises  in  vigour,  when  those  are  no  more. 

But  assuredly,  when  our  enjoyments  and  powers,  whether  of 
the  senses,  the  imagination,  or  the  understanding,  are  contem- 
plated with  gratitude  to  their  Author,  the  Giver  of  all  good, 
and  employed  to  promote  his  will  and  our  own  final  well  being, 
they  answer,  in  the  highest  degree,  the  end  for  which  they 
were  granted  to  us.  By  these  means  they  become  blessings 
truly  improved,  ennobled,  and  sanctified. 


VoL.  I. 


39 


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APPENDIX: 


CONTAINING^ 


RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS, 


ASSISTING  YOUNG  PERSONS 


WRITE  WITH  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY. 

TO  BE 

STUDIED  AFTER  THEY  HAVE  ACaUIRED  A COMPETENT  KNOWLEDGE 

OP 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


“Non  polum  ut  inlelligere  possit,  sed  c omnino  possit  non  intelligere  curandum.” 

(Auinctilian. 


r.L 


rrrj'j*  .i-  'a 


or  ‘v^. 


APPENDIX. 


Perspicuity  is  the  fundamental  quality  of  style; 
a quality  so  essential  in  every  kind  of  writing,  that 
for  the  want  of  it  nothing  can  atone.  It  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  merely  a sort  of  negative  virtue,  or 
freedom  from  defect.  It  has  higher  merit:  it  is  a 
degree  of  positive  beauty.  We  are  pleased  with  an 
author,  and  consider  him  as  deserving  praise,  who 
frees  us  from  all  fatigue  of  searching  for  his  meaning : 
he  carries  us  through  his  subject  without  any 
embarrassment  or  confusion : whose  style  flows 
always  like  a limpid  stream,  through  which  we  see 
to  the  very  bottom. 

Authors  sometimes  plead  the  difliculty  of  their 
subject,  as  an  excuse  for  the  want  of  perspicuity. 
But  the  excuse  can  rarely,  if  ever,  be  admitted.  For 
whatever  a man  conceives  clearly,  he  may,  if  he  will 
be  at  the  trouble,  put  it  into  distinct  propositions, 
and  express  it  clearly  to  others ; and  upon  no  subject 
ought  any  man  to  write,  where  he  cannot  think 
clearly.  His  ideas  may,  very  excusably,  be  on  some 
subjects  incomplete  or  inadequate;  but  still  as  far  as 
they  go,  they  ought  to  be  clear;  and  wherever  this 
is  the  case,  perspicuity  in  expressing  them,  is  always 
attainable. 

The  study  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  express- 
ion, consists  of  Three  Parts  : and  requires  attention. 
First,  to  Single  Words  and  Phrases  ; Secondly,  to  the 
Construction  of  Sentences ; and  Thirdly,  to  the  Great 
Principle  which  decides  the  propriety  of  language.  If 
words  are  properly  chosen,  correctly  arranged,  and 
conformable  to  present  established  usage,  it  is  impos- 
sible that  the  sense  can  be  ambiguous. 


PART  I. 


OF  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY  OF 
EXPRESSION, 

With  respect  to  single  Words  and  Phrases. 

These  qualities  of  style,  considered  with  regard  to 
words  and  phrases,  require  the  following  properties : 

PURITY,— PROPRIETY,— ANo  PRECISION* 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF  PURITY. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  5.  Exercises.  Chap.  1. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words,  and  such 
constructions,  as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  language  which 
we  speak ; in  opposition  to  words  and  phrases  that  are  taken 
from  other  languages,  or  that  are  ungrammatical,  obsolete, 
new-coined,  or  used  without  proper  authority.  All  such  words 
and  phrases  as  the  following,  should  be  avoided : Quoth  he ; 
I wist  not ; erewhile  ; behest ; self-same ; delicatessen  for  deli- 
cacy ; politessen  for  politeness  ; hauteur ^ for  haughtiness ; incum- 
hermentn  connexityn  martyrized,  for  encumberance,  connexion, 
martyred. 

Foreign  and  learned  words,  unless  where  necessity  requires 
them,  should  never  be  admitted  into  our  composition.  Barren 
languages  may  need  such  assistance,  but  ours  is  not  one  of 

Purity  requires  that  those  words  only  shall  be  employed  which  are  of  classical  autliority  : 
Propriety,  that,  of  classical  words,  those  only  shall  be  selected,  which  are  best  adapted  to  express 
the  meaning : Precision,  that  no  more  words  shall  be  introduced,  than  are  necessary  to  convey  the 
sense.  Classical  authority  consists  of  speakers  and  writers,  who  are  deservedly  in  high  estimation  : 
speakers,  distinguished  for  their  elocution,  and  persuasive  eloquence  ; writers,  eminent  for  correct 
taste,  solid  matter,  and  refined  manner. 


PROPRIETY. 


295 


these.  A multitude  of  Latin  words,  in  particular,  have,  of  late, 
been  poured  in  upon  our  language.  On  some  occasions,  they 
give  an  appearance  of  elevation  and  dignity  to  style ; but  they 
often  render  it  stiff  and  apparently  forced.  In  general,  a plain, 
native  style  is  more  intelligible  to  all  readers : and  by  a proper 
management  of  words,  it  can  be  made  as  strong  and  expressive 
as  this  Latinised  English,  or  any  foreign  idioms. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF  PROPRIETY. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  5.  Exercises,  Chap.  2. 

Propriety  of  language,  is  the  selection  of  such  words  as  the 
best  usage  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas,  which  we  intend 
to  express  by  them  ; in  opposition  to  low  expressions,  and  to 
words  and  phrases  which  would  be  less  significant  of  the  ideas 
that  we  mean  to  convey.  Style  may  be  pure,  that  is,  it  may 
be  strictly  English  without  Scotticisms  or  Gallicisms,  or  ungram- 
matical, irregular  expressions  of  any  kind,  and  may,  neverthe- 
less, be  deficient  in  propriety ; for  the  words  may  be  ill  chosen, 
not  adapted  to  the  subject,  nor  fully  expressive  of  the  author’s 
sense. 

To  preserve  propriety,  therefore,  in  our  words  and  phrases, 
we  must  avoid  low  expressions ; supply  words  that  are  wanting  ; 
be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  words  in  different  senses ; avoid 
the  injudicious  use  of  technical  phrases,  equivocal  or  ambiguous 
words,  unintelligible  expressions,  and  all  such  words  and  phrases 
as  are  not  adapted  to  our  meaning. 

I.  kwdxdlow  expressions : such  as  ‘‘ Topsy  turvy, hurly  burly, 
pellmell ; having  a month’s  mind  for  a thing : currying  favour 
with  a person  ; dancing  attendance  on  the  great,”  &c. 

‘‘  Meantime  the  Britons,  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  were 
forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence.”  The  phrase 
“ left  to  shift  for  themselves^^  is  rather  a low  phrase,  and  too 
much  in  a familiar  style  to  be  proper  in  a grave  treatise. 

3.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting.  “ Arbitrary  power  I look 
upon  as  a greater  evil  than  anarchy  itself,  as  much  as  a savage 
is  a happier  state  of  life,  than  a slave  at  the  oar it  should 
have  been,  “ as  much  as  the  state  of  a savage,  is  happier  than 
that  of  a slave  at  the  oar.”  “ He  has  not  treated  this  subject 
liberally,  by  the  views  of  others  as  well  as  his  own ; “ By 
adverting  to  the  views  of  others,”  would  have  been  better. 


296 


PROPRIETY. 


“ This  generous  action  greatly  increased  his  former  services 
it  should  have  been,  “ greatly  increased  the  merit  of  his  former 
45ervices.”  “ By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  or  fancy, 
(which  I shall  use  promiscuously,)  I here  mean,”  &c.  This 
passage  ought  to  have  had  the  word  ‘‘  terms”  supplied,  which 
would  have  made  it  correct ; “ terms  which  I shall  use  promis- 
cuously.” 

It  may  be  proper  in  this  place  to  observe,  that  articles  and 
prepositions  are  sometimes  improperly  omitted : as  in  the  fol- 
lowing instances  : “ How  immense  the  difference  between  the 
pious  and  profane  !”  “ Death  is  the  common  lot  of  all ; of  good 

men  and  bad.”  They  should  have  had  the  article  and  preposi- 
tion repeated : “ How  immense  the  difference  between  the  pious 
and  the  profane!”  “ Death  is  the  common  lot  of  all;  of  good 
men  and  of  bad.” 

The  repetition  of  articles  and  prepositions  is  proper,  when 
we  intend  to  point  out  the  objects  of  which  we  speak,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other,  or  in  contrast ; and  when  we  wish 
that  the  reader’s  attention  should  rest  on  that  distinction  ; as, 
Our  sight  is  at  once  the  most  delightful,  and  the  most  useful  of 
all  our  senses.” 

3.  In  the  same  sentence  he  careful  not  to  use  the  same  ward 
too  frequently^  nor  in  different  senses.  “ One  may  have  an  air 
which  proceeds  from  a just  sufficiency  and  knowledge  of  the 
matter  before  him,  lehich  may  naturally  produce  some  motions 
of  his  head  and  body,  which  might  become  the  bench  better 
than  the  bar.” 

The  pronoun  which  is  here  thrice  used,  in  such  a manner  as 
to  throw  obscurity  over  the  sentence. 

“ Gregory  favoured  the  undertaking,  for  no  other  reason  than 
this,  that  the  manager,  in  countenance,  favoured  his  friend.” 
It  should  have  been,  “ resembled  his  friend.” 

Charity  expands  our  hearts  in  love  to  God  and  man : it  is 
by  the  virtue  of  charity  that  the  rich  are  blessed,  and  the  poor 
supplied.”  In  this  sentence,  the  word  “ charity”  is  improperly 
used  in  two  different  senses  : for  the  highest  benevolence,  and 
for  almsgiving.” 

4.  Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  terms.  To  inform 
those  who  do  not  understand  sea-phrases,  that,  “ We  tacked  to 
the  larboard,  and  stood  off  to  sea,”  would  be  expressing  our- 
selves very  obscurely.  Technical  phrases  not  being  in  current 
use,  but  only  the  peculiar  dialect  of  a particular  class,  we  should 
never  use  them  but  when  we  know  they  will  be  understood. 

5.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words.  The  following  senten- 


PROPRIETY. 


297 


ces  are  exceptionable  in  this  respect.  “ As  for  such  animals 
as  are  mortal  or  noxious,  we  have  a right  to  destroy  them.” 
‘‘  I long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what  you  “ He 
aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown,”  may  denote  either, 

Nothing  was  less  aimed  at  by  him  than  the  crown,”  or, 
“ Nothing  inferior  to  the  crown  could  satisfy  his  ambition.” 

I will  have  mercy ^ and  not  sacrifice.”  The  first  part  of  this 
sentence  denotes,  ‘‘I  will  exercise  mercy  ; whereas  it  is  in  this 
place  employed  to  signify,  “ I require  others  to  exercise  it.” 
The  translation  should  therefore  have  been  accommodated  to 
these  different  meanings.  “ They  were  both  much  more  an- 
cient among  the  Persians  than  Zoroaster  or  Zerdusht.”  The 
or  in  this  sentence  is  equivocal.  It  serves  either  as  a copulative 
to  synonymous  words,  or  as  a disjunctive  of  different  things. 
If,  therefore,  the  student  should  not  know,  that  Zoroaster  and 
Zerdusht  mean  the  same  person,  he  will  mistake  the  sense. 
“The  rising  tomb  a lofty  column  bore:”  “And  thus  the  son 
the  fervent  site  addressed.”  Did  the  tomb  bear  the  column, 
or  the  column  the  tomb  X Did  the  son  address  the  sire,  or  the 
sire  the  son  ? 

If  the  sire  addressed  the  son,  the  line  should  run  thus ; 

“ And  thus  his  son  the  fervent  sire  address’d.” 

If  the  son  addressed  the  sire ; 

“ And  thus  the  son  his  fervent  sire  address’d.” 

When  we  say ; “ Neither  life  nor  death  shall  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  God ;”  it  may  mean,  either  from  the  love 
which  we  owe  to  God,  or  the  love  which  he  bears  to  us : for 
“ The  love  of  God”  may  denote,  either  the  relation  which  the 
affection  bears  to  its  subject,  or  that  which  it  bears  to  its  object. 

An  ambiguity  likewise  arises,  from  expressing  either  the  re- 
lation of  the  effect  to  its  cause,  or  that  of  the  accident  to  its 
subject : as,  “ This  event  took  place  a little  after  the  reforma- 
tion of  Luther.”  This  sentence  may  import,  either  the  change 
produced  hy  Luther,  or  a change  produced  in  him.  The  latter 
indeed  is  the  meaning,  according  to  the  construction  of  the 
phrase  ; though  it  is  not  that  which  was  intended  by  the  author. 
He  should  have  said,  “ the  reformation  hy  Luther.” 

6.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  words  or  phrases.  “ I 
have  observed”  says  Steele,  “that  the  superiority  among  these 
coffee-house  politicians,  proceeds  from  an  opinion  of  gallantry 
and  fashion.”  This  sentence,  considered  in  itself,  evidently 
conveys  no  meaning.  First,  it  is  not  said  whose  opinion,  their 
own,  or  that  of  others  : Secondly,  it  is  not  said  what  opinion, 
or  of  what  sort,  favourable  or  unfavourable,  true  or  false  ; but 
in  general,  “ an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion,”  which  contains 
VoL.  I.  40 


298 


APPENDIX^ 


no  definite  expression  of  any  meaning.  With  the  joint  assist- 
ance of  the  context,  reflexion,  and  conjecture,  wfe  shall  perhaps 
conclude  that  the  author  intended  to  say  ; That  the  rank 
among  these  politicians,  was  determined  by  the  opinion  gene- 
rally entertained  of  the  rank,  in  point  of  gallantry  and  fashion, 
that  each  of  them  had  attained.” 

“ This  temper  of  mind,”  says  an  author  speaking  of  humility, 
‘‘  keeps  our  understanding  tight  about  us.”  Whether  the  author 
had  any  meaning  in  this  expression,  or  what  it  was,  is  not  easy 
to  determine. 

Sometimes  a writer  runs  on  in  a specious  verbosity,  amusing 
his  reader  with  synonymous  terms  and  incidental  propositions, 
well-turned  periods,  and  high  sounding  words  ; but  at  the  same 
time,  using  those  words  so  indefinitely,  that  the  reader  can 
either  affix  no  meaning  at  all  to  them,  or  may  affix  to  them 
almost  any  meaning  he  pleases. 

If  it  is  asked,”  says  a late  writer  , “ whence  arises  the  har- 
mony or  beauty  of  language  ? what  are  the  rules  for  obtaining 
it  ? the  answer  is  obvious.  Whatever  renders  a period  sweet 
and  pleasant,  makes  it  also  graceful.  A good  ear  is  the  gift  of 
nature ; it  may  be  much  improved,  but  not  acquired  by  art. 
Whoever  is  possessed  of  it,  will  scarcely  need  dry  critical  pre- 
cepts to  enable  him  to  judge  of  a true  rythmus,  and  melody 
of  composition.  Just  numbers,  accurate  proportions,  a musical 
symphony,  magnificent  figures,  and  that  decorum  which  is  the 
result  of  all  these,  are  unison  to  the  human  mind.” 

The  following  is  a poetical  example  of  the  same  nature,  in 
which  there  is  scarcely  a glimpse  of  meaning,  though  it  was 
composed  by  an  eminent  poet. 

From  harmony,  from  heavenly  harmony. 

This  universal  frame  began : 

From  harmony  to  harmony 
Thro’  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran. 

The  diapason  closing  full  in  man. 

I general,  it  may  be  said,  that  in  writings  of  this  stamp  we 
must  accept  of  sound  instead  of  sense  ; being  assured  that  if  we 
meet  with  little  that  can  inform  the  judgment,  we  shall  at  least 
find  nothing  that  will  offend  the  ear.  And  perhaps  this  is  one 
reason  that  we  pass  over  such  smooth  language,  without  sus- 
pecting that  it  contains  little  or  no  meaning.  In  order  to  write 
or  speak  clearly  and  intelligibly,  two  things  are  especially  re- 
quisite : one,  that  we  have  clear  and  distinct  ideas  of  our  sub- 
ject ; and  the  other,  that  our  words  be  approved  signs  of  those 
ideas.  That  persons  who  think  confusedly,  should  express 


PROPRIETY. 


299 


themselves  obscurely,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at : for  embar- 
rassed, obscure,  and  feeble  sentences,  are  generally,  if  not 
always,  the  result  of  embarrassed,  obscure, and  feeble  thought: 
but  that  persons  of  judgment  who  are  accustomed  to  scrutinize 
their  ideas,  and  the  signification  of  their  words  should  sometimes 
write  without  any  meaning,  is,  at  first  sight,  matter  of  admiration. 
This,  however,  when  further  considered,  appears  to  be  an  effect 
derived  from  the  same  cause,  indistinctness  of  conception, 
and  inattention  to  exact  import  of  words. — The  occasions  on 
which  we  are  most  apt  to  speak  and  write  in  this  unintelligible 
manner,  are  the  three  following. 

The  is,  where  there  is  an  exuberance  of  metaphor. 
Writers  who  are  fond  of  the  metaphoric  style,  are  generally 
disposed  to  contiuue  it  too  long,  and  to  pursue  it  too  far.  They 
are  often  misled,  by  a desire  of  flourishing  on  the  several  prop- 
erties of  a metaphor,  which  they  have  ushered  into  the  dis- 
course, without  taking  the  trouble  to  examine  wdiether  there  are 
any  qualities  in  the  subject,  to  which  these  properties  can,  with 
justice  and  perspicuity,  be  applied.  The  following  instance  of 
this  sort  of  writing,  is  from  an  author  of  considerable  eminence. 
‘^Men  must  acquire  a very  peculiar  and  strong  habit  of  turning 
their  view  inw^ard,  in  order  to  explore  the  interior  regions  and 
recesses  of  the  mind,  the  hollow  caverns  of  deep  thought,  the 
private  seats  of  fancy,  and  the  wastes  and  wildernesses,  as  well 
as  the  more  fruitful  and  cultivated  tracts  of  this  obscure  climate.” 
A most  wonderful  way  of  telling  us,  that  it  is  difficult  to  trace 
the  operations  of  the  mind.  The  author  having  determined  to 
represent  the  human  mind  under  the  metaphor  of  a country,  re- 
volved in  his  thoughts  the  various  objects  which  might  be  found 
in  a country,  without  considering  wiiether  there  are  any  things 
in  the  mind  properly  analogous  to  these.  Hence  the  strange 
parade  he  makes  with  regions  and  recesses,  hollow  caverns  and 
private  seats,  wastes  and  wildernesses,  fruitful  and  cultivated 
tracts ; w^ords  which,  though  they  have  a precise  meaning,  as 
applied  to  country,  have  no  definite  signification,  as  applied  to 
mind. 

The  second  occasion  of  our  being  apt  to  write  unintelligibly, 
is  that  wherein  the  terms  most  frequently  occurring,  denote 
things  which  are  of  a complicated  nature,  and  to  which  the 
mind  is  not  sufficiently  familiarized.  Of  these  the  instances  are 
numberless  in  every  tongue  : such  as,  ‘‘  Government,  church, 
state,  constitution,  power,  legislature,  jurisdiction,”  &c. 

The  third  and  principal  occasion  of  unintelligible  writing,  is, 
when  the  terms  employed  are  very  abstract,  and  consequently 
of  very  extensive  signification.  Thus,  the  word  lion  is  more 
distinctly  apprehended  by  the  mind,  than  the  word  beast ; beast 
than  animal,  and  animal  than  being. 


300 


APPENDIX. 


The  7th  and  last  rule  for  preserving  propriety  in  our  words 
and  phrases,  is,  to  avoid  all  those  which  are  not  adapted  to  the 
ideas  we  mean  to  communicate  ; or  which  are  less  significant 
than  others  of  those  ideas,  “ He  feels  any  sorrow  that  can 
arrive  at  man  better  “ happen  to  man.”  ‘‘  The  conscience  of 
approving  one’s  self  a benefactor,  is  the  best  recompense  for 
being  so  it  should  have  been,  “ consciousness.^^  “ He  firmly 
believed  the  dds'ine  precept^  ‘ There  is  not  a sparrow  falls  to  the 
ground,’  ” &c.  It  should  have  been  “ doctrine'^ 

‘‘  It  is  but  opening  the  eye,  and  the  scene  enters.”  A scene 
cannot  be  said  to  enter  : an  actor  enters  ; but  a scene  appears 
OY  presents  itself. 

“ We  immediately  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an  object,  with- 
out inquiring  into  the  causes  of  it it  is  proper  to  say,  that  we 
assent  to  the  truth  of  a proposition  ; but  it  cannot  so  well  be 
said,  that  we  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an  ohjecL  Acknowledge 
would  have  expressed  the  sense  with  propriety. 

The  sense  of  feeling,  can,  indeed,  give  us  a notion  of  ex- 
tension, shape,  and  all  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye,  except 
colours.”  ‘‘  Extension  and  shape  can  with  no  propriety,  be  called 
ideas  : they  are  properties  of  matter.  Neither  is  it  accurate,  to 
speak  of  any  sense  giving  us  a notion  of  ideas : our  senses  give 
us  the  ideas  themselves.  The  meaning  of  the  sentence  would 
have  been  proper,  and  much  clearer,  if  the  author  had  expressed 
himself  thus : “ The  sense  of  feeling,  can,  indeed,  give  us  the 
idea  of  extension,  figure,  and  all  the  other  properties  of  matter, 
which  are  perceived  by  the  eye,  except  colours.” 

“ The  covetous  man  never  has  a sufficiency  ; although  he  has 
what  is  enough  for  nature,”  is  much  inferior  to,  “ The  covetous 
man  never  has  enough  ; although  he  has  what  is  sufficient  for 
nature.” 

A traveller  observes  the  most  striking  objects  he  sees  ; a 
general  remarks  all  the  motions  of  his  enemy  better  thus ; 
“A  traveller  remarks  f &c.  ; A general  &c. 

This  measure  enlarged  his  school,  and  obliged  him  to  in- 
crese  the  buildings  ,”  it  should  be,  ‘‘  increased  his  school,”  and 
enlarge  the  buildings.” 

“ He  applied  a medicine  before  the  poison  had  time  to  wwk 
better  thus  : “ He  applied  an  antidotef  , 

The  poison  of  a suspicious  temper,  frequently  throws  out 
its  bad  qualities  on  all  who  are  within  its  reach better,  “ throws 
out  its  malignant  qualities.” 

“ I will  go  except  I should  be  ill “ I saw  them  all  unless 
two  or  three  corrected  thus : “ unless  I should  be  ill ^^except 
two  or  three.” 

A selection  of  words  and  phrases,  which  are  peculiarly  ex- 
pressive of  the  ideas  we  design  to  communicate  ; or  which  are 


PRECISION. 


301 


as  particular  and  determinate  in  their  signification,  as  is  consist- 
ent with  the  nature  and  the  scope  of  the  discourse ; possesses 
great  beauty,  and  cannot  fail  to  produce  a good  effect. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF  PRECISION. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  5.  Exercises.  Chap.  3. 

Precision  is  the  third  requisite  of  perspicuity  with  respect  to 
words  and  phrases.  It  signifies  retrenching'  superfluities,  and 
pruning  the  expression,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor  less, 
than  an  exact  copy  of  the  person’s  idea  who  uses  it. 

The  words  used  to  express  ideas  may  be  faulty  in  three  res- 
pects. First,  they  may  not  express  the  idea  which  the  author 
intends,  but  some  other  which  only  resembles  it:  secondly.  They 
may  express  that  idea,  but  not  fully  and  completely : thirdly, 
They  may  express  it,  together  with  something  more  than  is  in- 
tended. Precision  stands  opposed  to  these  three  faults,  but 
chiefly  to  the  last.  Propriety  implies  a freedom  from  the  two 
former  faults.  The  words  w^hich  are  used  may  be  proper  ; that 
is,  they  may  express  the  idea  intended,  and  they  may  express  it 
fully : but  to  be  precise^  signifies  that  they  express  that  idea^  and 
no  more. 

The  use  and  importance  of  precision,  may  be  deduced  from 
the  nature  of  the  human  mind.  It  never  can  view,  clearly  and 
distinctly,  more  than  one  object  at  a time.  If  it  must  look  at 
two  or  three  together,  especially  objects  that  have  resemblance 
or  connexion,  it  finds  itself  confused  and  embarrassed.  It  can- 
not clearly  perceive,  in  what  they  agree,  and  in  what  they  differ. 
Thus  were  any  object,  suppose  some  animal,  to  be  presented  to 
my  view,  of  whose  structure  I wish  to  form  a distinct  notion,  I 
should  desire  all  its  trappings  to  be  taken  off,  I should  require  it 
to  be  brought  before  me  by  itself,  and  to  stand  alone,  that  there 
might  be  nothing  to  divide  my  attention.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  words.  If,  when  any  one  would  inform  me  of  his  meaning, 
he  also  tells  me  more  than  what  conveys  it,  if  he  joins  foreign 
circumstances  to  the  principal  objects ; if,  by  unnecessarily 
varying  the  expression,  he  shifts  the  point  of  view,  and  makes 
me  see  sometimes  the  object  itself,  and  sometimes  another  thing 
that  is  connected  with  it;  he  thereby  obliges  me  to  look  on  seve- 
ral objects  at  once,  and  I lose  sight  of  the  principal.  He  loads 
the  animal  he  is  showing  me,  with  so  many  trappings  and  collars, 
that  I cannot  distinctly  view  it ; or  he  brings  so  many  of  the 


302 


APPENDIX. 


same  species  befere  me,  somewhat  resembling,  and  yet  some- 
what differing,  that  I see  none  of  them  clearly.  -When  an  author 
tells  me  of  his  hero’s  courage  in  the  day  of  battle,  the  expression 
is  precise,  and  I understand  it  fully ; but  if,  from  the  desire  of 
multiplying  words,  he  should  praise  his  courage  and  fortitude ; 
at  the  moment  he  joins  these  words  together,  my  idea  begins  to 
waver.  He  means  to  express  one  quality  more  strongly,  but  he  is 
in  truth  expressing  two ; courage  resists  danger ; fortitude 
supports  pain.  The  occasion  of  exerting  each  of  these  qualities, 
is  different ; and  being  led  to  think  of  both  together,  when  only 
one  of  them  should  be  considered,  my  view  is  rendered  unsteady, 
and  my  conception  of  the  object  indistinct. 

All  subjects  do  not  equally  require  precision.  It  is  sufficient, 
on  many  occasions,  that  we  have  a general  view  of  the  meaning. 
The  subject,  perhaps,  is  of  the  known  and  familiar  kind,  and  we 
are  in  no  hazard  of  mistaking  the  sense  of  the  author,  though 
every  word  which  he  uses  is  not  precise  and  exact. 

Many  authors  offend  against  this  rule  oi precision,  A respect- 
able one,  in  describing  a bad  action,  expresses  himself  thus : “ It 
is  to  remove  a good  and  orderly  affection,  and  to  introduce  an  ill 
or  disorderly  one ; to  commit  an  action  that  is  ill,  immoral,  and 
unjust ; to  do  ill,  or  to  act  in  prejudice  of  integrity,  good  nature, 
and  worth.” 

A crowed  of  unmeaning  or  useless  words  is  brought  together 
by  some  authors,  who,  afraid  of  expressing  themselves  in  a com- 
mon and  ordinary  manner,  and  allured  by  an  appearance  of 
splendour,  surround  every  thing  which  they  mean  to  say,  with  a 
certain  copious  loquacity. 

The  great  source  of  a loose  style,  in  opposition  to  precision, 
is  the  injudicious  use  of  the  words  termed  synonymous.  They 
are  called  synonymous,  because  they  agree  in  expressing  one 
principal  idea ; but  for  the  most  part,  if  not  always,  they  express 
it  with  some  diversity  in  the  circumstances. 

The  following  instances  show  a difference  in  the  meaning  of 
words  reputed  synonymous ; and  point  out  the  use  of  attending, 
with  care  and  strictness,  to  the  exact  import  of  words. 

Custom,  habit, — Custom,  respects  the  action  ; habit,  the  actor* 
By  custom,  we  mean  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  act ; 
by  habit,  the  effect  wdiich  that  repetition  produces  on  the  mind 
or  body.  By  the  custom  of  walking  often  in  the  streets,  one 
acquires  a habit  of  idleness. 

Pride,  vanity, — Pride  makes  us  esteem  ourselves ; vanity, 
makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others.  It  is  just  to  say,  that  a 
man  is  too  proud  to  be  vain. 


PRECISION. 


303 


Haughtiness^  disdain. — Haughtiness  is  founded  on  the  high 
opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves  ; disdain,  on  the  low  opinion 
we  have  of  others. 

Only,  alone. — Only,  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of  the 
same  kind ; alone,  imports  being  accompanied  by  no  other. 
An  only  child,  is  one  that  has  neither  brother  nor  sister : a 
child  alone,  is  one  who  is  left  by  itself.  There  is  a difference, 
therefore,  in  precise  language,  between  these  two  phrases; 

“ Virtue  only  makes  us  happy  and  “ Virtue  alone  makes  us 
happy.” 

Wisdom,  prudence. — Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act  what 
is  most  proper.  Prudence,  prevents  our  speaking  or  acting 
improperly. 

Entire,  complete. — A thing  is  entire,  by  wanting  none  of  its 
parts  : complete,  by  wanting  none  of  the  appendages  that  be- 
long to  it.  A man  may  have  an  entire  house  to  himself,  and  yet 
not  have  one  complete  apartment. 

Surprised,  astonished,  amazed,  confounded. — I am  surprised 
with  what  is  new  or  unexpected  : I am  astonished  with  what  is 
vast  or  great ; I am  amazed  at  what  is  incomprehensible  ; I am 
confounded  by  what  is  shocking  or  terrible. 

Tranquillity,  peace,  calm. — Tranquillity  respects  a situation 
free  from  trouble,  considered  in  itself ; peace,  the  same  situa- 
tion with  respect  to  any  causes  that  might  interrupt  it ; calm, 
with  regard  to  a disturbed  situation  going  before  or  following  it. 
A good  man  enjoys  tranquillity,  in  himself ; peace,  with  others ; 
and  calm,  after  the  storm. 

These  are  some  of  the  numerous  instances  of  words,  in  our 
language,  whose  significations  approach,  but  are  not  precisely 
the  same.  The  more  the  distinction  in  the  meaning  of  such 
words  is  attended  to,  the  more  clearly  and  forcibly  shall  we 
speak  or  write.  It  may  not  on  all  occasions,  be  necessary  to  pay 
a great  deal  of  attention  to  very  nice  distinctions  ; yet  the  fore- 
going instances  show  the  utility  of  some  general  care,  to  under- 
stand the  distinct  import  of  our  words. 

While  we  are  attending  to  precision,  we  must  be  on  our  guard, 
lest,  from  the  desire  of  pruning  too  closely,  we  retrench  all  copi- 
ousness. Scarcely  in  any  language  are  there  two  words  that 
convey  precisely  the  same  idea ; a person  thoroughly  conversant 
in  the  propriety  of  the  language,  will  always  be  able  to  observe 
something  that  distinguishes  them.  As  they  are  like  different 
shades  of  the  same  colour,  an  accurate  writer  can  employ  them 


304 


APPENDIX. 


to  great  advantage,  by  using  them  so  as  to  heighten  and  com- 
plete the  object  which  he  represents  to  us.  He  supplies  by  one 
what  was  wanting  in  the  other,  to  the  strength,  or  to  the  finish- 
ing, of  the  image  which  he  means  to  exhibit.  But,  for  this  pur- 
pose, he  must  be  attentive  to  the  choice  of  his  words,  and  not 
employ  them  carelessly,  merely  for  the  sake  of  filling  up  a period, 
or  of  rounding  or  diversifying  his  language,  as  if  their  significa- 
tion were  exactly  the  same,  while  in  truth  it  is  not.  To  unite 
copiousness  and  precision,  to  be  full  and  easy,  and  at  the  same 
time  correct  and  exact  in  the  choice  of  every  word,  is,  no  doubt, 
one  of  the  highest  and  most  difficult  attainments  in  waiting. 


PART  11. 

OF  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY  OF 
EXPRESSION. 

With  respect  to  the  construction  of  Sentences, 


We  have  finished  the  discussion  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy 
of  expression,  as  far  as  they  relate  to  the  materials  of  language, 
the  purity,  propriety,  and  precision  of  words.  It  remains  that 
we  consider  them,  with  regard  to  the  construction  of  these  ma- 
terials, or  the  disposition  of  words  in  sentences  and  periods. 
Hitherto  we  have,  investigated  the  nature  of  words  and  phrases 
detached  and  unconnected,  in  the  same  manner  as  an  architect 
selects  and  prepares  the  materials  of  an  edifice.  We  are  now 
like  the  same  artist,  to  delineate  the  plan  of  execution,  or  to 
point  out  the  most  proper  conjunction  of  the  materials,  to  ac- 
complish the  end  in  view.  As  the  best  materials  for  building 
will  not  form  a convenient  and  elegant  habitation,  unless  they 
are  adjusted  on  a proper  plan,  so  the  purest  and  best  chosen 
words  will  not  constitute  a perspicuous  and  beautiful  sentence, 
unless  they  are  well  applied  and  properly  arranged. 

Sentences  in  general  should  neither  be  very  long  nor  very 
short : long  ones  require  close  attention  to  make  us  clearly 
perceive  the  connexion  of  the  several  parts  ; and  short  ones  are 
apt  to  break  the  sense,  and  weaken  the  connexion  of  thought. 
Yet  occasionally  they  may  both  be  used  with  force  and  pro- 
priety : as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  senteces. 

‘‘If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as 
well  as  your  own  ; if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with  honour, 
and  how  many  die  without  name  or  children  ; how  little  beauty 
we  see,  and  how  few  friends  we  hear  of ; how  much  poverty, 
and  how  many  diseases  there  are  in  the  world  ; you  will  fall 
down  upon  your  knees,  and,  instead  of  repining  at  one  afflic- 
tion, will  admire  so  many  blessings  which  you  have  received 
-from  the  divine  hand.”  This  is  a sentence  composed  of 
several  members  linked  together,  and  hanging  upon  one 
VoL.  L 41 


306 


APPENDIX. 


another,  so  that  the  sense  of  the  whole  is  not  brought  out  till  the 
close.  The  following  is  an  example  of  one  in  which  the  sense 
is  formed  into  short,  independent  propositions,  each  complete 
within  itself.’  I confess  it  was  want  of  consideration  that 
made  me  an  author.  I wrote  because  it  amused  me.  I cor- 
rected, because  it  was  as  pleasant  to  me  to  correct,  as  to  write. 
I published,  because  I was  told  I might  please  such  as  it  was  a 
credit  to  please.” 

A train  of  sentences,  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  and 
with  the  same  number  of  members,  should  never  be  allowed 
to  succeed  one  another.  A protracted  succession  of  either 
long  or  short  sentences,  or  of  sentences  of  the  same  length, 
should  also  be  avoided : for  the  ear  tires  of  such  expressions, 
when  they  are  too  long  continued.  Whereas,  by  a proper 
mixture  of  long  and  short  periods,  and  of  periods  variously  con- 
structed, not  only  the  ear  is  gratified,  but  animation  and  force 
are  given  to  our  style.  A very  frequent  succession  of  words 
or  phrases,  in  couplets,  or  triplets,  is  also  a great  blemish  in 
composition. 

We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  things  most  essential  to  an 
accurate  and  a perfect  sentence.  They  appear  to  be  the  four 
following: 

1.  CLEARNESS. 

2.  UNITY. 

3.  STRENGTH. 


CHAPTER  1. 


4.  A JUDICIOUS  USE  OF 
THE  FIGURES  OF 
SPEECH. 


See  Vol.  ii.  Part  5.  Exercises.  Clearness.  Chap  I. 


The  first  requisite  of  a perfect  sentence,  is  Clearness. 

Whatever  leaves  the  mind  in  any  sort  of  suspense  as  to  the 
meaning,  ought  to  be  avoided.  Obscurity  arises  from  two 
causes : either  from  a wrong  choice  of  words,  or  a wrong 
arrangement  of  them.  The  choice  of  words  and  phrases,  as  far 
as  regards  perspicuity,  has  been  already  considered.  The  dis- 
position of  them  comes  now  under  consideration. 

The  first  thing  to  be  studied  here,  is  grammatical  pro- 
priety. But  as  the  grammar  of  our  language  is  comparatively 


CLEARNESS. 


307 


not  extensive,  there  may  be  an  obscure  order  of  words,  where 
there  is  no  transgression  of  any  grammatical  rule.  The  relations 
of  words,  or  members  of  a period,  are,  with  us,  ascertained 
only  by  the  position  in  which  they  stand. 

Hence  a capital  rule  in  the  arrangement  of  sentences  is,  that 
the  words  or  members,  most  clearly  related,  should  be  placed 
in  the  sentence  as  near  to  each  other  as  possible,  so  as  to 
make  their  mutual  relation  clearly  appear.  It  will  be  proper  to 
produce  some  instances,  in  order  to  show  the  importance  of 
this  rule. 

1.  In  the  position  of  adverbs.  The  Romans  understood 
liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we.”  These  words  are  capable  of 
two  different  senses,  according  as  the  emphasis,  in  reading  them, 
is  laid  upon  liberty,  or  upon  at  least.  The  words  should  have 
been  thus  arranged  : “ The  Romans  understood  liberty  as  well, 
at  least,  as  we.” 

Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism.” 
Is  it  meant  that  theisrh  is  capable  of  nothing  else  besides  being 
opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism  ? This  is  what  the  words 
literally  import,  through  the  wrong  placing  of  the  adverb  only. 
It  should  have  been,  “ Theism  can  be  opposed  only  to  poly- 
theism or  atheism.” 

‘‘  By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  I mean  only  such 
pleasures  as  arise  originally  from  sight.  When  it  is  said,  “ I 
mean  only  such  pleasures^’  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  adverb 
only  is  not  properly  placed.  It  is  not  intended  here  to  qualify 
the  word  mean,  but  such  pleasures ; and  therefore  should  have 
been  placed  in  as  close  connexion  as  possible,  with  the  word 
which  it  limits  or  qualifies.  The  style  becomes  more  clear 
and  neat,  when  the  words  are  arranged  thus : “ By  the  plea- 
sures of  the  imagination,  I mean  such  pleasures  only  as  arise 
from  sight.” 

In  the  following  sentence,  the  word  more  is  not  in  its  proper 
place.  “ There  is  not  perhaps,  any  real  beauty  or  deformity 
more  in  one  piece  of  matter  than  another.”  The  phrase  ought 
to  have  stood  thus  : “ Beauty  or  deformity  in  one  piece  of  mat- 
ter, more  than  in  another.” 

2.  In  the  position  of  circumstances,  and  of  particular  members. 

The  following  passage,  taken  from  Blackstone’s  Commentary 

on  the  laws  of  England,  exhibits  a number  of  depending  cir- 
cumstances distinctly  and  advantageously  arranged.  He  is 
writing  concerning  the  origin  of  civil  power.  “ This  is  what 


308 


APPENDIX* 


is  meant  by  the  original  contract  of  society,  which,  though  it 
has,  perhaps,  in  no  instance,  ever  been  formally  expressed  at 
the  first  institution  of  a state,  yet,  in  nature  and  reason,  should 
always  be  understood,  in  every  act  of  associating  together.” 
In  this  instance,  the  original  contract  of  society,  is  the  princi- 
pal idea,  and  appears,  with  propriety,  as  the  first  and  lead- 
ing part  of  the  sentence : “ This  is  what  is  meant  by  the 
original  contract  of  society.”  The  action  or  verb  “expres- 
sed,” is  limited  by  two  circumstances,  namely,  “in  no  in- 
stance,” and  “ at  the  first  institution  of  a state.”  The  for- 
mer of  these  circumstances  is  placed  before  the  verb,  and  the 
latter  after  it,  in  a manner  perfectly  analogous  to  the  position  of 
two  adverbs  attending  on  the  same  verb ; viz.  “ which  con- 
tract, though  perhaps  it  has,  in  no  instance,  been  formally  ex- 
pressed, at  the  first  institution  of  a state.”  The  second  verb 
or  action  of  the  sentence,  namely,  “ understood,”  is  attended 
also  by  two  circumstances,  viz,  “in  nature  and  in  reason,” 
and,  in  every  act  of  associating  together  which  circumstances 
are  arranged  in  the  same  manner,  and  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciples, as  those  in  the  former  part  of  the  sentence,  namely,  one 
before,  and  the  other  after,  the  action  ; thus  : “ yet,  in  nature 
and  in  reason,  should  always  be  understood,  in  every  act  of 
associating  together.” 

An  author  in  his  dissertation  on  parties,  thus  obscurely  and 
irregularly  expresses  himself : “Are  these  designs  which  any 
man,  who  is  born  a Briton,  in  any  circumstances,  in  any  situ- 
ation, ought  to  be  ashamed  or  afraid  to  avow  ?”  Here  we  are 
left  at  a loss,  whether  these  words,  “ in  any  circumstances,  in 
any  situation,”  are  connected  with  “ a man  born  a Briton,  in 
any  circumstances  or  situation,”  or  with  that  man’s  “ avowing 
his  designs  in  any  circumstances  or  situation  into  which  he 
may  be  brought.”  As  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  was  intend- 
ed, the  arrangement  ought  to  have  been  conducted  thus  : “ Are 
these  designs  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a Briton,  ought  to 
be  ashamed  or  afraid,  in  any  situation,  in  any  circumstances,  to 
avow  ?” 

The  following  is  another  instance  of  a wrong  arrangement  of 
circumstances.  “A  great  stone  that  I happened  to  find, after 
a long  search,  by  the  sea  shore,  served  me  for  an  anchor.”  One 
would  think  that  the  search  was  confined  to  the  sea  shore ; but 
as  the  meaning  is,  that  the  great  stone  was  found  by  the  sea 
shore,  the  period  ought  to  have  run  thus : “ A great  stone,  that, 
after  a long  search,  I happened  to  find  by  the  sea  shore,  served 
me  for  an  anchor.” 

It  is  a rule,  too,  never  to  crowd  many  circumstances  togeth- 
er, but  rather  to  intersperse  them  in  different  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence, joined  with  the  principal  words  on  which  they  depend. 


CLEARNESS. 


309 


For  instance : What  I had  the  opportunity  of  mentioning  to 
my  friend,  sometime  ago,  in  conversation,  was  not  a new 
thought.”  These  two  circumstances,  “ sometime  and  “ in 
conversation^'^  which  are  here  put  together,  would  have  had  a 
better  effect  disjoined  thus:  “What  I had  the  opportunity, 
sometime  ago,  of  mentioning  to  my  friend,  in  conversation,  was 
not  a new  thought.” 

Here  follows  an  example  of  the  wrong  arrangement  of  a 
member  of  a sentence.  “ The  minister  of  state  who  grows  less 
by  his  elevation,  like  a little  statue  placed  on  a mighty  pedestal, 
will  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about  him.”  Here,  so  far 
as  can  be  gathered  from  the  arrangement,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  object  introduced,  by  way  of  simile,  relates  to  what  goes 
before,  or  to  what  follows.  The  ambiguity  is  removed  by  the 
follov/ing  order.  “The  minister  of  state  who,  like  a little  statue 
placed  on  a mighty  pedestal,  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  will 
always,”  &c. 

Words  expressing  things  connected  in  the  thought,  ought  to 
be  placed  as  near  together  as  possible,  even  v/hen  their  separa- 
tion would  convey  no  ambiguity.  This  will  be  seen  in  the.  fol- 
lowing passages  from  Addison.  “ For  the  English  are  naturally 
fanciful,  and  very  often  disposed,  by  that  gloominess  and  mel- 
ancholy of  temper,  which  are  so  frequent  in  our  nation,  to  many 
wild  notions  and  extravagancies,  to  which  others  are  not  so 
liable.”  Here  the  verb  or  assertion  is,  by  a pretty  long  circum- 
stance, separated  from  the  subject  to  which  it  refers.  This 
might  have  been  easily  prevented,  by  placing  the  circumstance 
before  the  verb  thus : “ For  the  English  are  naturally  fanciful, 
and,  by  that  gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper,  which  are 
so  frequent  in  our  nation,  are  often  disposed  to  many  wild 
notions,”  &c. 

“ For  as  no  mortal  author,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and  vicissitude 
of  things,  knows  to  what  use  his  works  may,  some  time  or  other, 
be  applied,”  &c.  Better  thus : “ For  as,  in  the  ordinary  fate 
and  vicissitude  of  things,  no  mortal  author  knows  to  what  use, 
some  time  or  other,  his  works  may  be  applied,”  &c. 

From  these  examples,  the  following  observations  will  occur:- 
that  a circumstance  ought  never  to  be  placed  between  two 
capital  members  of  a period ; but  either  between  the  parts  of 
a member  to  which  it  belongs,  or  in  such  a manner  as  will  con- 
fine it  to  its  proper  member.  When  the  sense  admits  it,  the 
sooner  a circumstance  is  introduced,  generally  speaking,  the 
better,  that  the  more  important  and  significant  words  may  pos- 
sess the  last  place,  quite  disencumbered.  The  following  sen- 
tence is,  in  this  respect,  faulty.  “ The  emperor  was  so  intent 
on  the  establishment  of  his  absolute  power  in  Hungary,  that  he 
exposed  the  empire  doubly  to  desolation  and  ruin  for  the  sake 


310 


APPENDIX. 


of  it.”  Better  thus : “ That,  for  the  sake  of  it,  he  exposed  the 
empire  doubly  to  desolation  and  ruin.” 

This  appears  to  be  a proper  place  to  observe,  that  when  dif- 
ferent things  have  an  obvious  relation  to  each  other,  in  respect 
to  the  order  of  nature  or  time,  that  order  should  be  regarded,  in 
assigning  them  their  places  in  the  sentence ; unless  the  scope 
of  the  passages  require  it  to  be  varied.  The  conclusion  of  the 
following  lines  is  inaccurate,  in  this  respect:  “But  still  there 
will  be  such  a mixture  of  delight,  as  is  proportioned  to  the 
degree  in  which  any  one  of  these  qualifications  is  most  conspic- 
uous and  prevailing.”  The  order  in  which  the  last  two  words 
are  placed,  should  have  been  reversed,  and  made  to  stand,  pre- 
vailing and  conspicuous, — They  are  conspicuous,  because  they 
prevail. 

The  following  sentence  is  a beautiful  example  of  strict  con- 
formity to  this  rule.  Our  sight  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest 
variety  of  ideas,  converses  with  its  objects  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, and  continues  the  longest  in  action,  without  being  tired 
or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyments.”  This  passage  follows 
the  order  of  nature.  First,  w^e  have  the  variety  of  objects  men- 
tioned, which  sight  furnishes  to  the  mind ; next,  we  have  the 
action  of  sight  on  those  objects;  and  lastly,  we  have  the  time 
and  continuance  of  its  action.  No  order  could  be  more  natural 
or  exact. 

The  order  which  we  now  recommend,  is,  in  single  words 
especially,  frequently  violated,  for  the  sake  of  better  sound ; 
but,  perhaps,  in  no  instances,  without  a deviation  from  the  line 
of  strict  propriety. 

3.  In  the  disposition  of  the  relative  pronouns,  who,  which, 
what,  whose,  and  of  all  those  particles  which  express  the  con- 
nexion of  the  parts  of  speech  with  one  another, 

A small  error,  in  the  position  of  these  words,  may  cloud  the 
meaning  of  the  whole  sentence ; and  even  where  the  meaning 
is  intelligible,  we  always  find  something  awkward  and  disjointed 
in  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  when  these  relatives  are  out 
of  their  proper  place.  “ This  kind  of  wit,”  says  an  author, 
was  very  much  in  vogue  among  our  countrymen  about  an  age 
or  two  ago”  who  did  not  practise  it  for  any  oblique  reason, 
but  purely  for  the  sake  of  being  witty.”  We  are  at  no  loss 
about  the  meaning  here  ; but  the  construction  would  evidently 
be  mended,  by  disposing  the  circumstance,  “about  an  age 
or  two  ago”  in  such  a manner  as  not  to  separate  the  relative 
who  from  its  antecedent  our  countrymen  ; in  this  way : “ About 
an  age  or  two  ago,  this  kind  of  wit  was  very  much  in  vogue 
among  our  countrymen,  who  did  not  practise  it,”  &c. 


UNITY. 


311 


The  following  passage  is  still  more  censurable.  “ It  is  folly 
to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by  heap- 
ing up  treasures,  lohich  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the 
good  providence  of  our  Creator.”  Which  always  refers,  gram- 
matically, to  the  substantive  immediately  preceding  ; and  that, 
in  the  instance  just  mentioned,  is  “treasures.”  The  sentence 
ought  to  have  stood  thus : “ It  is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up 
treasures,  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  which, 
nothing  can  protect  us  against.”  &c. 

With  regard  to  relatives,  it  may  be  farther  observed,  that  ob- 
scurity often  arises.from  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  them,  par- 
ticularly of  the  pronouns  who  and  they^  and  them  and  theirs^ 
when  we  have  occasion  to  refer  to  different  persons  ; as  in  the 
following  sentence  of  Tillotson.  “ Men  look  with  an  evil  eye 
upon  the  good  that  is  in  others,  and  think  that  their  reputation 
obscures  them^  and  their  commendable  qualities  stand  in  their 
light ; and  therefore  they  do  what  they  can  to  cast  a cloud  over 
them,  that  the  bright  shining  of  their  virtues  may  not  obscure 
them^  This  is  altogether  careless  writing.  When  we  find  these 
personal  pronouns  crowding  too  fast  upon  us,  we  have  often  no 
method  left,  but  to  throw  the  whole  sentence  into  some  other 
form,  which  may  avoid  those  frequent  references  to  pei^ons  who 
have  before  been  mentioned. 

To  have  the  relation  of  every  word  and  member  of  a sentence 
marked,  in  the  most  proper  and  distinct  manner,  not  only  gives 
clearness  to  it,  but  makes  the  mind  pass  smoothly  and  agreeably 
along  all  the  parts  of  it. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OP  THE  UNITY  OF'  A SENTENCE. 

See  Vol.  ii.  Part  5.  Exercises.  Unity.  Chap.  2. 

The  second  requisite  of  a perfect  sentence,  is  its  Unity . 

In  every  composition,  there  is  always  some  connecting  prin- 
ciple among  the  parts.  Some  one  object  must  reign  and  be 
predominant.  But  most  of  all,  in  a single  sentence,  is  required 
the  strictest  unity.  For  the  very  nature  of  a sentence  implies 
that  one  proposition  is  expressed.  It  may  consist  of  parts,  in- 
deed, but  these  parts  must  be  so  closely  bound  together,  as  to 
make  the  impression  upon  the  mind,  of  one  object,  not  of  many. 
To  preserve  this  unity  of  a sentence,  the  following  rules  must 
be  observed. 


312 


APPENDIX. 


In  the  first  place,  During  the  course  of  a sentence^  the  scene 
should  he  changed  as  little  as  possible.  We  should  not  be  hur- 
ried by  sudden  transitions  from  person  to  person,  not  from 
subject  to  subject.  There  is  commonly,  in  every  sentence, 
some  person  or  thing  which  is  the  governing  word.  This 
should  be  continued  so,  if  possible,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  it. 

The  following  sentence  varies  from  this  rule : “ After  we  came 
to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where  I was  welcomed  by  all 
my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the  greatest  kindness.’’  In 
this  sentence,  though  the  objects  contained  in  it  have  a sufficient 
connexion  with  each  other,  yet  by  this  manner  of  representing 
them,  by  shifting  so  often  both  the  place  and  the  person,  we 
and  they  and  / and  who,  they  appear  in  so  disunited  a view,  that 
the  sense  of  connexion  is  much  impaired.  The  sentence  is 
restored  to  its  proper  unity,  by  turning  it  after  the  following 
manner : “ Having  come  to  an  anchor,  I was  put  on  shore, 

where  I was  welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  and  received  with  the 
greatest  kindness.” 

Here  follows  another  instance  of  departure  from  the  rule. 

The  sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  they  carried  him  to 
his  tent;  and,  upon  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  they  put 
him  into  a litter,  which  transported  him  to  a place  of  safety,  at 
the  distance  of  about  fifteen  leagues.”  Better  thus;  “The 
sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  was  carried  to  his  tent  ; and 
on  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  was  put  into  a litter,  and 
transported  to  a place  of  safety,  about  fifteen  leagues  distant.” 

A second  rule  under  the  head  of  unity,  is.  Never  to  crowd  into 
one  sentence  things  which  have  so  little  connexion,  that  they  could 
hear  to  he  divided  into  two  or  three  sentences. 

The  violation  of  this  rule  tends  so  much  to  perplex  and  ob- 
scure, that  it  is  safer  to  err  by  too  many  short  sentences,  than 
by  one  that  is  overloaded  and  embarrassed.  Examples  abound 
in  authors.  “ Archbishop  Tillotson,”  says  an  author,  “ died  in 
this  year.  He  was  exceedingly  beloved  by  king  William  and 
queen  Mary,  who  nominated  Dr.  Tennison,  bishop  of  Lincoln, 
to  succeed  him.”  Who  would  expect  the  latter  part  of  this  sen- 
tence to  follow  in  consequence  of  the  former  ? “ He  was  ex- 

ceedingly beloved  by  both  king  and  queen,”  is  the  proposition 
of  the  sentence.  We  look  for  some  proof  of  this,  or  at  least 
something  related  to  it  to  follow ; when  we  are  on  a sudden 
carried  off  to  a new  proposition. 

The  following  sentence  is  still  worse.  The  author  speak- 
ing of  the  Greeks  under  Alexander,  says : “ Their  march  was 
through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose  savage  inhabitants 


UNITY. 


313 


fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a breed  of  lean  sheep, 
whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavoury,  by  reason  of  their  con- 
tinual feeding  upon  sea-fish.”  Here  the  scene  is  changed  upon 
us  again  and  again.  The  inarch  of  the  Greeks,  the  description  § 
of  the  inhabitants  through  whose  country  they  travelled,  the 
account  of  their  sheep  and  the  cause  of  their  sheep  being  ill- 
tasted  food,  form  a jumble  of  objects,  slightly  related  to  each 
other,  which  the  reader  cannot,  without  much  difficulty,  com- 
prehend under  one  view. 

These  examples  have  been  taken  from  sentences  of  no  great 
length,  yet  very  crowded.  Writers  who  deal  in  long  sentences, 
are  very  apt  to  be  faulty  in  this  article.  Take,  for  an  instance, 
the  following  from  Temple.  “ The  usual  acceptation  takes 
profit  and  pleasure  for  two  different  things,  and  not  only  calls 
the  followers  or  votaries  of  them,  by  the  several  names  of  busy 
and  idle  men  ; but  distinguishes  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  that 
are  conversant  about  them  ; calling  the  operations  of  the  first, 
V/isdom;  and  of  the  other  Wit : which  is  a 8axon  word,  used 
to  express  what  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  call  lagcnio^  and  the 
French  Esprit,  both  from  the  Latin  ; though  I think  wit  more 
particularly  signifies  that  of  poetry,  as  may  occur  in  remarks  on 
the  Runic  language.”  When  the  reader  arrives  at  the  end  of 
this  perplexed  sentence,  he  is  surprised  to  find  himself  at  so 
great  a distance  from  the  object  with  which  he  set  out. 

It  is  a frequent  and  capital  error,  in  the  writings  even  of 
some  distinguished  authors,  to  introduce  two  or  more  leading 
thoughts  or  agents,  which  have  no  natural  relation  to,  or  de- 
pendence on  one  another,  which  cannot  concur  in  pointing 
towards  any  one  object,  and  which  must  therefore  destroy  the 
unity  of  the  sentence.  Shaftsbury  has  the  following  sentence. 

As  much  as  the  fertile  mould  is  fitted  to  the  tree ; as  much 
as  the  strong  and  upi’ight  trunk  of  the  oak  or  elm,  is  fitted  to 
the  twining  branches  of  the  vine  or  ivy  ; so  much  are  the  very 
leaves,  the  seeds  and  fruits  of  these  trees,  fitted  to  the  various 
animals:  these,  again,  to  one  another,  and  to  the  elements 
where  they  live,  and  to  which  they  are  as  appendices  in  a 
manner  fitted  and  joined  : as  either  by  wings  for  the  air,  fins 
for  the  water,  feet  for  the  earth,  and  by  other  correspondent 
inward  parts,  of  more  curious  frame  and  texture.”  This  long 
and  complicated  period  presents  two  agents : trees  lead  the 
first  member;  animals  the  second  and  the  third.  The  sen- 
tence, should,  therefore,  it  seems,  be  divided  into  two,  or  per- 
haps into  three  sentences,  with  the  proper  agents  prefixed.  In 
this  view,  the  first  member  may  remain  as  it  is ; but  the  second 
and  third  members  will  assume  the  following  appearance. 

Animals,  again,  arc  fitted  to  one  another,  and  to  the  elements 
VoL.  I.  42 


314 


APPENDIX. 


where  they  live,  and  to  which  they  are  as  appendices.  They 
are  adapted  by  wings  for  the  air,  fins  for  the  water,  feet  for  the 
earth,  and  by  other  correspondent  inward  parts,  of  more  curi- 
ous frame  and  texture.” 

Sir  William  Temple  speaking  of  the  worship  of  the  Saxons, 
says,  This  religious  worship  the  Saxons  introduced  with  them, 
and  continued  long  in  England,  till  they  subdued  the  Britons, 
reduced  it  under  their  heptarchy,  persecuted  the  British  Chris- 
tians, and  drove  them  with  their  religion  into  Wales  ; where  they 
continued  under  the  primitive  priests  and  bishops,  who,  with 
their  monks,  were  all  under  the  superintendance  of  one  arch- 
priest or  bishop  of  Carleon,  the  bound  of  the  British  principality.” 
This  clumsy  period,  like  the  preceding  one,  contains  two  agents: 
it  begins  with  the  Saxons,  and  passes  from  them  to  the  British 
Christians;  thus  diminishing  the  perspicuity,  and  destroying  the 
unity.  It  should  have  formed  two  sentences. 

Long,  involved,  and  intricate  sentences,  are  great  blemishes 
in  composition.  In  writers  of  considerable  correctness,  we  find 
a period  sometimes  running  out  so  far,  and  comprehending  so 
many  particulars,  as  to  be  more  properly  a discourse  than  a 
sentence.  An  author,  speaking  of  the  progress  of  our  language 
after  the  time  of  Cromwell,  runs  on  in  this  manner : To  this 
succeeded  that  licentiousness  which  entered  with  the  restora- 
tion, and,  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  cor- 
rupt our  language , which  last  was  not  like  to  be  much  im- 
proved by  those  who  at  that  time  made  up  the  court  of  king 
Charles  the  second  ; either  such  as  had  followed  him  in  his  ban- 
ishment, or  who  had  been  altogether  conversant  in  the  dialect 
of  these  times,  or  young  men  who  had  been  educated  in  the 
same  country : so  that  the  court  which  used  to  be  the  standard 
of  correctness  and  propriety  of  speech,  was  then,  and  I think 
has  ever  since  continued,  the  worst  school  in  England  for  that 
accomplishment ; and  so  will  remain,  till  better  care  be  taken 
in  the  education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  may  set  out  in  the 
world  with  some  foundation  of  literature,  in  order  to  qualify 
them  for  patterns  of  politeness. 

The  author  in  place  of  a sentence,  has  here  given  a loose 
dissertation  upon  several  subjects.  How  many  different  facts, 
reasonings,  and  observations,  are  here  presented  to  the  mind 
at  once ! and  yet  so  linked  together  by  the  author  that  they  all 
make  parts  of  a sentence,  which  admits  of  no  greater  division  in 
pointing,  than  a colon,  between  any  of  its  members. 

It  may  be  of  use  here  to  give  a specimen  of  a long  sentence 
broken  down  into  several  periods ; by  which  we  shall  more 
clearly  perceive  the  disadvantages  of  long  sentences,  and  how 
easily  they  may  be  amended.  Here  follows  the  sentence  in 


UNITY. 


^ 315 


its  orignal  form : Though,  in  yesterday’s  paper,  we  showed 
how  every  thing  that  is  great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to 
affect  the  immagination  with  pleasure,  we  must  own,  that  it  is 
impossible  for  us  to  assign  the  necessary  cause  of  this  pleasure, 
because  we  know  neither  the  nature  of  an  idea,  nor  the  sub- 
stance of  a human  soul : and  therefore,  for  want  of  such  a light, 
all  that  we  can  do,  in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is,  to  reflect  on 
those  operations  of  the  soul  that  are  most  agreeable  : and  to 
range  under  their  proper  heads,  what  is  pleasing  or  displeasing 
to  the  mind,  without  being  able  to  trace  out  the  several  neces- 
sary and  efficient  causes,  from  whence  the  pleasure  or  dis- 
pleasure arises.’’ 

The  following  amendment,  besides  breaking  down  the  pe- 
riod into  several  sentences,  exhibits  some  other  useful  altera- 
tions: ^‘In  yesterday’s  paper,  we  showed  that  every  thing 
which  is  great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the  immagina- 
tion with  pleasure.  We  must  own,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us 
to  assign  the  efficient  cause  of  this  pleasure  because  we  know 
not  the  nature  either  of  an  idea,  or  of  the  human  soul.  All  that 
we  can  do,  therefore,  in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is,  not  to  re- 
flect on  the  operations  of  the  soul  which  are  most  agreeable, 
and  to  range  under  proper  heads  what  is  pleasing  or  dis- 
pleasing to  the  mind.” 

A thh^d  rule  for  preserving  the  unity  of  sentences,  is,  to  keep 
clear  of  all  unnecessary  parentheses. 

On  some  occasions,  when  the  sense  is  not  too  long  suspended 
by  them,  and  when  they  are  introduced  in  a proper  place,  they 
may  add  both  to  the  vivacity,  and  to  the  energy,  of  the  sentence. 
But  for  the  most  part,  their  effect  is  extremely  bad.  They  are 
wheels  within  wheels  ; sentences  in  the  midst  of  sentences ; the 
perplexed  method  of  disposing  of  some  thought  which  a writer 
wants  judgment  to  introduce  in  its  proper  place. 

The  parenthesis  in  this  sentence  is  striking  and  proper : 

And  was  the  ransom  paid  ? It  was  ; and  paid 
“ (What  can  exalt  the  bounty  more  ?)  for  thee.” 

But  in  the  following  sentence,  we  become  sensible  of  an  im- 
propriety, in  the  use  of  it.  If  your  hearts  secretly  reproach 
you,  for  the  wrong  choice  you  have  made,  (as  there  is  time  for 
repentance  and  retreat ; and  a return  to  wisdom  is  always 
honourable,)  bethink  yourselves  that  the  evil  is  not  irreparable.” 
It  would  be  much  better  to  express,  in  a separate  sentence,  the 
thoughts  contained  in  this  parenthesis  ; thus,  If  your  hearts 
secretly  reproach  you  for  the  wrong  choice  you  have  made, 
bethink  yourselves  that  the  evil  is  not  irreparable,  Still 


316 


APPENDIX. 


there  it  is  me  for  repentance  and  retreat ; and  a return  to  wis- 
dom is  always  honourable.” 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF  A SENTENCE, 

See  YoL  ii.  Part  5.  Exerc’se"?.  Strength.  Chap.  3, 

The  third  reqiisite  of  a perfect  sentence  is.  Strength. 

By  this  is  meant  such  a disposition  and  management  of  the 
several  words  and  members,  as  shall  bring  out  the  sense  to  the 
best  advantage,  and  give  every  word,  and  every  member,  its 
due  weight  and  force. 

A sentence  may  be  clear,  it  may  also  be  compact  in  all  its 
parts,  or  have  the  requisite  unity,  and  yet,  by  some  circum- 
stance in  the  structure,  may  fail  in  that  strength  of  impression, 
which  a better  management  would  have  produced. 

The/r6^  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a sentence,  is,  to 
prune  it  of  ail  redundant  words  and  members. 

It  is  a genera!  maxim,  that  any  words  which  do  not  add 
some  importance  to  the  meaning  of  a sentence,  always  injure 
it.  Care  should  therefore  be  exercised,  with  respect  to  synony- 
mous words,  expletives,  circumlocutions,  tautologies,  and  the 
expression  of  unnecessary  circumsUnces.  The  attention  be- 
comes remiss,  whi  n w^ords  are  multiplied  without  a correspond- 
ent multiplication  of  ideas.  Content  with  deserving  a triumph, 
he  refu.-^ed  the  honour  of  it;”  is  better  language  than  to  say, 
Being  content  wdth  deserving  it.”  &c. 

‘^In  the  Attic  commonwealth,”  says  an  author, it  w^as  the 
privilege  and  birthright  of  every  citizen  and  poet,  to  rail  aloud 
and  in  public.”  Better  simply  thus:  In  the  Attic  common- 
W'ealth,  it  wais  the  privilege  of  every  citizen  to  rail  in  public. 

Another  expresses  himself  thus:  ‘^They  returned  back  again 
to  the  same  city  from  whence  they  came  forth;  instead  of, 
‘‘They  returned  to  tlie  city  whence  they  came.”  The  five 
words,  hach^  again^  same,  from,  nml  foiih,  are  mere  expletives, 
that  have  neither  use  nor  beauty,  and  have  therefore  to  be  re- 
garded as  incunibrances. 

Thew^ordii^o  is  often  improperly  used  with ///a/;  as,  “There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  he  seriously  means  w hat  he  says.”  It 
is  not  only  useless,  but  cumbersome:  “There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  seriously  means  what  he  says.”  By  transposing  the 
parts  of  the  sentence,  we  shall  immediately  perceive  the  pro- 


STRENGTH.  317 

priety  of  omitting  this  word  : “ That  he  seriously  means  what 

he  says,  there  can  be  no  doubt.” 

Adverbs  promote  energy  of  expression.  But  this  happens 
only  when  they  pron)ote  brevity  too,  and  are  sparingly  used, 
and  chosen  with  judgment.  A superabundance  of  them,  or  of 
adjectives,  make  a style  unwieldy  and  tawdry.  For  it  is  from  its 
nouns,  rather  than  from  its  attributives,  that  language  derives 
strength : even  as  a building  derives  stability,  rather  from  the 
w^alls  and  rafters,  than  from  the  plastering,  wainscotting,  and 
painting.  Young  writers,  however,  are  apt  to  think  otherwise  ; 
and,  with  a view  to  invigorate  their  expression,  qualify  every 
verb  with  an  adverb,  and  every  noun  with  an  epithet.  By  this 
means  their  compositions  resemble  a house,  whose  walls  are 
supported  by  posts  and  buttresses  ; which  not  only  make  it  un- 
seemly to  the  eye,  and  inconvenient  by  taking  up  loo  much  room, 
but  also  justify  a suspicion  of  weakness  in  the  work,  and  unskill- 
fulness in  the  architect.  Such  a period  as  the  following  will 
explain  our  meaning. 

“I  am  honestly,  seriously,  and  unalterably  of  opinion,  that 
nothing  can  possibly  be  more  incurably  and  emphatically  de- 
structive, or  more  decisively  fatal  to  a kingdom,  than  the  intro- 
duction of  thoughtless  dissipation,  and  the  pomp  of  lazy  luxury.” 
Would  not  the  full  import  of  this  noisy  sentence  be  better  ex- 
pressed thus  : “ I am  of  opinion,  that  nothing  is  more  ruinous  to 
a kingdom,  than  luxury  and  dissipation.” 

Some  writers  use  much  circumlocution  in  expressing  their 
ideas.  A considerable  one,  for  so  very  simple  a thing  as  a man’s 
w^ounding  himself,  says,  “ To  mangle  or  wound,  his  outward  form 
and  constitution,  his  natural  limbs  or  body.” 

But  on  some  occasions,  circumlocution  has  a peculiar  force  ; 
as  in  the  following  sentence : Shall  not  the  Judge  of  all  the 
earth  do  right 

In  the  sentences  which  follow,  the  ill  effects  of  tautology 
appear. 

“ So  it  is,  that  1 must  he  forced  to  get  home,  partly  by  stealth, 
and  partly  by /orce.” 

“Never  did  Atticus  succeed  better  in  gaining  the  universal 
love  and  esteem  of  all  men.” 

The  subsequent  sentence  contains  several  unnecessary  circum- 
stances. “ On  receiving  this  information,  he  arose,  went  out, 
saddled  his  horse,  mounted  him,  and  rode  to  town.”  All  is 
implied  in  saying,  “ On  receiving  this  information,  he  rode  to 
town.” 

This  manner,  however,  in  a certain  degree,  is  so  strongly 
characteristic  of  the  simple  style  of  remote  ages,  that  in  books 
of  the  highest  antiquity,  particularly  the  Bible,  it  is  not  at  all 


318 


APPENDIX. 


ungraceful.  Of  this  kind  are  the  following  Scriptural  phrases. 
“ He  lifted  up  his  voice  and  wept.”  “ He  opened  his  mouth  and 
said.”  It  is  true,  that  in  strictness,  they  are  not  necessary  to  the 
narration,  but  they  are  of  some  importance  to  the  composition, 
as  bearing  the  venerable  signature  of  ancient  simplicity.  It  may, 
on  this  occasion,  be  further  observed,  that  the  language  of  the 
present  translation  of  the  Bible,  ought  not  to  be  viewed  in  an 
exceptionable  light,  though  some  parts  of  it  may  appear  to  be 
obsolete.  From  universal  admission,  this  language  has  become 
so  familiar  and  intelligible,  that  in  all  transcripts  and  allusions, 
except  where  the  sense  is  evidently  injured,  it  ought  to  be  care- 
fully preserved.  And  it  may  also  be  justly  remarked,  that  on 
religious  subjects,  a frequent  recurrence  of  Scripture-language 
is  attended  with  peculiar  force  and  propriety. 

Though  it  promotes  the  strength  of  a sentence,  to  contract  a 
round-about  method  of  expression,  and  to  lop  of  excrescences, 
yet  we  should  avoid  the  extreme  of  pruning  too  closely ; some 
leaves  should  be  left  to  shelter  and  surround  the  fruit.  Even 
synonymous  expressions  may,  on  some  occasions,  be  used  with 
propriety.  One  is,  when  an  obscurer  term,  which  we  cannot 
well  avoid  employing,  needs  to  be  explained  by  one  that  is 
clearer.  The  other  is,  wdien  the  language  of  the  emotions  is  exhib- 
ited. Emotion  naturally  dwells  on  its  object : and  when  the 
reader  also  feels  interested,  repetition  and  synonomy  have  fre- 
quently an  agreeable  effect. 

The  following  passage,  taken  from  Addison,  who  delighted  in 
a full  and  flowing  style,  will  by  most  readers,  be  deemed  not 
very  exceptionable.  “ But  there  is  nothing  that  makes  its  way 
more  directly  to  the  soul  than  beauty ; which  immediately  dif- 
fuses a secret  satisfaction  and  complacency  through  the  imagin- 
ation, and  gives  a finishing  to  any  thing  that  is  great  or  uncom- 
mon. The  very  first  discovery  of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward 
joy,  and  spreads  a cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all  its  facul- 
ties.” Some  degree  of  verbosity  may,  however,  be  discovered 
in  these  sentences,  as  phrases  are  repeated  which  seem  little 
more  than  the  echo  of  one  another ; such  as — diffusing  satisfac- 
tion and  comj)lacency  through  the  imagination — striking  the  mind 
with  inward  joxy — spreading  cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all 
its  faculties.  But  perhaps,  some  redundancy  is  more  allowable 
on  such  lively  subjects,  than  it  would  be  on  other  occasions. 

After  removing  superfluities,  the  second  rule  for  promoting  the 
strength  of  a sentence  is,  to  attend  particularly  to  the  use  of  copu- 
latives^ relatives^  and  all  the  particles  employed  for  transition  and 
connexion. 

These  little  words  hut,  and,  or,  which,  whose,  where  then, 
therefore,  because,  &c.  are  frequently  the  most  important  words 


STRENGTH. 


319 


of  any ; they  are  the  joints  or  hinges  upon  which  all  sentences 
turn  ; and,  of  course,  much  of  their  strength  must  depend  upon 
such  particles.  The  varieties  in  using  them,  are,  indeed,  so 
many,  that  no  particular  system  of  rules  respecting  them  can  be 
given.  Some  observations,  tending  to  illustrate  the  rule,  may, 
however,  be  mentioned. 

What  is  called  splitting  particles,  or  separating  a preposition 
from  the  noun  which  it  governs,  is  to  be  avoided.  As  if  I should 
say,  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may 
often  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune.”  Here  we 
are  put  to  a stand  in  thought,  being  obliged  to  rest  a little  on  the 
preposition  by  itself,  which,  at  the  same  time,  carries  no  signifi- 
cancy,  till  it  is  joined  by  its  proper  substantive. 

Some  writers  needlessly  multiply  demonstrative  and  relative 
particles,  by  the  frequent  use  of  such  phraseology  as  this  : 

There  is  nothing  which  disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty 
pomp  of  language.”  In  introducing  a subject,  or  laying  down  a 
proposition,  to  which  we  demand  particular  attention,  this  sort 
of  style  is  very  proper ; but,  on  common  occasions,  it  is  better 
to  express  ourselves  more  simply  and  briefly : Nothing  disgusts 
us  sooner  than  the  empty  pomp  of  language.” 

Other  writers  make  a practice  of  omitting  the  relative  where 
they  think  the  meaning  can  be  understood  without  it : as,  ‘^‘The 
man  I love  ;”  “ The  dominions  we  possessed,  and  the  conquests 
we  made.”  But  though  this  elliptical  style  is  intelligible,  and  is 
allowable  in  conversation  and  epistolary  writing,  yet  in  all  wri- 
tings of  a serious  and  dignified  kind,  it  ought  to  be  avoided. 
There,  the  relative  should  always  be  inserted  in  its  proper  place, 
and  the  construction  filled  up.”  The  man  whom  I love.” 
‘‘The  dominions  which  we  possessed,  and  the  conquests  which 
we  made.” 

With  regard  to  the  copulative  particle  and,  which  occurs  so  fre- 
quently in  all  kinds  of  composition,  several  observations  are  to  be 
made.  First,  it  is  evident,  that  the  unnecessary  repetition  of  it 
enfeebles  style.  The  following  sentence  from  Sir  William  Tem- 
ple, will  serve  for  an  instance.  He  is  speaking  of  the  refine- 
ment of  the  French  language  : The  Academy,  set  up  by 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  amuse  the  wits  of  that  age,  arid  country, 
and  divert  them  from  raking  into  his  politics  and  ministry, 
brought  this  into  vogue ; and  the  French  wits  have,  for  this  last 
, age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement  of  their  style  and 
language  ; and,  indeed,  with  such  success,  that  it  can  hardly  be 
equalled,  and  runs  equally  through  their  verse  and  their  prose.” 
Here  are  no  fewer  tlian  eight  ands  in  one  sentence.  Some 
writers  often  make  their  sentences  drag  in  this  manner,  by  a 
careless  multiplication  of  copulatives. 

But  in  the  next  place,  it  is  worthy  of  observation,  that 


320 


APPENDIX. 


though  the  natural  use  of  the  conjunction  and,  is  to  join  ob- 
jects together,  yet,  in  fact,  by  dropping  the  conjunction,  we 
often  mark  a closer  connexion,  a quicker  succession  of  objects, 
than  when  it  is  inserted  between  them.  I came,  I saw,  I 
conquered,”  expresses  with  more  force,  the  rapidity  and  quick 
succession  of  conquest,  than  if  connecting  particles  had  been 
used. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  we  seek  to  prevent  a quick  transi- 
tion from  one  object  to  another,  w hen  we  are  making  some 
enumeration,  in  w hich  we  wish  that  the  objects  should  appear 
as  distinct  from  each  other  as  possible,  and  that  the  mind 
should  rest,  for  a moment,  on  each  object  by  itself,  copulatives 
may  be  mltiplied  with  peculiar  advantage.  As  when  an  au- 
thor says,  “ Such  a man  might  fall  a victim  to  power ; but 
truth,  and  reason,  and  liberty,  w^ould  fall  w^ith  him.”  Observe, 
in  the  following  enumeration  made  by  the  Apostle  Paul,  what 
additional  weight  and  distinctness  are  given  to  each  particular, 
by  the  repetition  of  a conjunction:  am  persuaded,  that 

neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers, 
nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth, 
nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the 
love  of  God.” 

The  words  designed  to  mark  the  transition  from  one  sentence 
to  another,  and  the  connexion  between  sentences,  are  some- 
times very  incorrect,  and  perform  their  office  in  an  imperfect 
and  obscure  manner.  The  following  is  an  example  of  this 
kind  of  inaccuracy.  By  greatness,  1 do  not  mean  the  bulk 
of  any  single  object  only,  but  the  largeness  of  a whole  view. 
Such  are  the  prospects  of  an  open  champaign  country,  a vast 
uncultivated  desert,”  &c.  The  word  such  signifies  of  that  na- 
ture or  quality,  which  necessarily  pre-supposes  some  adjective 
or  word  descriptive  of  a quality  going  before,  to  which  it  refers. 
But,  in  the  foregoing  sentence,  there  is  no  such  adjective.  The 
author  had  spoken  of  gTcatness  in  the  abstract  only;  and, 
therefore,  such  has  no  distinct  antecedent  to  w hich  we  can  refer 
it.  The  sentence  w^ould  have  been  introduced  with  more  pro- 
priety, by  saying,  2b  this  class  belong,  or.  Under  this  head  are 
ranged,  the  prospects,  &c. 

As  connective  particles  are  the  hinges,  tacks,  and  pins,  by 
which  the  words  in  the  same  clause,  the  clauses  in  the  same 
member,  the  members  in  the  same  sentence,  and  even  the  sen- 
tences in  the  same  discourse,  are  united  together,  and  their 
relations  suggested,  so  they  should  not  be  either  too  frequently 
repeated,  awkwardly  exposed  to  viewg  or  made  up  of  polysyl- 
lables, when  shorter  words  would  as  well  convey  our  meaning. 
Notwithstanding  that,  insomuch  that,  forasmuch  as,  furthermore, 


STRENGTH. 


321 


&c.  are  tedious  words,  which  tend  to  overload  and  perplex  a 
sentence. 

We  shall  conclude  this  head  with  two  remarks  on  the  subject 
of  inserting  or  omitting  the  conjunctions.  The  first  is,  that  the 
illative  conjunctions,  the  casual,  and  the  disjunctive,  when  they 
suit  the  sense,  can  more  rarely  be  dispensed  with  than  the  cop- 
ulative. The  second  is,  that  the  omission  of  copulatives 
always  sccceds  best,  when  the  connexion  of  the  thoughts  is 
either  very  close  or  very  distant.  It  is  mostly  in  the  interme- 
diate cases  that  the  conjunction  is  deemed  necessary.  When 
the  connexion  in  thought  is  very  distant,  the  copulative  appears 
absurd  ; and  when  very  close,  superfluous. 

The  third  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a sentence,  is, 
to  dispose  of  the  capital  word^  or  words,  so  that  they  may  make 
the  greatest  impression. 

That  there  are,  in  every  sentence,  such  capital  words,  on 
which  the  meaning  principally  rests,  every  one  must  see ; and 
that  these  words  should  possess  a conspicuous  and  distinguished 
place,  is  equally  plain.  For  the  most  part,  with  us,  the  impor- 
tant words  are  placed  in  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  So  in 
the  following  passages : “ Silver  and  Gold  have  I none  ; but 
such  as  I have,  give  I unto  thee,”  &c.  “ Your  fathers,  where 

are  they  ? and  the  prophets,  do  they  live  for  ever 

Sometimes,  however,  when  we  intend  to  give  weight  to  a 
sentence,  it  is  of  advantage  to  suspend  the  meaning  for  a little, 
and  then  bring  it  out  full  at  the  close.  “ Thus,”  says  an  author, 
on  whatever  side  we  contemplate  this  ancient  writer,  what 
principally  strikes  us,  is  his  wonderful  invention.” 

To  accomplish  this  end,  the  placing,  of  capital  words  in  a 
conspicuous  part  of  the  sentence,  the  natural  order  of  our  lan- 
guage must  sometimes  be  inverted.  According  to  this  natural 
order,  the  nominative  has  the  first  place,  the  verb  the  second, 
and  the  objective,  if  it  be  an  active  verb  that  is  employed,  has 
the  third.  Circumstances  follow  the  nominative,  the  verb,  or 
the  objective,  as  they  happen  to  belong  to  any  of  them.  “Diana 
of  Ephesians  is  great,”  is  the  natural  order  of  the  sentence. 
But  its  strength  is  increased  by  inversion,  thus  : “ Great  is  Diana 
of  the  Ephesians.”  “ I profess,  in  the  sincerity  of  my  heart,” 
&c.  is  the  natural  order  of  a circumstance.  Inverted  thus  : 
“ In  the  sincerity  of  my  heart,  I profess,”  &c. 

Some  authors  greatly  invert  the  natural  order  of  sentences  ; 
others  write  mostly  in  a natural  style.  Each  method  has  its  ad- 
vantages. The  inverted  possesses  strength,  dignity,  and  varie- 
ty : the  other,  more  nature,  ease,  and  simplicity.  We  shall 
give  an  instance  of  each  method,  taken  from  writers  of  consid- 

VoL.  I.  43 


322 


APPENDIX. 


erable  eminence.  The  first  is  of  the  inverted  order.  Thd 
author  is  speaking  of  the  misery  of  vice.  “ This,  as  to  the 
complete  immoral  state,  is,  what  of  their  own  accord,  men 
readily  remark.  Where  there  is  this  absolute  degeneracy,  this 
total  apostacy  from  all  candour,  truth,  or  equity,  there  are  few 
who  do  not  see  and  acknowledge  the  misery  which  is  consequent. 
Seldom  is  the  case  misconstrued,  when  at  worst.  The  misfor- 
tune is,  that  we  look  not  on  this  depravity,  nor  consider  how  it 
stands  in  less  degrees.  As  if  to  be  absolutely  immoral,  were, 
indeed,  the  greatest  misery ; but  to  be  so  in  a little  degree,  should 
be  no  misery  or  harm  at  all.  Which,  to  allow,  is  just  as  reasona- 
ble as  to  own,  that  it  is  the  greatest  ill  of  a body,  to  be  in  the 
utmost  manner  maimed  or  distorted  : but  that  to  lose  the  use  only 
of  one  limb,  or  to  be  impairedirr some  single  organ  or  member, 
is  no  ill  worthy  the  least  notice.”  Here  is  no  violence  done  to 
the  languuge,  though  there  are  many  inversions. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  natural  construction  : “ Our 
sight  is  the  most  perfect,  and  the  most '"delightful,  of  all  our 
senses.  It  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest  variety  of  ideas,  con- 
verses with  its  objects  at  the  greatest  distance,  and  continues  the 
longest  in  action  without  being  tired,  or  satiated  with  its  proper 
enjoyments.  Tiie  sense  of  feeling,  can,  indeed, give  us  a notion 
of  extension,  shape,  and  all  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye, 
except  colours ; but  at  the  same  time,  it  is  very  much  straitened 
and  confined  in  its  operations,”  &c. 

But  whether  we  use  inversion  or  not,  and  in  whatever  part 
of  the  sentence  we  dispose  of  the  capital  words,  it  is  always  a 
point  of  consequence,  that  these  capital  words  should  stand  clear 
and  disentangled  from  any  other  w^ords  that  would  clog  them. 
Thus,  when  there  are  circumstances  of  time,  place,  or  other 
limitations,  which  the  principal  object  of  our  sentence  requires 
to  have  connected  with  it,  we  must  take  care  to  dispose  of  them, 
so  as  not  to  cloud  that  principal  object,  nor  to  bury  it  under  a 
load  of  circumstances.  This  will  be  made  clearer  by  an  ex- 
ample. “ If,  whilst  they  profess  only  to  please,  they  secretly 
advise,  and  give  instruction,  they  may  now  perhaps,  as 
well  as  formerly,  be  esteemed,  with  justice,  the  best  and 
most  honourable  among  authors.”  This  [is  a well  con- 
structed sentence.  It  contains  a great  many  circumstances 
and  adverbs  necessary  to  qualify  the  meaning ; or?Zy,  secretly^ 
as  well,  perhaps,  now,  with  justice,  formerly ; yet  these  are 
placed  so  propely,  as  neither  to  embarrass,  nor  weaken  the  sen- 
tence ; while  that  which  is  the  capital  object  in  it,  viz.  “ being 
justly  esteemed  the  best  and  most  honourable  among  authors,” 
comes  out  in  the  conclusion,  clear  and  detached,  and  possesses 
its  proper  place.  See,  now,  what  would  have  been  the  effect 


STRENGTH. 


323 


of  a different  arrangement : If,  whilst  they  profess  to  please 
only,  they  advise  and  give  instruction  secretly,  they  may  be 
esteemed  the  best  and  most  honourable  among  authors,  with 
justice,  perhaps,  now  as  well  as  formely.”  Here  we  have  pre- 
cisely the  same  words,  and  the  same  sense ; but  by  means  of 
the  circumstances  being  so  intermingled  as  to  clog  the  capital 
words,  the  whole  becomes  feeble  and  perplexed. 

The  fourth  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  sentences,  is 
that  a weaker  assertion  or  proposition  should  never  come  after  a 
stronger  one  ; and  that,  when  our  sentence  consists  of  two  mem- 
bers^  the  longer  should,  generally,  be  the  concluding  one. 

Thus,  to  say,  ^^When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us,  we 
flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken  them,”  is 
both  more  easy  and  more  clear,  than  to  begin  with  the  longer 
part  of  the  proposition : We  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief 
that  we  have  forsaken  our  passions  when  they  have  forsaken  us.” 

In  general,  it  is  agreeable  to  find  a sentence  rising  upon  us, 
and  growing  in  its  importance,  to  the  very  last  word,  when  this 
construction  can  be  managed  without  affectation.  “If  we  rise 
yet  higher,”  says  Addison,  and  consider  the  fixed  stars  as  so 
many  oceans  of  flame,  that  are  each  of  them  attended  with  a 
different  set  of  planets ; and  still  discover  new  firmaments  and 
new  lights,  that  are  sunk  farther  in  those  unfathomable  depths 
of  ether ; we  are  lost  in  such  a labyrinth  of  suns  and  worlds, 
and  confounded  with  the  magnificence  and  immensity  of  nature.” 

The  fifth  rule  for  the  strength  of  sentences,  is,  to  avoid  con- 
cluding them  with  an  adverb,  a preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable 
word. 

Agreeably  to  this  rule,  we  should  not  conclude  with  any  of 
the  particles,  of,  to,  from,  with,  by.  For  instance,  it  is  a great 
deal  better  to  say,  “ Avarice  is  a crime  of  which  wise  men  are 
often  guilty,”  than  to  say,  “ Avarice  is  a crime  which  wise  men 
are  often  guilty  of.”  This  is  a phraseology  which  all  correct 
writers  shun  ; and  with  reason.  For,  as  the  mind  cannot  help 
resting  a little,  on  the  import  of  the  word  which  closes  the  sen- 
tence, it  must  be  disagreeable  to  be  left  pausing  on  a word 
which  does  not,  by  itself,  produce  any  idea. 

For  the  same  reason,  verbs  which  are  used  in  a compound 
sense,  with  some  of  those  prepositions,  are,  though  not  so  bad, 
yet  still  not  proper  conclusions  of  a period : such  as,  bring 
about,  lay  hold  of,  come  over  to,  clear  up,  and  many  others  of 
this  kind ; instead  of  which,  if  we  can  employ  a simple  verb, 
it  always  terminates  the  sentence  with  more  strength.  Even 
the  pronoun  it,  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided  in  the  conclusion: 


324 


APPENDIX. 


especially  when  it  is  joined  with  some  of  the  prepositions ; 
imth  it,  in  it,  to  it.  We  shall  be  sensible  of  this  in  the  following 
sentence.  There  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a more  pleasing  and 
triumphant  consideration  in  religion,  than  this,  of  the  perpetual 
progress  which  the  soul  makes  towards  the  perfection  of  its 
nature,  without  ever  arriving  at  a period  in  iV^  How  much 
more  agreeable  the  sentence,  if  it  had  been  so  constructed  as  to 
close  wuth  the  word  period ! 

Besides  particles  and  pronouns,  any  phrase,  which  expresses 
a circumstance  only,  always  appears  badly  in  the  rear  of  a sen- 
tence. We  may  judge  of  this  by  the  following  passage;  ‘^Let 
me  therefore  conclude  by  repeating,  that  division  has  caused  all 
the  mischief  we  lament : that  union  alone  can  retrieve  it ; and 
that  a great  advance  towards  this  union  was  the  coalition  of 
parties,  so  happily  begun,  so  successfully  carried  on,  and  of  late 
so  unaccountably  neglected ; to  say  no  worse.”  This  last 
phrase,  “ to  say  no  worse,”  occasions  a falling  off  at  the  end.. 
The  proper  disposition  of  such  circumstances  in  a sentence,, 
requires  attention,  in  order  to  adjust  them  so  as  shall  consist 
equally  with  the  perspicuity  and  the  strength  of  the  period.. 
Though  necessary  parts,  they  are,  however,  like  irregular  stones 
in  a building,  which  try  the  skill  of  an  artist,  where  to  place 
them  with  the  least  offence.  But  it  must  be  remembered,  that 
the  close  is  always  an  unsuitable  place  for  them.  Notwith- 
standing what  has  been  said  against  concluding  a period  with 
an  adverb,  &c.  this  must  not  be  understood  to  refer  to  such 
words,  when  the  strength  and  significancy  of  the  sentence  rests 
chiefly  upon  them.  In  this  case,  they  are  not  to  be  considered 
as  circumstances,  but  as  the  principal  objects ; as  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence.  ‘‘  In  their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear 
of  me,  in  their  adversity,  always.”  Here,  “yzerer,”  and  ‘‘always^^ 
being  emphatical  words,  were  to  be  so  placed  as  to  make  a 
strong  impression. 

The  sixth  rule  relating  to  the  strength  of  a sentence,  is,  that 
in  the  members  of  a sentence,  vdiere  two  things  are  compared,  or 
contrasted  loith  one  another ; where  either  a resemblance,  or  an 
ojyposition  is  intended  to  be  expressed ; some  resemblance  in  the 
language  and  construction,  should  he  preserved.  For  when  the 
things  themselves  correspond  to  each  other,  we  naturally  expect  to 
find  a similar  correspondence  in  the  words. 

Thus,  when  it  is  said,  “ The  wise  man  is  happy,  when  he 
gains  his  own  approbation  ; the  fool,  when  he  recommends  him- 
self to  the  applause  of  those  about  him the  opposition  would 
have  been  more  regular,  if  it  had  been  expressed  thus : “ The 
wise  man  is  happy  when  he  gains  his  own  approbation ; the 
fool,  when  he  gains  that  of  others.” 


STRENGTH* 


325 


friend  exaggerates  a man’s  virtues  : an  enemy  inflames  his 
crimes.”  Better  thus  : “ A friend  exaggerates  a man’s  virtue’s ; 
an  enemy  his  crimes.” 

The  following  passage  from  Pope’s  preface  to  his  Homer, 
fully  exemplifies  the  rule  just  given  : “ Homer  was  the  greater 
genius ; Virgil,  the  better  artist : in  the  one,  we  most  admire 
the  man ; in  the  other,  the  work.  Homer  hurries  us  with  a 
commanding  impetuosity ; Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive . 
majesty.  Homer  scatters  with  a generous  profusion ; Virgil 
bestows  with  a careful  magnificence.  Homer,  like  the  Nile, 
pours  out  his  riches  with  a sudden  overflow ; Virgil,  like  a 
river  in  its  banks,  with  a constant  stream.” — Periods  thus  con- 
structed, when  introduced  with  propriety,  and  not  returning  too 
often,  have  a sensible  beauty.  But  we  must  beware  of  car- 
rying our  attention  to  this  beauty  too  far.  It  ought  only  to  be 
occasionally  studied,  when  comparison  or  opposition  of  objects 
naturally  leads  to  it.  If  such  a construction  as  this  be  aimed 
at,  in  all  our  sentences,  it  leads  to  a disagreeable  uniformity ; 
produces  a regularly  returning  clink  in  the  period,  which  tires 
the  ear ; and  plainly  discovers  affectation. 

The  seventh  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  and  effect  of 
sentences,  is,  to  attend  to  the  sounds  the  harynony  and  easy  flow 
of  the  words  and  numbers, 

Sound  is  a quality  much  inferior  to  sense  : yet  such  as  must 
not  be  disregarded.  For  as  long  as  sounds  are  the  vehicle  or 
conveyance  for  our  ideas,  there  wiH  be  a very  considerable 
connexion  between  the  idea  which  is  conveyed,  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  sound  which  conveys  it.— Pleasing  ideas,  and  for- 
cible reasoning,  can  hardly  be  transmitted  to  the  mind,  by 
means  of  harsh  and  disagreeable  sounds.  The  mind  revolts  at 
such  sounds,  and  the  impression  of  the  sentiment  must  conse- 
quently be  weakened.  The  observations  which  we  have  to 
make  on  this  subject,  respect  the  choice  of  words;  their 
arrangement ; the  order  and  disposition  of  the  members  ; the 
cadence  or  close  of  sentences  ; and  the  sound  of  words  adapted 
to  their  signification. 

We  begin  with  the  choice  of  words.  It  is  evident,  that 
words  are  most  agreeable  to  the  ear,  when  they  are  composed 
of  smooth  and  liquid  sounds,  in  which  there  is  a proper  inter- 
mixture of  vowels  and  consonants;  without  too  many  harsh 
consonsnts  rubbing  against  each  other;  or  too  many  open  vow- 
els in  succession,  to  cause  a hiatus,  or  disagreeable  aperture  of 
the  mouth. 

It  may  always  be  assumed  as  a principle,  that  whatever 
sounds  are  difficult  in  pronunciation,  are,  in  the  same  propor- 
tion, harsh  and  painful  to  the  ear.  Vowels  give  softness: 


326 


APPENDIX. 


consonants  strength,  to  the  sound  of  words.  The  melody  of 
language  requires  a just  proportion  of  each  ; and  the  construc- 
tion will  be  hurt,  will  be  rendered  either  grating  or  effeminate, 
by  an  excess  of  either.  Long  words  are  commonly  more 
agreeable  to  the  ear  than  monysyllables.  Tliey  please  it  by 
the  composition  or  succession  of  sounds  which  they  present  by 
it ; and  accordingly,  the  most  harmonious  languages  abound 
most  in  them.  Among  words  of  any  length,  those  are  the  most 
melodious,  which  do  not  run  wholly  either  upon  long  or  short 
syllables,  but  are  composed  of  an  intermixture  of  them  : such 
as,  repent^  profess,  powerful,  velocity  celerity,  independent,  im- 
petuosity. 

If  we  would  speak  forcibly  and  effectually,  we  must  avoid 
the  use  of  such  words  as  the  following.  1.  Such  as  are  com- 
posed of  words  already  compounded,  the  several  parts  of 
which  are  not  easily,  and  therefore  not  closely  united : as, 
“ Unsuccessfulness,  wrongheadednees,  tenderheartedness.^'*  2. 
Such  as  have  the  syllables  which  immediately  follow  the  ac- 
cented syllable,  crowded  with  consonants  that  do  not  easily  co- 
alesce : as,  Questiordess,  chroniclers,  conventiclers.**  3.  Such  as 
have  too  many  syllables  following  the  accented  syllable  : as, 
Primarily,  cursorily,  summarily,  peremptoriness.**  4.  Such  as 
have  a short  or  unaccented  syllable  repeated,  or  followed  by 
another  short  or  unaccented  syllable  very  much  resembling  ; as, 
‘‘  Holily,  sillily,  lowlily,  furriery.**  A little  harshness,  by  the 
collission  of  consonants,  which  nevertheless  our  organs  find  no 
difficulty  in  articulating,  and  which  do  not  suggest  to  the  hearer 
the  disagreeable  idea  either  of  precipitation  or  of  stammer- 
ing, is  by  no  means  a sufficient  reason  for  suppressing  a useful 
term.  The  words  hedg*d,  fledg*d*  wedg*d,  drudfd,  grudg*d, 
adjudged,  which  some  have  thought  very  offensive,  are  not  ex- 
posed to  the  objections,  which  lie  against  the  words  above 
mentioned.  We  should  not  do  well  to  introduce  such  hard 
and  strong  sounds  too  frequently ; but  when  they  are  used 
sparingly  and  properly,  they  have  even  a good  effect.  They 
contrib^ute  to  that  variety  in  sound  which  is  advantageous  to 
language. 

The  next  head,  respecting  the  harmony  which  results  from 
a proper  arrangement  of  words,  is  a point  of  greater  nicety. 
For,  let  the  words  themselves  be  ever  so  well  chosen,  and  well 
sounding,  yet  if  they  be  ill  disposed,  the  melody  of  the  sentence 
is  utterly  lost,  or  greatly  impaired.  That  this  is  the  case, 
the  learners  will  perceive  by  the  following  examples.  ‘‘  Plea- 
sures simple  and  moderate  always  are  the  best it  would  be 
better  to  say,  ‘‘  Simple  and  moderate  pleasures  are  always 
the  best.”  “Office  or  rank  may  be  the  recompense  of  in- 
trigue, versatility,  or  flattery better  thus,  “ Rank  or  office 


STRENGTH. 


327 


may  be  the  recompense  of  flattery,  versatility  or  intrigue.” 

A great  recommendation  of  the  guidance  offered  by  integrity 
to  us,  is,  that  it  is  by  all  men  easily  understood better  in 
this  form : “ It  is  a great  recommendation  of  the  guidance 
offered  to  us  by  integrity,  that  it  is  easily  understood  by  all 
men.” — In  the  following  examples,  the  words  are  neither 
selected  nor  arranged,  so  as  to  produce  the  most  agreeable 
effect.  If  we  make  the  best  of  our  life,  it  is  but  as  a pilgrim- 
age, with  dangers  surrounding  it better  thus,  ‘‘Our  life, 
at  the  best,  is  a pilgrimage,  and  dangers  surround  it.”  “ We 
see  that  we  are  encumbered  with  difficulties,  which  we  cannot 
prevent:  better,  “ We  perceive  ourselves  involved  in  difficul- 
ties that  cannot  be  avoided.”  It  is  plain  to  any  one  who 
views  the  subject  even  slightly,  that  there  is  nothing  here  that 
is  without  allay  and  pure  improved  by  this  form : It  is 
evident  to  the  slightest  inspection,  that  nothing  here  is  unallayed 
and  pure.” 

“ We  may  take,  for  an  instance  of  a sentence  remarkably 
harmonious,  the  following  from  Milton’s  Treatise  on  Educa- 
tion: “ We  shall  conduct  you  to  a hill-side,  laborious  indeed, 
at  the  first  ascent ; but  else  so  smooth,  so  green,  so  full  of 
goodly  prospects,  and  melodious  sounds  on  every  side,  that 
the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  not  more  charming.”  Every  thing  in 
this  sentence  conspires  to  promote  the  harmony.  The  words 
are  well  chosen : full  of  liquids,  and  soft  sounds ; laborious^ 
smooth,  green,  goodly,  melodious,  charming ; and  these  words  so 
artfully  arranged,  that,  were  we  to  alter  the  situation  of  any  one 
of  them,  we  should,  presently  be  sensible  of  the  melody’s  suffer- 
ing. For,  let  us  observe,  how  finely  the  members  of  the  period 
swell  one  above  another.  “ So  smooth,  so  green,” — “ so  full  of 
goodly  prospects, — anJ  melodious  sounds  on  every  side  ; — till 
the  ear,  prepared  by  this  gradual  rise,  is  conducted  to  that  full 
close  on  which  it  rests  with  pleasure  ; — “ that  the  harp  of  Or- 
pheus was  not  more  charming.” 

To  promote  this  harmonious  arrangement  of  words,  the 
following  general  directions  will  be  found  of  some  use: 
1st.  When  the  preceding  word  ends  with  a vowel,  let  the 
subsequent  one  begin  with  a consonant ; and  vice  versa.  A 
true  friend,  a cruel  enemy,  are  smoother  and  easier  to  the  voice, 
than  a true  union,  a cruel  destroyer.  But  when  it  is  more 
perspicuous  or  convevient,  for  vowels  or  consonants  to  end 
one  word  and  begin  the  next,  it  is  proper  that  the  vowels  be 
a long  and  short  one  ; and  that  the  consonants  be  either  a 
liquid  and  a mute,  or  liquids  of  different  sorts ; thus,  a lovely 
offspring  ; a purer  design ; a calm  retreat  are  more  fluent  than 
a happy  union,  a brief  petition,  a cheap  triumph,  a putrid  dis- 
temper, a calm  matron,  a clean  nurse.  From  these  examples. 


328 


APPENDIX. 


the  student  will  perceive  the  importance  of  accurately  under- 
standing the  nature  of  vowels  and  consonants,  liquids  and 
mutes;  with  the'  connexion  and  influence  which  subsist 
amongst  them.  2d,  In  general  a considerable  number  of 
long  or  short  words  near  one  another  should  be  avoided. 
“ Disappointment  in  our  expectation  is  wretchedness bet- 
ter thus ; disappointed  hope  is  misery.”  “ No  course  of 
joy  can  please  us  long better,  No  course  of  enjoyment 
can  delight  us  long.”  A succession  of  words  having  the  same 
quantity  in  the  accented  syllables,  whether  it  be  long  or  short, 
should  also  be  avoided.  “ James  was  needy,  feeble,  and 
fearful improved  thus,  “ James  was  timid,  feeble,  and  des- 
titute.” ‘‘  They  could  not  be  happy  ; for  he  was  silly,  pet- 
tish, and  sullen :”  better  thus ; “ They  could  not  be  happy ; 
for  he  was  simple,  peevish,  and  gloomy.”  3d,  Words  which 
begin  alike,  or  end  alike,  must  not  come  together  ; and  the  last 
syllable  of  the  preceding  word  should  not  be  the  same  as  the 
first  syllable  of  the  subsequent  one.  It  is  not  so  pleasing  and 
harmonious  to  say ; “ This  is  a convenient  contrivance  “ He 
is  an  indulgent  parent ;”  She  behaves  with  uniform  for- 
mality as,  “ This  is  a useful  contrivance “ He  is  a kind 
parent ;”  “ She  behaves  with  unvaried  formality.” 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  members  of  a sentence,  with 
regard  to  harmony.  They  should  not  be  too  long,  nor  dis- 
proportionate to  each  other.  When  they  have  a regular  and 
proportional  division,  they  are  much  easier  to  the.  voice,  are 
more  clearly  understood,  and  better  remembered,  than  when 
this  rule  is  not  attended  to;  for  whatever  tires  the  voice,  and 
offends  the  ear,  us  apt  to  mar  the  strength  of  the  expression, 
and  to  degrade  the  sense  of  the  author.  And  this  is  a sufficient 
ground  for  paying  attention  to  the  order  and  proportion  of 
sentences,  and  the  different  parts  of  which  they  consist.  The 
following  passage  exhibits  sentences  in  which  the  diflferent 
members  are  proportionally  arranged. 

Temple,  speaking  sarcastically  of  man,  says : “ But  his  pride 
is  greater  than  his  ignorance,  and  what  he  wants  in  knowledge 
he  supplies  by  sufficiency.  When  he  has  looked  about  him  as 
far  as  he  can,  he  concludes  there  is  no  more  to  be  seen  ; when 
he  is  at  the  end  of  his  line,  he  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean ; 
w^hen  he  has  shot  his  best,  he  is  sure  none  ever  did,  or  ever  can, 
shoot  better  or  beyond  it.  His  own  reason  he  holds  to  be  the 
certain  measure  of  truth ; and  his  own  knowledge  of  what  is 
possible  in  nature.”  Here  every  thing  is  at  once  easy  to  the 
breath,  grateful  to  the  ear,  and  intelligible  to  the  understanding. 
See  another  example  of  the  same  kind,  in  the  I7th  and  18th 
verses  of  the  3d  chapter  of  the  prophet  Habakkuk.  We  may 
remark  here,  that  our  present  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 


STRENGTH. 


329 


especially  of  the  Psalms,  abounds  with  instances  of  an  harmo- 
nious arrrangement  of  the  words  and  members  of  sentences. 

In  the  following  quotation  from  Tillotson,  we  shall  become 
sensible  of  an  effect  very  different  from  that  of  the  preceding 
sentences.  “ This  discourse  concerning  the  easiness  of  the  Di- 
vine commands  does  all  along  suppose  and  acknowledge  the 
difficulties  of  the  first  entrance  upon  a religious  course  ; except 
only  in  those  persons  who  have  had  the  happiness  to  be  trained 
up  to  religion,  by  the  easy  and  insensible  degrees  of  a pious  and 
virtuous  education.”  Here  there  is  some  degree  of  harshness 
and  unpleasantness,  owing  principally  to  this,  that  there  is  prop- 
erly no  more  than  one  pause  or  rest  in  the  sentence,  falling 
betwixt  the  two  members  into  which  it  is  divided : each  of 
which  is  so  long  as  to  occasion  a considerable  stretch  of  the 
breath  in  pronouncing  it. 

With  respect  to  the  cadence  or  close  of  a sentence,  care 
should  be  taken,  that  it  be  not  abrupt  or  unpleasant.  The  fol- 
lowing instances  may  be  sufficient  to  show  the  propriety  of  some 
attention  to  this  part  of  the  rule.  Virtue,  diligence,  and  in- 
dustry, joined  with  good  temper  aud  prudence,  are  prosperous 
in  general.”  It  would  be  better  thus : “ Virtue,  diligence,  and 
industry,  joined  with  good  temper  and  prudence,  have  ever  been 
found  the  surest  road  to  prosperity.”  Another  speaking  of  the 
Trinity,  expresses  himself  thus : “It  is  a mystery  which  we 
firmly  believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore  the  depth  of.”  How 
much  better  it  would  have  been  with  this  transposition  ! “ It  is  a 
mystery,  the  truth  of  which  we  firmly  believe,  and  the  depth  of 
which  we  humbly  adore.” 

In  order  to  give  a sentence  this  proper  close,  the  longest 
member  of  it,  and  the  amplest  words,  should  be  reserved  to 
the  conclusion.  But  in  the  distribution  of  the  members,  and 
in  the  cadence  of  the  period,  as  well  as  in  the  sentences  them- 
selves, variety  must  be  observed ; for  the  mind  soon  tires  with  a 
frequent  repetition  of  the  same  tone. 

Though  attention  to  the  words  and  members,  and  the  close  of 
sentences,  must  not  be  neglected,  yet  it  must  also  be  kept  within 
proper  bounds.  Sense  has  its  own  harmony ; and  in  no  instance 
should  perspicuity,  precision,  or  strength  of  sentiment,  be  sacri- 
ficed to  sound.  All  unmeaning  words,  introduced  merely  to 
round  the  period,  or  fill  up  the  melody,  are  great  blemishes  in 
writing.  They  are  childish  and  trivial  ornaments,  by  which  a 
sentence  always  loses  more  in  point  of  weight,  than  it  can  gain 
by  such  additions  to  its  sound. 

We  have  hitherto  considered  the  nature  of  agreeable  sound, 
or  modulation,  in  general.  It  yet  remains  to  treat  of  a higher 
beauty  of  this  kind ; the  sound  adapted  to  the  sense.  The 
VoL.  I.  44 


330 


APPENDIX. 


former  was  no  more  than  a simple  accompaniment,  to  please 
the  ear;  the  latter  supposes  a peculiar  expression  given  to  the 
music.  We  may  remark  two  degrees  of  it ; first,  the  current 
of  sound,  adapted  to  the  tenor  of  a discourse  : next,  a particular 
resemblance  effected  between  some  object,  and  the  sounds  that 
are  employed  in  describing  it. 

First,  the  current  of  sound  may  be  adapted  to  the  tenor  of 
a discourse.  Sounds  have,  in  many  respects,  a correspondence 
with  our  ideas  ; partly  natural,  partly  the  effect  of  artificial 
associations.  Hence  it  happens,  that  any  one  modulation  of 
sound  continued,  imprints  on  our  style  a certain  character  and 
expression.  Sentences  constructed  with  the  Ciceronian  fulness 
and  swell,  produce  the  impression  of  what  is  most  important, 
magnificent,  sedate ; for  this  is  the  natural  tone  v/hich  such  a 
course  of  sentiment  assumes.  But  they  suit  no  violent  passion, 
no  eager  reasoning,  no  familiar  address.  These  always  re- 
quires measures  brisker,  easier,  and  often  more  abrupt.  And, 
therefore,  to  swell,  or  to  let  down  the  periods,  as  the  subject 
demands,  is  a very  important  rule  in  composition.  No  one 
tenor  whatever,  supposing  it  to  produce  no  bad  effect  from 
satiety,  will  answer  to  all  different  compositions  : nor  even  to  all 
the  parts  of  the  same  composition.  It  were  as  absurd  to  write 
a panegyric,  and  an  invective,  in  a style  of  the  same  cadence,  as 
to  set  the  words  of  a tender  love-song  to  the  air  of  a warlike 
march. 

It  is  therefore  requisite,  that  we  previously  fix  in  our  mind  a 
just  idea  of  the  general  tone  of  sound  which  suits  our'  subject ; 
that  is,  which  the  sentiments  we  are' to  express,  most  naturally 
assume,  and  in  w^hich  they  most  commonly  vent  themselves  ; 
whether  round  and  smooth,  or  stately  and  solemn,  or  brisk  and 
quick,  or  interrupted  and  abrupt.  This  general  idea  must  direct 
the  modulation  of  our  periods. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  our  translators  of  the  Bible 
have  often  been  happy  in  suiting  their  numbers  to  the  subject. 
Grave,  solemn,  and  majestic  subjects,  undoubtedly  require  such 
an  arrangement  of  words  as  runs  much  on  long  syllables  and, 
particularly,  they  require  the  close  to  rest  upon  such.  The 
very  first  verses  of  the  Bible,  are  remarkable  for  this  melody: 
•‘In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 
And  the  earth  was  without  form  and  void  : and  darkness  was 
upon  the  face  of  the  deep:  and  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon 
the  face  of  the  waters.”  Several  other  passages,  particularly 
some  of  the  Psalms,  afford  striking  examples  of  this  sort  of  grave, 
melodious  construction.  Any  composition  that  rises  consider- 
ably above  the  ordinary  tone  of  prose,  such  as  monumental 
inscriptions,  and  panegyrical  characters,  naturally  runs  into 
numbers  of  this  kind. 


STRENGTH. 


331 


But,  in  the  next  place,  besides  the  general  correspondence 
of  the  current  of  sound  with  the  current  of  thought,  there 
may  be  a more  particular  expression  attempted,  of  certain 
objects,  by  means  of  resembling  sounds.  This  can  be,  some- 
times, accomplished  in  a prose  composition ; but  there  only  in 
a more  faint  degree  ; nor  is  it  so  much  expected  in  prose.  It 
is  in  poetry  that  it  is  chiefly  looked  for  ; where  attention  to 
sound  is  more  demanded,  and  where  the  inversions  and  liberties 
of  poetical  style  give  us  a greater  command  of  a sound  ; 
assisted  too  by  the  versification,  and  that  cantus  ohscurior^  to 
which  we  are  naturally  led  in  reading  poetry.  This  requires 
further  illustration:  and  as  the  perspicuity,  accuracy,  and  force 
of  poetical  composition,  form  a part  of  the  object  of  this 
Appendix,  we  shall  proceed  to  explain  the  subject  more  at 
large. 

The  sounds  of  words  may  be  employed  for  representing, 
chiefly,  three  classes  -of  objects : first,  other  sounds  ; secondly, 
motion  ; and,  thirdly,  the  emotions  and  passions  of  the  mind. 

First,  by  a proper  choice  of  words,  we  may  produce  a 
resemblance  of  other  sounds  which  \ve  mean  to  describe  ; such 
a^,  the  noise  of  waters,  the  roaring"  of  winds,  or  the  murmuring 
of  streams.  This  is  the  siiijplest  instance  of  this  sort  of  beauty : 
for  the  medium  through  which  we  imitate  here,  is  a natural  one : 
sounds  represented  by  other  sounds:  and  between  ideas  of  the 
same  sense,  it  is  easy  to  form  a connexion.  No  very  great  art 
is  required  in  a poet,  when  he  is  describing  sweet  and  soft  sounds, 
to  make  use  of  such  words  as  have  most  liquids  and  vowels,  and 
glide  the  most  softly  : or,  when  he  is  describing  harsh  sounds,  to 
throw  together  a number  of  harsh  syllables  which  are  of  difficult 
pronunciation.  Here  the  common  structure  of  language  assists 
him  ; for,  it  will  be  found,  that,  in  most  languages,  the  names 
of  many  particular  sounds  are  so  formed,  as  to  carry  some 
affinity  to  the  sound  which  they  signify  : as,  with  us,  the  whist- 
ling of  winds,  the  buzz  and  hum  of  insects,  the  hiss  of  serpents, 
the  crash  of  falling  timber  ; and  many  other  instances,  in  which 
the  word  has  been  evidently  framed  upon  the  sound  it  represents. 
We  shall  produce  a remarkable  example  of  this  beauty  from 
Milton,  taken  from  two  passages  in  Paradise  Lost,  describing  the 
sound  made,  in  the  one,  by  the  opening  of  the  gates  of  Hell ; in 
the  other,  by  the  opening  of  those  of  Heaven.  The  contrast 
between  the  two,  displays  to  great  advantage,  the  poet’s  art. 
The  first  is  the  opening  of  Hell’s  gates. 

On  a sudden,  open  fly. 

With  impetuous  recoil,  and  jarring  sound, 

Th’  infernal  doors  ; and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder 


332 


appendix. 


Observe,  now,  the  smoothness  of  the  other  example. 

Heave  open’d  wide 

Her  ever  during  gates,  harmonious  sound, 

On  golden  hinges  turning 

The  following  verse  contains  sounds  resemblig  those  of  battle 
in  former  times. 

Arms  on  armour,  clashing  bray’d 

Horrible  discord  ; and  the  madding  wheels  ^ 

Of  brazen  fury  raged. 

In  the  succeeding  verse,  we  hear  the  sound  of  a bow-string 
immediately  after  the  arrow  has  been  shot. 

The  string  let  fly 

Twang’d  short  and  sharp,  like  the  shrill  swallow’s  cry. 

The  spring  of  the  pheasant  is  heard  in  these  lines. 

See  ! from  the  brake  the  whirring  pheasant  springs. 

And  mounts  exulting  on  triumphant  wings. 

The  following  verse  gives  us  the  sound  of  felling  trees  in  a 
wood. 

I 

Loud  sounds  the  axe,  redoubling  strokes  on  strokes  ; 

On  all  sides  round  the  forests  hurls  her  oaks 
Headlong.  Deep  echoing  groan  the  thickets  brown 
Then  rustling,  crackling,  crashing,  thunder  down. 

In  the  succeeding  lines,  smooth  and  rough  verses  correspond 
to  the  objects  which  they  describe. 

Soft  is  the  strain  when  zephyr  gently  blows. 

And  the  smooth  streams  in  smoother  nunlbers  flows. 

But  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore. 

The  hoarse,  rough  verse,  should  like  the  torrent  roar. 

The  srjcoND  class  of  objects,  which  the  sound  of  words  is 
often  employed  to  imitate,  is  Motion ; as  it  is  swift  or  slow, 
violent  or  gentle,  equable  or  interrupted,  easy  or  accompanied 
with  effort.  Though  there  can  be  no  natural  affinity  between 
sound  of  any  kind,  and  motion,  yet,  in  the  imagination, 
there  is  a strong  one ; as  there  appears  from  the  connexion  be- 
tween music  and  dancing.  And,  therefore,  here  it  is  in  the 
poet’s  power,  to  give  us  a lively  idea  of  the  kind  of  mo- 


STRENGTH. 


333 


tion  he  would  describe,  by  means  of  sound  which  corresponds 
in  our  imagination^  with  that  motion.  Long  syllables  naturally 
give  Jhe  impression  of  «low  motion.  A succession  of  short 
syllables  presents  quick  motion  to  the  mind.  The  following  is 
a beautiful  instance  of  the  sound  of  words  corresponding  to 
motion.  It  is  the  description  of  a sudden  calm  on  the  seas,  in 
a poem  entitled  The  Fleece. 


— With  easy  course 

The  vessels  glide  ; unless  their  speed  be  stopp’d 
By  dead  calms,  that  oft  lie  on  these  smooth  seas, 

When  every  zephyr  sleeps  : then  the  shrouds  drop  ; 

The  downy  feather,  on  the  cordage  hUng,^ 

Moves  not ; the  flat  sea  shines  like  yellow  gold 
Fus’d  in  the  fire  ; or  like  the  marble  floor 
Of  some  old  temple  wide. 

■ »,• 

In  the  succeeding  lines  we  perceive  that  slow  motion  is 
imitated. 

When  Ajax  strives  some  rock’s  vast  weight  to  throw. 

The  line  too  labours,  and  the  words  move  slow. 

In  the  next  example,  the  verse  resembles  swift  and  easy 
motion. 

Not  so  when  swift  Camilla  scours  the  plain, 

Flies  o’er  th’  unbending  corn,  and  skims  along  the  main. 

The  following  verses  exemplify  laborious  and  impetuous 
motion. 

With  many  a weary  step,  and  many  a groan. 

Up  the  high  hill  he  heaves  a huge  round  stone  ; 

The  huge  round  stone  resulting  with  a bound. 

Thunders  impetuous  down,  and  smokes  along  the  ground. 

The  next  verse  is  expressive  of  regular  and  slow  movement. 

First  march  the  heavy  mules  securely  slow  ; 

O’er  hills,  o’er  dales,  o’er  crags,  o’er  rocks,  they  go. 

In  the  following  lines,  slow  and  difficult  motion  is  imitated. 

A needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 

That,  like  a wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along. 


334 


APPENDIX. 


The  succeeding  lines  imitate  violent  and  irregular  motion, 
that  of  a rock  torn  from  the  brovsr  of  a mountain. 

Still  gathering  force,  it  smokes,  and  urgM  amain, 

Whirls,  leaps,  and  thunders  down,  impetuous  to  the  plain. 

The  THIRD  set  of  objects,  which  the  sound  of  words  is  cap- 
able of  representing,  consists  of  the  passions  and  emotions  of 
the  mind.  Sound  may,  at  first  view,  appear  foreign  to  these  ; 
but  that  here,  also,  there  is  sonie  sort  of  connexion,  is  suffi- 
ciently proved  by  the  power  which  tnusic  has  to  awaken,  or  to 
assist  certain  passions;  and,  according  as  its  strain  is  varied, 
to  introduce  one  train  of  ideas,  rather  than  another.  This, 
indeed,  logically  speaking,  cannot  be  called  a resemblance  be- 
tween the  sense  and  the  sound,  seeing  long  or  short  syllables 
have  no  natural  resemblance  to  any  thought  or  passion.  But 
if  the  arrangement  of  syllables,  by  their  sound  alone,  recalls 
one  set  of  ideas  more  readily  than  another,  and  disposes  the 
mind  for  entering  that  affection  which  the  poet  means  to  raise, 
such  arrangement  may,  justly  epough,  be  said  to  resemble  the 
sense,  or  be  similar,  or  correspondent  to  it.  Without  much 
study  or  reflection,  a poet  describing  pleasure,  joy,  and  agree- 
able objects,  from  the  feeling  of  his  subject,  naturally  runs  into 
smooth,  liquid,  and  flowing  numbers.  Brisk  and  lively  sensa- 
tions exact  quicker  and  more  animated  numbers.  Melancholy 
and  gloomy  subjects  naturally  express  themselves  in  slow  meas- 
ures, and  long  words.  . 

The  following  verses  may  justly  be  said  to  resemble  the  pen- 
sive strain  which  they  describe. 

In  those  deep  solitudes  and  awful  cells. 

Where  heavenly  pensive  contemplation  dwells. 

And  ever-musing  melancholy  reigns. 

In  the  succeeding  lines,  the  sound  of  the  verse  is  made  to 
jmitate  reluctance  of  mind.  ^ 

For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a prey. 

This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e’er  resign’d; 

Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 

Nor  cast  one  longing,  ling’ring  look  behind  ? 

We  have  now  given  sufficient  openings  into  this  subject : a 
moderate  acquaintance  with  good  writers,  will  suggest  many 
instances  of  the  same  kind.  We  proceed  to  explain  the  nature 
of  Figures  of  Speech,  the  proper  use  of  which  contributes  to 
the  force  and  accuracy  of  a sentence. 


(335) 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 
See  Vol.  ii.  Part  5.  Exercises.,  Figures  of  Speech.  Chap.  4. 

The  fourth  requisite  of*  a perfect  sentence,  is  a judicious  use 
of  the  Figures  of  Speech. 

As  figurative  language  is  to  be  met  with  in  almost  every 
sentence  ; and,  when  properly  employed,  confers  beauty  and 
strength  on  composition  ; some  knowledge  of  it  appears  to  be 
indispensable  to  the  scholars,  who  are  learning  to  form  their 
sentences  with  .perspicuity,  accuracy,  and  force.  We  shall, 
therefore,  enumerate  the  principal  figures,  and  give  them  some 
explanation. 

In -general.  Figures  of  Speech  imply  some  departure  from 
simplicity  of  expression;  the  idea  which  we  mean  to  convey  is 
expressed  in  a particular  manner,  aud  with  some  circumstances 
added,  which  is  designed  to  render  the  impression- more  strong 
and  vivid.  When  I say,  for  instance,  “ That  a good  man  enjoys 
comfort  in  the  midst  of  adversity  ;”  I just  express  my  thoughts 
in  the  simplest  manner  possible : but  when  I say,  “ To  the  up- 
right there  ariseth  light  in  darkness ;”  the  same  sentiment  is 
expressed  in  a figurative  style ; a new  circumstance  is  introduced  ; 
“light,”  is  put  in  the  place  of  “comfort,”  and  “darkness”  is  used 
to  suggest  the  idea  of  “ adversity.”  In  the  same  manner,  to  say, 
“ It  is  impossible,  by  any  search  we  can  make,  to  explore  the 
Divine  nature  fully,”  is  to  make  a simple  proposition : but  when 
we  say,  “ Canst  thou,  by  searching,  find  out  the  Lord  ? Canst 
thou  find  out  the  Almighty  to  perfection  ? It  is  high  as  heaven, 
what  canst  thou  do  ? deeper  than  hell,  what  canst  thou  know  ?” 
this  introduces  a figure  into  style ; the  proposition  being  not 
only  expressed,  but  with  it  admiration  and  astonishment. 

But,  though  figures  imply  a deviation  from  what  may  be 
reckoned  the  most  simple  form  of  speech,  we  are  hot  thence  to 
conclude,  that  they  imply  any  thing  uncommon,  or  unnatural. 
On  many  occasions,  they  are  both  the  most  natural,  and  the  most 
common  method  oli^'uttering  our  sentiments.  It  would  be  very 
difficult  to  compose  any  discourse,  without  using  them  often ; 
nay  there  are  few  sentences  of  considerable  length,  in  which 
there  does  not  occur  some  expression  that  may  be  termed  a 
figure.  This  being  the  case,  we  may  see  the  necessity  of  some 
attention,  in  order  to  understand  their  nature  and  use. 


336 


APPENDIX. 


At  the  commencement  of  language,  men  would  begin  with  giving 
names  to  the  different  objects,  which  they  discerned,  or  thought  of. 
The  stock  of  words  would,  then,  be  very  small.  As  men’s  ideas 
multiplied,  and  their  acquaintance  with  objects  increased,  their 
store  of  names  and  words  would  also  increase.  But  to  the  vast  va- 
riety of  objects  and  ideas,  no-language  is  adequate.  No  language  is 
so  copious,  as  to  have  a se{)arate  word  for  every  separate  idea. 
Men  naturally  sought  to  abridge  this  labour  of  multiplying  words 
without  end  : and,  in  order  to  lay  less  burden  on  their  memories, 
made  one  word,  which  they  had  already  appropriated  to  a cer- 
tain idea  or  object,  stand  also  for  some  other  idea  or  object,  be- 
tween which  and  the  primary  one,  they  found  or  fancied,  some 
relation.  The  names  of  sensible  objects  were  the  words  most 
early  introduced  ; and  were,  by  degrees,  extended  to  those  men- 
tal objects,  of  which  men  had  more  obscure  conceptions,  and  to 
which  they  found  it  more,  difficult  to  assign  distinct  names. 
They  borrowed,  therefore,  the  name  of  some  sensible  idea,  where 
their  imagination  found  some  affinity.  Thus,  we  speak  of  a 
piercing  judgment,  and  a clear  head  ; a soft  or  a hard  heart  ^ a 
rough  or  a smooth  behaviour.  We  say,  inflamed  by  anger,  warm- 
ed by  love,  swelled  with  pride,  melted  into  grief ; and  these  are 
almost  the  only  significant  words  which  we  have  for  such  ideas. 

The  principal  advantages  of  figures  of  speech  are  the  two  fol- 
lowing. 

First,  they  enrich  language,  and  render  it  more  copious.  By 
their  means,  words  and  phrases  are  multiplied,  for  expressing  all 
sorts  of  ideas : for  describing  even  the  minutest  differences  : the 
nicest  shades  and  colpurs  of  thought ; which  no  language  could 
possibly  do  by  proper  words  alone  without  assistance  from 
Tropes. 

Secondly,  They  frequently  give  us  a much  clearer  and 
more  striking  view  of  the  principal  object,  than  we  could  have, 
if  it  were  expressed  in  simple  terms,  and  divested  of  its  acces- 
sory idea.  By  a well  chosen  figure,  even  conviction  is  assist- 
ed, and  the  impression  of  a truth  upon  the  mind,  made  more 
lively  and  forcible  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  We  perceive 
this,  in  the  following  illustration  of  Young ; ‘‘When  we  dip  too 
deep  in  pleasure,  we  always  stir  a sedim^iat  that  renders  it 
impure  and  noxious and  in  this  instance  : “ A heart  boiling 
with  violent  passions,  will  always  send  up  infatuated  fumes  to 
the  head.”  An  image  that  presents  so  much  congruity  between 
a moral  and  sensible  idea,  serves,  like  an  argument  froni  analogy, 
to  enforce  wliat  the  author  asserts,  and  to  induce  belief. 


FIGURES. 


337 


Figures,  in  general,  may  be  described,  to  be  that  language 
which  is  prompted  either  by  the  imagination,  or  by  the  pas- 
sions. They  have  been  commonly  divided  into  two  great 
classes  ; Figures  of  Words,  and  Figures  of  Thought.  The 
former,  Figures  of  Words,  are  commonly  called  Tropes,  and 
consist  in  a word’s  being  employed  to  signify  something, 
which  is  different  from  its  original  and  primitive  meaning:  so 
that  if  we  alter  the  word,  we  destroy  the  figure  : as  in  the  in- 
stance before  given : “ Light  ariseth  to  the  upright,  in  dark- 
ness.” The  other  class,  termed  Figures  of  Thought,  supposes 
the  words  to  be  used  in  their  proper  and  literal  meaning,  and 
the  Figure  to  consist  in  the  turn  of  the  thought ; as  is  the  case 
in  exclamations,  interrogations,  apostrophes,  comparisons,  &c. 
The  distinction  of  these  ornaments  of  language,  into  Tropes 
and  Figures,  does  not  appear  to  be  of  much  use,  nor  is  it  always 
to  be  clearly  ascertained.  Figures  of  Imagination,  and  Figures 
of  Passion,  might  be  a more  correct  and  useful  distribution  of 
the  subject. 

Having  considered  the  general  nature  of  figures,  we  proceed 
next  to  particularize  such  of  them  as  are  of  the  most  impor- 
tance: viz. 


1.  METAPHOR, 

2.  ALLEGORY, 

3.  COMPARISON, 

4.  METONYMY, 

5.  SYNECDOCHE, 

6.  PERSONIFICATION, 

7.  APOSTROPHE, 

8.  ANTITHESIS, 


9.  HYPERBOLE, 

10.  VISION, 

11.  INTERROGATION, 

12.  EXCLAMATION, 

13.  IRONY, 

AND 

14.  AMPLIFICATION  Or 
CLIMAX. 


A Metaphor  is  a figure  founded  entirely  on  the  resemblance 
which  one  object  bears  to  another.  Hence,  it  is  much  allied  to 
simile  or  comparison,  and  is  indeed  no  other  than  a comparison, 
expressed  in  an  abridged  form.  When  I say  of  some  great 
minister,  That  he  upholds  the  state,  like  a pillar  which  sup- 
ports the  weight  erf  a whole  edifice,”  I fairly  make  a compari- 
son : hut  when  I say  of  such  a minister,  “ That  he  is  the  pillar 
of  the  state,”  it  now  becomes  a metaphor.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  comparison  between  the  minister  and  a pillar,  is  made  in 
the  mind  ; but  is  expressed  without  any  of  the  words  that  denote 
comparison. 

If  we  compare  human  life  to  a landscape,  in  which  are 
weeds,  gardens,  hills,  valleys,  open  fields,  plantations,  we  form 
a simile : but  if,  with  Pope,  we  affirm  that  human  life  is  actually, 
VoL.  45 


338 


APPENDIX. 


a scene  of  all  these  objects,  we  form  a picturesque  and  instruc- 
tive metaphor. 

“ Let  us  (since  life  can  little  else  supply, 

Than  just  to  look  about  us,  and  to  die,) 

Expatiate  free  o’er  all  this  scene  of  man  ; 

A mighty  maze  ! but  not  without  a plan  ; 

A wild,  where  weeds  and  flow’rs  promiscuous  shoot ; 

A garden  tempting  with  forbidden  fruits  ' 

Together  let  us  beat  this  ample  field, 

Try  what  the  open,  what  the  covert  yield  ; 

The  latent  tracts,  the  giddy  heights  explore, 

Of  all  who  blindly  creep,  or  sightless  soar.” 


The  following  are  examples  of  metaphor  taken  from  Scrip- 
ture : I will  be  unto  her  a wall  of  fire  round  about,  and  will 
be  the  glory  in  the  -midst  of  her.”  “ Thou  art  my  rock  and  my 
fortress.”  Thy  word  is  a lamp  to  my  feet,  and  a light  to  my 
path.” 

The  utility  and  beauty  of  metaphors  may  be  farther  illustra- 
ted by  another  example  taken  from  a distinguished  author;  and 
by  contrasting  his  highly  ornamented  expressions,  with  that  tame 
and  simple  phraseology,  in  which  perhaps,  a writer  of  inferior 
genius  would  have  communicated  his  thoughts.  The  example 
is  as  follows : Banish  all  your  imaginary,  and  you  will  suffer 
no  real  wants.  The  little  stream  that  is  left,  will  suffice  to 
quench  the  thirst  of  nature  ; and  that  which  cannot  be  quench- 
ed by  it,  is  not  your  thirst,  but  your  distemper.”  The  following 
are  the  same  sentiments  in  plain  language  : “ Restrict  your  de- 
sires to  the  satisfaction  of  the  real  wants  of  nature.  A small 
portion  of  the  good  things  of  this  world,  is  sufficient  for  that  pur- 
pose : if  you  desire  more,  you  have  not  yet  learned  that  modera- 
tion which  constitutes  true  happiness.”  In  the  latter  phrase- 
ology, the  ideas  remain,  the  understanding  is  instructed,  and 
wisdom  is  perhaps  instilled  ; but  the  ornament  is  all  fled,  the 
imagination  is  neglected,  and  the  heart  is  not  impressed. 

Rules  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  metaphors. 

I.  Metaphors,  as  well  as  other  figures,  should  on  no  occasion, 
he  stuck  on  profusely  ; and  should  always  he  such  as  accord  with 
the  strain  of  our  sentiment.  The  latter  part  of  the  following 
passage,  from  a late  historian,  is  in  this  respect,  very  excep- 
tionable. He  is  giving  an  account  of  the  famous  act  of  par- 
liament against  irregular  marriages  in  England.  The  bill,’’ 


FIGURES. 


339 


says  he,  ‘‘  underwent  a great  number  of  alterations  and  amend- 
ments, which  were  not  elfected  without  violent  contest.  At 
length,  however,  it  was  floated  through  both  houses  on  the  tide 
of  a great  majority,  and  steered  into  the  safe  harbour  of  royal 
approbation.’^ 

2.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  resemblance^  which  is  the 
foundation  of  the  metaphor,  he  clear  and  perspicuous,  not  far- 
fetched, nor  difficult  to  discover.  The  transgression  of  this  rule 
makes  what  are  called  ' harsh  or  forced  metaphors  ; which  are 
displeasing,  because  they  puzzle  the  reader,  and  instead  of 
illustrating  the  thought,  render  it  perplexed  and  intricate. 

3.  In  the  third  place,  we  should  be  careful,  in  the  conduct 
of  metaphors,  never  to  jumhle  metaphorical  and  plain  language 
together.  An  author  addressing  himself  to  the  king,  says  : 

To  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays  ; 

The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  praise. 

It  is  plain,  that,  had  not  the  rhyme  misled  him  to  the  choice  of 
an  improper  phrase,  he  would  have  said. 

The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  crop ; 

and  so  would  have  continued  the  figure  which  he  had  begun. 
Whereas,  by  dropping  it  unfinished,  and  by  employing  the 
literal  word  “praise,”  when  we  were  expecting  something  that 
related  to  the  harvest,  the  figure  is  broken,  and  the  two  members 
of  the  sentence  have  no  suitable  correspondence  to  each  other. 

In  the  following  example,  the  metaphorical  and  the  literal 
meaning,  are  improperly  mixed.  Dryden,  in  his  introduction 
to  his  translation  of  Juvenal,  says,  “ Thus  I was  sailing  on  a 
vast  ocean,  before  the  use  of  the  loadstone  or  knowledge  of  the 
compass,  without  other  help  than  the  polar  star  of  the  ancients, 
and  the  rules  of  the  French  stage  among  the  moderns.”  Every 
reader  must  perceive  the  incoherence  of  the  transition  from  the 
figurative  expression,  “ the  polar  star  of  the  ancients,”  to  the 
literal  phraseology,  “ the  rules  of  the  French  stage  among  the 
moderns ;”  and  the  inconsistency  of  pretending  to  navigate  the 
ocean,  by  the  laws  of  the  theatre. 

The  subsequent  quotation  from  Garth,  is  still  more  excep-. 
tionable. 


340 


APPENDIX. 


But  now  from  gath’ring  clouds  destruction  pours, 

Which  ruins  with  mad  rage  our  halcyon  hours  ; 

Mists  from  black  jealousies  the  tempest  form, 

While  late  divisions  reinforce  the  storm. 

That  destruction  might  be  pouyed  from  a cloud  in  the  form  of 
lightning,  thunder,  or  a water-spout,  is  possible  and  intelligible  ; 
that  it  might  occasion  a temporary  devastation  and  general 
terror,  is  conceivable  and  very  probable.  But  what  opinion 
shall  we  form  of  its  effects  and  appearance,  when,  in  the  next 
line,  it  assumes  the  functions  of  a fury,  and  takes  up  its  residence 
in  society,  “ to  ruin  with  mad  rage  our  halcyon  hours  ?”  The 
storm  returns  in  the  third  line,  and  is  supposed,  not  without 
reason  perhaps,  to  arise  from  collected  mists : but  the  source 
of  these  mists  is  not  a little  extraordinary,  being  derived  from 
black  jealousies,”  which  exists  only  in  the  minds  of  men.  A 
new  figure  is  introduced  in  the  last  line  ; pofitical  divisions  are 
supposed  to  form  a reserve,  which  marches  in  support  of  the 
dominion  of  the  tempest.  Such  motley  composition  justly  de- 
serves reprehension. 

4.  We  should  avoid  making  two  inconsistent  metaphors  meet 
on  one  subject.  This  is  what  is  called  mixed  metaphor,  and  is 
indeed  one  of  the  greatest  misapplications  of  this  figure.  One 
may  be  sheltered  under  the  patronage  of  a great  man  but 
it  would  be  wrong  to  say,  “ sheltered  under  the  mask  of  dis- 
simulation as  a mask  conceals,  but  does  not  shelter.  Addison 
in  his  letter  from  Italy,  says, 

I bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 

That  longs  to  launch  into  a bolder  strain. 

The  muse,  figured  as  a horse,  may  be  br*)lled  ; but  when  we 
speak  of  launching,  we  make  it  a ship ; and  by  no  force  of  im- 
agination, can  it  be  supposed  both  a horse  and  a ship  at  one 
moment ; bridled  to  hinder  it  from  launching. 

The  same  author,  elsewhere, says,  “ There  is  not  a single 
view  of  human  nature,  which  is  not,  sufficient  to  extinguish  the 
seeds  of  pride.”  Observe  the  incoherence  of  the  things  here 
joined  together ; making  a view  to  extinguish^  and  extinguish 
seeds. 

Dean  Swift  observes,  that  ‘‘  Those  whose  minds  are  dull 
and  heavy,  do  not  easily  penetrate  into  the  folds  and  intricacies 
of  an  affair ; and  therefore  they  can  only  scum  off  what  they 
find  at  the  top.”  That  the  author  had  a right  to  repre- 


FIGTTRTiS. 


341 


sent  his  affair,  whatever  it  was,  either  as  a bale  of  cloth,  or  a 
fluid,  nobody  can  deny.  But  the  laws  of  perspicuity  and 
common  sense  demand  of  him,  tQ  keep  it  either  the  one  or 
the  other,  because  it  could  not  be  both  at  the  same  time.  It 
was  absurd,  therefore,  after  he  had  penetrated  the  folds  of  it, 
an  operation  practicable  only  on  the  supposition  of  its  being 
some  pliable,  solid  body,  to  speak  of  scumming  off  what 
floated  on  the  surface,  which  could  not  be  performed  unless  it 
were  a fluid.  < 

As  metaphors  ought  never  to  be  mixed,  so  they  should  not 
be  crowded  together  on  the  same  subject ; for  the  mind  has 
difficulty  in  passing  readily  through  many  different  views  of  the 
same  object  presented  in  quick  succession. 

The  last  rule  concerning  metaphors,  is,  that  they  he  not  too  far 
pursued.  If  the  resemblance,  on  which  the  figure  is  founded,  be 
long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  minute  circumstances, 
we  tire  the  reader,  who  soon  grows  disgusted  with  this  stretch  of 
fancy ; and  we  render  our  discourse  obscure.  This  is  called 
straining  a metaphor.  Authors  of  a lively  and  strong  iriiagina- 
tion  are  apt  to  rCm  into  this  exuberance  of  metaphor.  When 
they  hit  upon  a figure  that  pleases  them,  they  are  loth  to  part 
with  it,  and  frequently  continue  it  so  long,  as  to  become  tedious 
and  intricate.  We  may  observe,  for  instance,  how  the  following 
metaphor  is  spun  out. 

Thy  thoughts  are  vagabonds  ; all  outward  bound, 

’Midst  sands,  and  rocks,  and  storms,  to  cruise  for  pleasure  ; 

If  gain’d,  dear  bought ; and  better  miss’d  than  gain’d. 

* Fancy  and  sense,  from  an  infected  shore, 

Thy  cargo  bring  ; and  pestilence  the  prize  ; • 

Then  such  a thirst,  insatiable  thirst, 

By  fond  indulgence  but  inflamed  the  more  ; 

F ancy  still  cruises,  when  poor  sense  is  tired. 

An  Allegory  may  be  regarded  as  a metaphor  continued  ; 
since  it  is  the  representation  of  some  one  thing  by  another 
that  resembles  it,  and  which  is  made  to  stand  for  it.  We 
may  take  from  the  Scriptures  a very  fine  example  of  an  alle- 
gory, in  the  80th  psalm ; where  the  people  of  Israel  are  re- 
presented under  the  image  of  a vine : and  the  figure  is  car- 
ried throughout  with  great  exactness  and  beauty.  ‘^Thou 
hast  brought  a vine  out  of  Egypt : thou  hast  cast  out  the 
heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it ; 
and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land. 
The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it:  and  the 
boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out 


342 


APPENDIX. 


her  boughs  into  the  sea,  and  her  branches  into  the  river. 
Why  hast  thou  broken  down  her  hedges,  so  that  all  they 
which  do  pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  her  ? The  boar  out  of  the 
wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  wild  beast  out  of  the  field  doth  de- 
vour it.  Return,  we  beseech  thee,  O God  of  Hosts,  look  down 
from  heaven,  and  behold,  and  visit  this  vine  !”  See  also  Eze- 
kiel, xvii.  22 — 24. 

Allegories  often  combine  both  ornament  and  instruction.  No 
picture  can  more  forcibly  impress  the  imagination,  no  reasoning 
can  so  effectually  excite  the  aversion  of  the  heart,  as  the  allego- 
ries of  Sin  and  Death,  in  Paradise  Lost. 

Before  the  gates  there  sat, 

On  either  side,  a formidable  shape. 

The  one  seemM  woman  to  the  waist,  and  fair, 

But  ended  foul  in  many  a scaly  fold 
Y oluminoiis  and  vast,  a serpent  arm’d 
With  mortal  sting  ; about  her  middle  round 
A cry  of  hell-hounds,  never  ceasing  bark’d 
With  wide  Cerberean  mouths,  full  loud,  and  rung 
A hideous  peal : yet  when  they  list  would  creep, 

If  ought  disturbed  their  noise,  into  her  womb. 

And  kennel  there  ; yet  there  still  bark’d  and  howl’d 
Within,  unseen.” 

“ The  other  shape, ^ 

If  shape  it  might  be  call’d  that  shape  had  none, 

Or  substance  might  be  call’d  that  shadow  seem’d, 

For  each  seem’d  either  ; black  it  stood  as  night, 

Fierce  as  ten  furies,  terrible  as  hell, 

, And  shook  a dreadful  dart : what  seem’d  his  head 
The  likeness  of  a kingly  crown  had  on.” 

These  figures  are  strongly  marked,  and  the  resemblance  of 
their  characters  to  their  effects  produced  in  life,  is  too  obvious  to 
need  any  comment. 

The  first  and  principal  requisite  in  the  conduct  of  an  alle- 
gory, is,  that  the  figurative  and  the  literal  meanings  he  not  mixed 
inconsistently  together.  Indeed,  all  the  rules,  that  were  given 
for  metaphors,  may  also  be  applied  to  allegories,  on  account 
of  the  affinity  they  bear  to  each  other.  The  only  material 
difference  between  them,  besides  the  one  being  short  and  the 
other  being  prolonged,  is,  that  a metaphor  always  explains 
itself  by  the  words  that  are  connected  with  it  in  their  proper 
and  natural  meaning : as,  when  I say,  “ Achilles  was  a lion 
‘‘  An  able  minister  is  the  pillar  of  the  state  f the  ‘‘  lion"  and 


FIGURES. 


343 


the  pillar”  are  sufficiently  interpreted  by  the.  mention  of 
“Achilles”  and  the  “minister,”  which  I join  to  them  ; but  an 
allegory  is,  or  may  be,  allowed  to  stand  less  connected  with  the 
literal  meaning,  the  interpretation  not  being  so  directly  pointed 
out,  but  left  to  our  own  reflection. 

Allegory  was  a favorite  method  of  delivering  instruction  in 
ancient  times ; for  what  we  call  fables  or  parables,  are  no  other 
than  allegories.  By  words  and  actions  attributed  to  beasts 
or  inanimate  objects,  the  dispositions  of  men  were  figured  : and 
what  we  call  the  moral,  is  the  unfigured  sense  or  meaning  of  the 
allegory.  An  enigma  or  riddle  is  also  a species  of  allegory ; 
one  thing  represented  or  imaged  by  another;  but  purposely 
wrapped  .up  under  so  many  circumstances,  as  to  be  rendered 
obscure.  Where  a riddle  is  not  intended,  it  is  always  a fault  in 
allegory  to  be  too  dark.  The  meaning  should  be  easily  seen, 
through  the  figure  employed  to  shadow  it.  However,  the  proper 
mixture  of  light  ahd-shade,  in  such  compositions;  the  exact  ad- 
justment of  all  the  figurative  circumstances  with  the  literal  sense, 
so  as  neither  to  lay  the  meaning  too  bare  and  open,  nor  to  cover 
and  wrap  it  up  too  much ; have  ever  been  considered  as  points 
of  great  nicety ; and  there  are  few  species  of  composition,  in 
which  it  is  more  difficult  to  write  so  as  to  please  and  command 
attention,  than  in  allegories.  In  some  of  the  visions  of  the  Spec- 
tator, we  have  examples  of  allegories  very  happily  executed. 

.A  COMPARISON  OR  SIMILE,  is^  whcn  the  resemblance  between 
two  objects  is  socpressed  in  form,  and  generally  pursued  more 
fully  than  the  nature  of  a metaphor  admits : as  when  it  is  said  ; 
“The  actions  of  princes  are  like  those  great  rivers,  the  course  of 
which  every  one  beholds,  but  their  springs  have  been  seen  by 
few.”  “ As  the  mountains  are  round  about  Jerusalem,  so  the 
Lord  is  round  about  his  people.”  “ Behold,  how  good  and  how 
pleasant  it  is  for  brethren  to  dwell  together  in  unity ! It  is  like 
the  precious  ointment,  &c.  and  as  the  dew  that  descended  upon 
the  mountains  of  Zion.” 

The  advantage  of  this  figure  arises  from  the  illustration  which 
the  simile  employed  gives  to  the  principal  object;  from  the  clear- 
er view  which  it  presents  ; or  the  more  strong  impression  which 
it  stamps  upon  the  mind.  Observe  the  effect  of  it  in  the  follow- 
ing instance.  The  author  is  explaining  the  distinction  between 
the  powers  of  sense  and  imagination  in  the  human  mind.  “ As 
wax,”  says  he,  “ would  not  be  adequate  to  the  purpose  of  signa- 
ture, if  it  had  not  the  power  to  retain,  as  well  as  to  receive,  the 
impression,  the  same  holds  of  the  soul  with  respect  to  sense  and 
imagination.  Sense  is  its  receptive  power ; imagination,  its 
retentive.  Had  it  sense  without  imagination,  it  would  not  be  as 


344 


APPENDIX. 


wax,  but  as  water ; where  though  all  impressions  are  instantly 
made,  yet  as  soon  as  they  are  made,  they  are  instantly  lost.” 

In  comparisons  of  this  nature,  the  understanding  is  concerned 
much  more  than  fancy : and  therefore  the  rules  to  be  observed, 
with  respect  to  them,  are,  that  they  be  clear^  and  that  they  be 
useful ; that  they  tend  to  render  our  conception  of  the  principal 
object  more  distinct ; and  that  they  do  not  lead  our  view  aside, 
and  bewilder  it  with  any  false  light.  We  should  always  remem- 
ber, that  similies  are  not  arguments.  However  apt  they  may 
be,  they  do  no  more  than  explain  the  writer’s  sentiments ; they 
do  not  prove  them  to  be  founded  on  truth. 

The  preceding  examples  obviously  tend  to  convey  stronger 
impressions  of  the  principal  object,  than  could  have  been  done 
without  the  figurative  expressions.  Sitniles  are  sometimes  cal- 
culated to  augment  the  pleasure  of  those  impressions,  by  a splen- 
did assemblage  of  adjacent  and  agreeable  objects.  The  follow- 
ing quotation,  accordingly,  besides  presenting  a striking  view  of 
the  points  of  resemblance,  conveys  additional  gratification,  by 
the  beauty  of  the  landscape  they  concur  to  form.  Homer  intro- 
duces a most  charming  night  «cene,  while  his  main  object  is  only 
to  illustrate  the  situation  of  the  Grecian  camp  after  a battle. 

The  troops,  exulting,  sat  m order  round,. 

And  beaming  fires  illumin’d  all  the.  ground, 

As  when  the  moon,  resplendeint  orb  of  ' night. 

O’er  heaven’s  pure  azure  sheds  her  sacred  light ; 

When  not  a cloud  o’ercasts  the  solemn  scene, 

And  not  a breath  disturbs  the  deep  serene  ; 

Around  her  throne  the  vivid  planets  roll, 

And  stars  unnumber’d  gild  the  glowing  pole  ; 

O’er  the  dark  trees  a yellow  verdure  spread, 

And  tip  with  silver  every  mountain’s  head,  ‘ 

Then  shine  the  vales,  the  rocks  in  prospect  rise, 

A flood  of  glory  bursts  from  all  the  skies. 

The  conscious  swains,  rejoicing  in  the  night, 

Eye  the  blue  vault,  and  bless  the  useful  light. 

So  many  flames  before  proud  Ilion  blaze, 

And  lighten  glimmering  Xanthus  with  their  rays. 

Comparisons  ought  not  to  be  founded  on  likenesses  which 
are  obscure,  faint,  or  remote.  For  these,  in  place  of  assisting, 
strain  the  mind  to  comprehend  them,  and  throw  no  light  upon 
the  subject.  It  is  also  to  be  observed,  that  a comparison 
which,  in  the  principal^  circumstances,  carries  a sufficiently 
near  resemblance,  may  become  unnatural  and  obscure,  if 


FIGURES. 


345 


pushed  too  far.  Nothing  is  more  opposite  to  the  design  of  this 
figure  than  to  hunt  after  a great  number  of  coincidences  in 
minute  points,  merely  to  show  how  far  the  writer’s  ingenuity  can 
stretch  the  resemblance. 

The  following  simile  was  intended  by  Milton  to  illustrate  the 
anxiety,  with  which  Satan  traversed  the  creation,  in  order  to 
find  out  destruction  and  revenge. 

As  when  a vulture  on  Imaus  bred, 

Whose  snowy  ridge  the  roving  Tartar  bounds, 

Dislodging  from  a region  scarce  of  prey, 

To  gorge  the  flesh  of  lambs  or  yearling  kids. 

On  hills  where  flocks  are  fed,  flies  to  the  springs 
Of  Ganges  or  Hydaspes  Indian  streams, 

But  in  his  way  lights  on  the  barren  plains 
Of  Sericana,  where  Chineses  drive, 

With  sails  and  wind,  their  cany  waggons  light; 

So,  on  this  windy  sea  of  land,  the  find 
Walk’d  up  and  down  alone,  bent  on  his  prey. 


The  objects  contained  in  this  comparison  are  so  little  known, 
even  to  those  who  claim  the  character  of  being  learned,  and 
they  are  so  totally  unknown  to  the  greater  part  of  readers,  that 
it  has  the  appearance  of  a riddle,  or  a pompous  parade  of 
erudition,  rather  than  of  a figure  to  illustrate  something  less 
conspicuous  and  striking  than  itself. 

A Metonymy  is  founded  on  the  several  relations,  of  cause 
and  effect,  container  and  contained,  sign  andxthing  signified. 
When  we  say : “ They  read  Milton,”  the  cause  is  put  instead 
of  the  effect ; meaning  “ Milton’s  works.”  On  the  other  hand, 
when  it  is  said,  “ Grey  hairs  should  be  respected,”  we  put  the 
effect  for  the  cause,  meaning  by  “ gray  hairs,”  old  age.  “ The 
kettle  boils,”  is  a phrase  where  the  name  of  the  container  is 
substituted  for  that  of  the  thing  contained.  “ To  assume  the 
sceptre,”  is  a common  expression  for  entering  on  royal  author- 
ity ; the  sign  being  put  for  the  thing  signified. 

When  the  whole  is  put  for  a part,  or  a part  for  the  whole  ; 
a genus  for  a species,  or  a species  for  a genus ; in  general, 
when  any  thing  else,  or  any  thing  more,  is  put  for  the  precise 
object  meant ; the  figure  is  then  called  a Synecdoche  or 
Comprehension.  It  is  very  common,  for  instance,  to  describe 
a whole  object  by  some  remarkable  part  of  it ; as,  when  we 
say  : “ A fleet  of  twenty  5az7,”  in  the  place  of  “ ships when 
we  use  the  “ head^^  for  the  per son^  the  “ waves''^  for  the  ‘‘  sea^ 
In  like  manner,  an  attribute  may  be  put  for  an  object : as, 

VoL.  1.  46 


346 


APPENDIX, 


Youth”  for  the  ‘‘young,”  the  “deep”  for  the  “sea;”  and 
sometimes  a subject  for  its  attribute. 

By  this  figure  virtues  and  vices  are  put  for  the  persons  in 
whom  they  are  found : as  in  that  beautiful  passage  of  Cicero, 
where  he  compares  the  profligate  army  of  Cataline,  with  the 
forces  of  the  state.  “ On  this  side,  modesty  is  engaged ; on 
that,  impudence : on  this,  chastity ; on  that,  lewdness : on  this, 
integrity ; on  that,  deceit : on  this,  piety ; on  that,  profane- 
ness : on  this,  constancy ; on  that,  fury : on  this,  honour ; 
on  that,  baseness : on  this,  moderation  ; on  that,  unbridled 
passion : in  a word,  equity,  temperance,  fortitude,  prudence, 
and  all  virtues,  engage  with  injustice,  luxury,  cowardice,  rash- 
ness, and  all  vices.” — This  example  is  an  instance  oi Synecdoche 
and  Antithesis  joined  together. 

Personification  or  Prosopofceia,  is  that  figure  by  which 
we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects.  The  use  of 
this  figure  is  very  natural  and  extensive  : there  is  a wonderful 
proneness  in  human  nature,  under  emotion,  to  animate  all 
objects.  When  we  say,  “ the  ground  thirsts  for  rain,”  or,  “ the 
earth  smiles  with  plenty  ;”  when  we  speak  of  “ ambition’s 
being  restless,’^  or,  “ a disease’s  being  deceitful ;”  such  expres- 
sions show  the  facility,  with  which  the  mind  can  accommodate 
the  properties  of  living  creatures  to  things  that  are  inanimate, 
or  to  abstract  conceptions  of  its  own  forming.  The  following 
are  striking  examples  from  the  Scriptures  : “ When  Israel  went 
out  of  Egypt,  the  house  of  Judah  from  a people  of  strange  lan- 
guage ; the  sea  saw  it,  and  fled  ; Jordan  was  driven  back  ? 
The  mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  like  lambs. 
What  ailed  thee,  O thou  sea  ! that  thou  fleddest  ? Thou  Jordan, 
that  thou  wast  driven  back?  Ye  mountains,  that  ye  skipped 
like  rams ; and  ye  little  hills,  like  lambs  ? Tremble,  thou  earth, 
at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  at  the  presence  of  the  God  of 
Jacob.” 

“The  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall  be  glad  for 
them : and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the  rose.” 

Milton  thus  describes  the  immediate  effects  of  eating  the 
forbidden  fruit.  Terror  produces  the  figure. 

Earth  trembled  from  her  entrails,  as  again 
In  pangs,  and  nature  gave  a second  groan  ; 

Sky  lower’d,  and,  mutt’ring  thunder,  some  sad  drops 
Wept,  at  completing  of  the  mortal  sin. 

The  impatience  of  Adam  to  know  his  origin  is  supposed  to 
prompt  the  personification  of  all  the  objects  he  beheld,  in  order 
to  procure  information. 


FIGURES. 


347 


— Thou  sun,  said  I,  fair  light ! 

And  thou  enlighten’d  earth,  so  fresh  and  gay ! 

Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers,  woods,  and  plains, 

And  ye  that  live  and  move,  fair  creatures  tell. 

Tell,  if  you  saw,  how  came  I thus,  how  here  ] 

We  shall  give  a remarkable  fine  example  of  this  figure, 
from  bishop  Sherlock.  He  has  beautifully  personified  natural 
religion : and  we  may  perceive,  in  the  personification,  the 
spirit  and  grace  which  the  figure,  when  well  conducted, 
bestows  on  discourse.  The  author  is  comparing  together  our 
Saviour  and  Mahomet.  “ Go  (says  he)  to  your  Natural  Reli- 
gion: lay  before  her  Mahomet,  and  his  disciples,  arrayed 
in  armour  and  blood,  riding  in  triumph  over  the  spoils  of 
thousands  who  fell  by  his  victorious  sword.  Show  her  the 
cities  which  he  set  in  flames,  the  countries  which  he  ravaged 
and  destroyed,  and  the  miserable  distress  of  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth.  When  she  has  viewed  him  in  this  scene,  carry 
her  into  his  retirement ; show  her  the  Prophet’s  chamber ; 
his  concubines  and  his  wives ; and  let  her  hear  him  allege 
revelation,  and  a Divine  command,  to  justify  his  adultery  and 
lust. 

When  she  is  tired  with  this  prospect,  then  show  her  the 
blessed  Jesus,  humble  and  meek,  doing  good  to  all  the  sons 
of  men.  Let  her  see  him  in  his  most  retired  privacies ; let 
her  follow  him  to  the  mount,  and  hear  his  devotions  and  sup- 
plications to  God.  Carry  her  to  his  table,  to  view  his  poor 
fare  ; and  hear  his  heavenly  discourse.  Let  her  attend  him 
to  the  tribunal,  and  consider  the  patience  with  which  he  en- 
dured the  scoffs  and  reproaches  of  his  enemies.  Lead  her 
to  his  cross ; let  her  view  him  in  the  agony  of  death,  and 
hear  his  last  prayer  for  his  persecutors ; ^ Father  forgive  them, 
for  they  know  not  what  they  do.’ — When  Natural  Religion 
has  thus  viewed  both,  ask  her,  which  is  the  prophet  of  God  ? 
But  her  answer  we  have  already  had,  when  she  saw  part  of 
this  scene,  through  the  eyes  of  the  Centurion,  who  attended 
at  the  cross.  By  him  she  spoke,  and  said,  “ Truly  this  man 
was  the  Son  of  God.’  ” This  is  more  than  elegant ; it  is  truly 
sublime.  The  whole  passage  is  animated  ; and  the  Figure 
rises  at  the  conclusion,  when  Natural  Religion,  who,  before, 
was  only  a spectator,  is  introduced  as  speaking  by  the  Cen* 
turion’s  voice. 

This  figure  of  speech  is  sometimes  very  improperly  and 
extravagantly  applied.  A capital  error  in  personifying  objects, 
is,  to  deck  them  with  fantastic  and  trifling  circumstances.  A 
practice  of  this  sort  dissolves  the  potent  charm,  which  enchants 


348 


APPITNDIX. 


and  deceives  the  reader;  and  either  leaves  him  dissatisfied, 
or  excites,  perhaps,  his  risibility.  Another  error,  frequent 
in  descriptive  personifications,  consists  in  introducing  them, 
when  the  subject  of  discussion  is  destitute  of  dignity,  and  the 
reader  is  not  prepared  to  relish  them.  One  can  scarcely 
peruse,  with  composure,  the  following  use  of  this  figure. 
It  is  the  language  of  our  elegant  poet  Thomson,  who  thus 
personifies  and  connects  the  bodily  appetites,  and  their  grati- 
fications. 

Then  sated  Hunger  bids  his  brother  Thirst 
Produce  the  mighty  bowl ; 

Nor  wanting  is  the  brown  October,  drawn 
Mature  and  perfect,  from  his  dark  retreat 
Of  thirty  years  : and  now  his  honest  front 
Flames  in  the  light  refulgent. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  concerning  this  figure,  and  short  meta- 
phors and  similes,  which  also  have  been  allowed  to  be  the  pro- 
per language  of  high  passion,  that  they  are  the  proper  expres- 
sions of  it,  only  on  those  occasions  when  it  is  so  far  moderated 
as  to  admit  of  words.  The  first  and  highest  transports  seem  to 
overwhelm  the  mind,  and  are  denoted  by  silence  or  groans : 
next  succeeds  the  violent  and  passionate  language,  of  which 
these  figures  constitute  a great  part.  Such  agitation,  however, 
cannot  long  continue  ; the  passions  having  spent  their  force  ; the 
mind  soon  subsides  into  that  exhausted  and  dispirited  state,  in 
which  all  figures  are  improper. 

Apostrophe  is  a turning  off  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject,  to  address  some  person  or  thing : as,  Death  is  swal- 
lowed up  in  victory.  O death  ! where  is  thy  sting  ? O grave  ! 
where  is  thy  victory  ?” 

The  following  is  an  instance  of  personification  and  apostrophe 
united : “ O thou  sword  of  the  Lord  ! how  long  will  it  be 
ere  thou  be  quiet  ? put  thyself  up  into  thy  scabbard,  rest  and 
be  still  ! How  can  it  be  quiet,  seeing  the  Lord  hath  given  it  a 
charge  against  Askelon,  and  against  the  sea-shore  ! there  hath 
he  appointed  it.”  See  also  an  extraordinary  example  of  these 
figures,  in  the  I4th  chapter  of  Isaiah,  from  the  4th  to  the  19th 
verse,  where  the  prophet  describes  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian 
empire. 

A principal  error,  in  the  use  of  the  Apostrophe,  is,  to  deck 
the  object  addressed  with  affected  ornaments;  by  which  authors 
relinquish  the  expression  of  passion,  and  substitute  for  it  the 
language  of  fancy. 


FIGURES. 


349 


Another  frequent  error  is,  to  extend  this  figure  to  too  great 
length.  The  language  of  violent  passion  is  always  concise,  and 
often  abrupt.  It  passes  suddenly  from  one  object  to  another. 
It  often  glances  at  a thought,  starts  from  it,  and  leaves  it  un- 
finished. The  succession  of  ideas  is  irregular,  and  connected 
by  distant  and  uncommon  relations.  On  all  these  accounts, 
nothing  is  more  unnatural  than  long  speeches,  uttered  by  per- 
sons under  the  influence  of  strong  passions.  Yet  this  error 
occurs  in  several  poets  of  distinguished  reputation. 

The  next  figure  in  order,  is  Antithesis.  Comparison  is 
founded  on  the  resemblance  ; antithesis,  on  the  contrast  or 
opposition  of  two  objects.  Contrast  has  always  the  effect  to 
make  each  of  the  contrasted  objects  appear  in  the  stronger 
light.  White,  for  instance,  never  appears  so  bright  as  when  it 
is  opposed  to  black,  and  when  both  are  viewed  together.  As  an 
author,  in  his  defence  of  a friend,  against  the  charge  of  murder, 
expresses  himself  thus : “ Can  you  believe  that  the  person 
whom  he  scrupled  to  slay,  when  he  might  have  done  so  with  full 
justice,  in  a convenient  place,  at  a proper  time,  with  secure 
impunity ; he  made  no  scruple  to  murder  against  justice,  in  an 
unfavourable  place,  at  an  unseasonable  time,  and  at  the  risk  of 
capital  condemnation.” 

The  following  examples  further  illustrate  this  figure. 

Tho’  deep,  yet  clear  ; tho’  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 

Strong  without  rage  ; without  o’erflowing,  full. 

“ If  you  wish  to  enrich  a person,  study  not  to  increase  his 
stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires.” 

“ If  you  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  standard  of 
nature,  you  will  never  be  poor  ; if  according  to  the  standard  of 
opinion,  you  will  never  be  rich.” 

A maxim,  or  moral  saying,  very  properly  receives  the  form 
of  the  last  two  examples ; both  because  it  is  supposed  to  be  the 
fruit  of  meditation,  and  because  it  is  designed  to  be  engraven  on 
the  memory,  which  recalls  it  more  easily  by  the  help  of  such 
contrasted  expressions.  But  where  such,  sentences  frequently 
succeed  each  other ; where  this  becomes  an  author’s  favourite 
and  prevailing  manner  of  expressing  himself,  his  style  appears 
too  much  studied  and  laboured  ; it  gives  us  the  impression  of  an 
author  attending  more  to  his  manner  of  saying  things,  than  to 
the  things  themselves. 

The  following  is  a beautiful  example  of  Antithesis.  “ If 
Cato  may  be  censured,  severely  indeed,  but  justly,  for  aban- 


350 


APPENDIX. 


doning  the  cause  of  liberty,  which  he  would  not,  however, 
survive  ; what  shall  we  say  of  those,  who  embrace  it  faintly, 
pursue  it  irresolutely,  grow  tired  of  it  when  they  have  much  to 
hope,  and  give  it  up  when  they  have  nothing  to  fear?” — The 
capital  antithesis  of  this  sentence,  is  instituted  between  the  zeal 
of  Cato  for  liberty,  and  the  indifference  of  some  others  of  her 
patrons.  But,  besides  the  leading  antithesis,  there  are  two 
subordinate  ones  in  the  latter  member:  “ Grow  tired  of  it  when 
they  have  much  to  hope ; and  gave  it  up,  when  they  have 
nothing  to  fear.” 

The  eloquent  Burke  has  exhibited  a fine  instance  of  this 
figure,  in  his  eulogium  of  the  philanthropic  Howard. 

“ He  has  visited  all  Europe, — not  to  survey  the  sumptuousnesS 
of  palaces,  or  the  stateliness  of  temples ; not  to  make  accurate 
measurements  of  the  remains  of  ancient  grandeur,  nor  to  form 
a scale  of  the  curiosity  of  modern  art ; nor  to  collect  medals,  or 
collate  manuscripts  : — but  to  dive  into  the  depths  of  dungeons  ; 
to  plunge  into  the  infection  of  hospitals  ; to  survey  the  mansions 
of  sorrow  and  pain ; to  take  the  gage  and  dimensions  of  misery, 
depression,  and  contempt;  to  remember  the  forgotten,  to  attend 
to  the  neglected,  to  visit  the  forsaken,  and  compare  and  collate 
the  distresses  of  all  men  in  all  countries.” 

Antithesis  makes  the  most  brilliant  appearance  in  the  deline- 
ation of  characters,  particularly  in  history.  The  author,  in  the 
performance  of  this  delicate  part  of  his  task,  has  an  opportunity 
of  displaying  his  discernment  and  knowledge  of  human  nature ; 
and  of  distinguishing  those  nice  shades,  by  which  virtues  and 
vices  approach  one  another.  It  is  by  such  colours  that  a 
character  may  be  strongly  painted  : and  Antithesis  is  necessary 
to  denote  these  distinctions.  The  following  character  of  Atticus, 
delineated  by  Pope  ; is  a very  lively  and  forcible  example  of 
this  figure. 

“ Should  such  a man,  too  fond  to  rule  alone, 

Bear,  like  the  Turk,  no  brother  near  his  throne, 

View  him  with  scornful,  yet  with  jealous  eyes, 

And  hate  for  arts  that  caused  himself  to  rise  : 

Blame  with  faint  praise,  assent  with  civil  leer. 

And,  without  sneering,  teach  the  rest  to  sneer  : 

Willing  to  wound,  and  yet  afraid  to  strike  ; 

Just  hint  a fault,  and  hesitate  dislike  ; 

Alike  resolv’d  to  blame,  or  to  commend, 

A timorous  foe,  and  a suspicious  friend  ; 

Dreading  e’en  fools,  by  flatterers  besieged, 

And  so  obliging,  that  he  ne’er  obliged  ; 

Who  would  not  smile,  if  such  a man  there  be  ? 

Who  would  not  weep,  if  Atticus  were  he  ?” 


FIGURES. 


351 


No  figure,  perhaps,  has  been  so  anxiously  sought,  and  with 
so  little  success,  as  Antithesis.  It  is  much  suited  to  impose  on 
an  unskilful  reader ; and  an  author  is  very  apt  to  employ  it, 
who  abounds  not  with  solid  and  important  matter.  Many 
readers  are  apt  to  consider  the  surprise  and  brilliancy  it  presents 
as  certain  marks  of  genius ; and  they  are  inclined  to  believe, 
that  they  have  been  amused  and  instructed,  because  their  ad- 
miration has  been  excited.  It  is  not  easy,  in  an  enlightened 
age  to  shine  in  writing,  by  solidity  and  novelty  of  matter,  sim- 
plicity and  elegance  of  manner.  Much  reading,  much  reflec- 
tion, much  practice,  and  much  careful  and  laborious  criticism, 
must  be  employed  before  this  important  end  can  be  attained. 
Authors  who  possess,  perhaps,  some  genius,  but  who  are  de- 
fective in  correct  taste  and  judgment,  seem  to  wish  to  take  a 
shorter  path  to  fame  : to  compensate  for  the  slightness  of  their 
matter,  they  endeavour  to  dazzle  by  the  liveliness  and  attraction 
of  their  style.  But  if  we  may  judge  from  the  history  of  ancient 
literature,  an  extravagant  attachment  to  ornaments  of  this  sort, 
forms  the  first  stage  towards  the  corruption  of  taste. 

The  next  figure  concerning  which  we  are  to  treat,  is  called 
Hyperbole  or  Exaggeration.  It  consists  in  magnifying  an 
object  beyond  its  natural  bounds.  In  all  languages,  even  in 
common  conversation,  hyperbolical  expressions  very  frequently 
occur ; as  swift  as  the  wind ; as  white  as  the  snow ; and  the 
like  ; and  the  common  forms  of  compliment ; are  almost  all  of 
them  extravagant  hyperboles.  If  any  thing  be  remarkably 
good  or  great  in  its  kind,  we  are  instantly  ready  to  add  to  it 
some  exaggerating  epithet,  and  to  make  it  the  greatest  or  best 
we  ever  saw.  The  imagination  has  always  a tendency  to  gratify 
itself,  by  magnifying  its  present  object,  and  carrying  it  to  excess. 
More  or  less  of  this  hyperbolical  turn  will  prevail  in  language, 
according  to  the  liveliness  of  imagination  among  the  people 
who  speak  it.  Hence  young  people  deal  much  in  hyperboles. 
Hence  the  language  of  the  Orientals  was  far  more  hyperbolical 
than  that  of  the  Europeans,  who  are  of  more  phlegmatic,  or 
we  may  say,  of  more  correct  imagination.  Hence,  among  all 
writers  in  early  times,  and  in  the  rude  periods  of  society,  we 
may  expect  this  figure  to  abound.  Greater  experience,  and 
more  cultivated  society,  abate  the  warmth  of  imagination,  and 
chasten  the  manner  of  expression. 


Hyperboles  are  of  two  kinds ; either  such  as  are  employed 
in  description,  or  such  as  are  suggested  by  the  warmth  of  pas- 


352 


APPENDIX. 


sion.  All  passions  without  exception,  love,  terror,  amazement, 
indignation,  and  even  grief,  throw  the  mind  into  confusion, 
aggravate  their  objects,  and  of  course  prompt  a hyperbolical 
style.  Hence  the  following  sentiments  of  Satan  in  Milton,  as 
strongly  as  they  are  described,  contain  nothing  but  what  is  nat- 
ural and  proper ; exhibiting  the  picture  of  a mind  agitated  with 
rage  and  despair. 

Me  miserable ! which  way  shall  I fly 
Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair? 

Which  way  I fly  is  Hell,  myself  am  Hell ; 

And  in  the  lowest  depth,  a lower  deep, 

Still  threatening  to  devour  rne,  opens  wide, 

To  which  the  Hell  I suffer  seems  a Heaven. 

The  fear  of  an  enemy  augments  the  conceptions  of  the  size 
of  the  leader.  “ I saw  their  chief,”  says  the  scout  of  Ossian, 
“ tall  as  a rock  of  ice  ; his  spear,  the  blasted  fir ; his  shield, 
the  rising  moon ; he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a cloud  of  mist  on  the 
hill.” 

The  errors  frequent  in  the  use  of  hyperboles,  arise  either 
from  overstraining,  or  introducing  them  on  unsuitable  occasions. 
Dryden,  in  his  poem  on  the  Restoration  of  king  Charles  the 
Second,  compliments  that  monarch,  at  the  expense  of  the  sun 
himself. 

That  star  that  at  your  birth  shone  out  so  bright, 

It  stain’d  the  duller  sun’s  meridian  light. 

This  is  indeed  mere  bombast.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain,  by 
any  precise  rule,  the  proper  measure  and  boundary  of  this 
figure.  Good  sense  and  just  taste  must  determine  the  point, 
beyond  which,  if  we  pass,  we  become  extravagant. 

Vision  is  another  figure  of  speech,  which  is  proper  only  in 
animated  and  warm  composition.  It  is  produced  when,  instead 
of  relating  something  that  is  past,  we  use  the  present  tense,  and 
describe  it  as  actually  passing  before  our  eyes.  Thus  Cicero, 
in  his  fourth  oration  against  Cataline  : “ I seem  to  myself  to 
behold  this  city,  the  ornament  of  the  earth,  and  the  capital  of 
all  nations,  suddenly  involved  in  one  conflagration.  I see  before 
me  the  slaughtered  heaps  of  citizens,  lying  unburied  in  the  midst 
of  their  ruined  country.  The  furious  countenance  of  Cethegus 
rises  to  my  view,  while,  with  a savage  joy,  he  is  triumphing  in 
your  miseries. 

This  manner  of  description  supposes  a sort  of  enthusiasm 
which  carries  the  person  who  describes,  in  some  measure  out 


FIGURES. 


353 


of  himself ; and  when  well  executed,  must  needs,  by  the  force 
of  sympathy,  impress  the  reader  or  hearer  very  strongly.  But, 
in  order  to  a successful  execution,  it  requires  an  uncommonly 
warm  imagination,  and  so  happy  a selection  of  circumstances, 
as  shall  make  us  think  we  see  before  our  eyes  the  scene  that  is 
described. 

Interrogation.  The  unfigured,  literal  use  of  interrogation, 
is  to  ask  a question : but  when  men  are  strongly  moved,  what- 
ever they  would  affirm  or  deny,  with  great  earnestness,  they 
naturally  put  in  the  form  of  a question,  expressing  thereby  the 
strongest  confidence  of  the  truth  of  their  own  sentiment,  and 
appealing  to  their  hearers  for  the  impossibility  of  the  contrary. 
Thus  Balaam  expressed  himself  to  Balak.  The  Lord  is  not  a 
man  that  he  should  lie,  neither  the  son  of  man  that  he  should 
repent.  Hath  he  said  it  ? and  shall  he  not  do  it  ? Hath  be 
spoken  it  ? and  shall  he  not  make  it  good  ? ” 

Interrogation  gives  life  and  spirit  to  discourse.  We  see  this 
in  the  animated,  introductory  speech  of  Cicero  against  Cataline: 
‘‘How  long  will  you,  Cataline,  abuse  our  patience ? Do  you  not 
perceive  that  your  designs  are  discovered?  ” — He  might  indeed 
have  said ; “ You  abuse  our  patience  a long  while.  You  must 
be  sensible  that  your  designs  are  discovered.”  But  it  is  easy  to 
perceive  how  this  latter  mode  of  expression  falls  short  of  the 
force  and  vehemence  of  the  former. 

Exclamations  are  the  effect  of  strong  emotions  of  the  mind, 
such  as,  surprise,  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the  like.  “Wo 
is  me  that  I sojourn  in  Mesech,  that  I dwell  in  the  tents  of 
Kedar!”  Psalms, 

“ O that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a fountain  of 
tears,  that  I might  weep  day  and  night,  for  the  slain  of  the 
daughter  of  my  people  ! O that  I had  in  the  wilderness  a lodging- 
place  of  wayfaring  men  ! ” Jeremiah, 

Though  Interrogations  may  be  introduced  into  close  and 
earnest  reasoning,  exclamations  belong  only  to  strong  emotions 
of  the  mind.  When  judiciously  employed,  they  agitate  the  hearer 
or  the  reader  with  similar  passions : but  it  is  extremely  improper, 
and  sometimes  ridiculous,  to  use  them  on  trivial  occasions,  and 
on  mean  or  low  subjects.  The  unexperienced  writer  often 
attempts  to  elevate  his  language,  by  the  copious  display  of  this 
figure : but  he  rarely  or  never  succeeds.  He  frequently  renders 
his  composition  frigid  to  excess,  or  absolutely  ludicrous,  by  calling 
on  us  to  enter  into  his  transports,  when  nothing  is  said  or  done 
to  demand  emotion. 

Irony  is  expressing  ourselves  in  a manner  contrary  to  our 
thoughts ; not  with  a view  to  deceive,  but  to  add  force  to  our 

VoL.  I.  47 


354 


APPENDIX. 


observations.  Persons  may  be  reproved  for  their  negligence,  by 
saying;  “You  have  taken  great  care  indeed.”  Cicero  says  of 
the  person  against  whom  he  was  pleading ; “ We  have  great 
reason  to  believe  that  the  modest  man  would  not  ask  him  for  his 
debt  when  he  pursues  his  life.” 

Ironical  exhortation  is  a very  agreeable  kind  of  figure  ; which 
after  having  set  the  inconveniencies  of  a thing,  in  the  clearest 
light,  concludes  with  a feigned  encouragement  to  pursue  it. 
Such  is  that  of  Horace,  when,  having  beautifully  described  the 
noise  and  tumult  of  Rome,  he  adds  ironically : 

“ Go  now  and  study  tuneful  verse  at  Rome.” 

The  subjects  of  Irony  are  vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds ; and 
this  mode  of  exposing  them,  is  often  more  effectual  than  serious 
reasoning.  The  gravest  persons  have  not  declined  the  use  of 
this  figure  on  proper  occasions.  The  wise  and  virtuous  Socrates 
made  great  use  of  it,  in  his  endeavours  to  discountenance  vicious 
and  foolish  practices.  Even  in  the  sacred  writings,  we  have  a 
remarkable  instance  of  it.  The  prophet  Elijah,  when  he  chal- 
lenged the  priests  of  Baal  to  prove  the  truth  of  their  deity, 
“ Mocked  them,  and  said : Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a god : either  he 
is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on  a journey,  or  peradven- 
ture  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  waked.” 

Exclamations  and  Irony  are  sometimes  united  : as  in  Cicero’s 
oration  for  Balbus,  where  he  derides  his  accuser,  by  saying:  “O 
excellent  interpreter  of  the  law  ! master  of  antiquity  ! corrector 
and  amender  of  our  constitution  !” 

The  last  figure  of  speech  that  we  shall  mention,  is  what  writers 
call  Amplification  or  Climax.  It  consists  in  heightening  all  the 
circumstances  of  an  object  or  action,  which  we  desire  to  place 
in  a strong  light.  Cicero  gives  a lively  instance  of  this  figure, 
when  he  says ; “It  is  a crime  to  put  a Roman  citizen  in  bonds: 
it  is  the  height  of  guilt  to  scourge  him  ; little  less  than  parracide 
to  put  him  to  death : what  name  then  shall  I give  to  the  act  of 
crucifying  him?” 

Archbishop  Tillotson  uses  this  figure  very  happily  to  recom- 
mend good  and  virtuous  actions : “ After  we  have  practised  good 
actions  awhile,  they  become  easy ; and  when  they  are  easy,  we 
begin  to  take  pleasure  in  them : and  when  they  please  us,  we  do 
them  frequently;  and  by  frequency  of  acts,  a "thing  grows  into  a 
habit ; and  confirmed  habit  is  a kind  of  second  nature  ; and  so 
far  as  any  thing  is  natural,  so  far  it  is  necessary ; and  we  can 
hardly  do  otherwise  ; nay,  we  do  it  many  times  when  w^e  do  not 
think  of  it.” 

The  following  is  an  example  of  a beautiful  climax,  taken 
from  the  charge  of  a judge  to  the  jury,  in  the  case  of  a woman 
accused  of  murdering  her  own  child. — “Gentlemen,  if  one 


FIGURES. 


355 


man  had  any  how  slain  another  ; if  an  adversary  had  killed  his 
opposer,  or  a woman  occasioned  the  death  of  her  enemy  ; even 
these  criminals  would  have  been  capitally  punished  by  the 
Cornelian  law:  but  if  this  guiltless  infant,  that  could  make  no 
enemy,  had  been  murdered  by  its  own  nurse,  what  punishment 
would  not  then  the  mother  have  demanded  ? With  what  cries 
and  exclamations  would  she  have  stunned  your  ears ! What 
shall  we  say  then,  when  a woman,  guilty  of  homicide,  a mother, 
of  the  murder  of  her  innocent  child,  hath  comprised  all  those 
misdeeds  in  one  single  crime  ? a crime,  in  its  own  nature,  de- 
testable ; in  a woman,  prodigious ; in  a mother,  incredible  ; and 
perpetrated  against  one  whose  age  called  for  compassion,  whose 
near  relation  claimed  affection,  and  wliose  innocence  deserved 
the  highest  favour.” 

Amplification  is  produced  by  various  methods : by  ascending 
from  particular  to  general  things  ; by  descending  from  generals 
to  particulars ; by  an  enumeration  of  parts  ; by  illustrating  a 
thing  from  a variety  of  causes  ; by  exhibiting  a number  and  va- 
riety of  effects  ; by  gradation ; by  the  circumstances  of  time, 
place,  manner,  event,  and  the  like;  and  by  elucidating  things 
by  their  opposites. 

The  blessings  and  advantages  of  peace,  may  be  recom- 
mended from  their  opposites,  the  miseries  and  calamities  of  war. 
Thus  Cicero  endeavours  to  throw  contempt  upon  Cataline  and 
his  party,  by  comparing  them  with  the  contrary  side,  as  follows, 
— “ But  if  omitting  all  these  things,  with  which  we  abound,  and 
which  they  want,  the  senate,  the  knights,  the  populace,  the  city, 
treasury,  revenues,  nil  Italy,  the  provinces,  and  foreign  nations ; 
if,  I say,  omitting  these  things,  we  compare  the  causes  them- 
selves, in  which  each  side  js  engaged,  we  may  learn  from  thence 
how  despicable  they  are.  For  on  this  side  modesty  is  engaged, 
on  that  impudence  ; on  this  chastity,  on  that  lewdness  ; on  this 
integrity,  on  that  fraud ; on  this  piety,  on  that  profaneness ; on 
this  constancy,  on  that  fickleness  ; on  this  honour,  on  that  base- 
ness ; on  this  moderation,  on  that  unbridled  passion;  in  a word, 
equity,  temperance,  fortitude,  prudence,  and  all  virtues,  contend 
with  injustice,  luxury,  cowardice,  rashness,  and  all  vices  ; plenty 
with  want,  reason  with  folly,  sobriety  wdth  madness,  and  lastly 
good  hope  with  despair.  In  such  a contest,  did  men  desert  us, 
would  not  Heaven  ordain,  that  so  many  and  so  great  vices 
should  be  defeated  by  these  most  excellent  virtues 

As  different  figures  of  speech  are  often  blended  in  the  same 
passage,  so  the  reader  will  perceive,  that,  in  the  preceding 


356 


APPENDIX. 


extract^  the  figure  of  Amplification  comprises  that  of  Anti- 
thesis. 

We  have  now  finished  what  was  proposed,  concerning  Per- 
spicuity in  single  words  and  phrases,  and  the  accurate  con^ 
struction  of  sentences.  The  former  has  been  considered,  under 
the  heads  of  Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision ; and  the  latter, 
under  those  of  Clearness,  Unity,  Strength,  and  the  proper  use 
of  Figurative  Language.  Though  many  of  those  attentions 
which  have  been  recommended,  may  appear  minute,  yet  their 
effect  upon  writing  and  style,  is  much  greater  than  might,  at 
first,  be  imagined.  A sentiment  which  is  expressed  in  accurate 
language,  and  in  a period,  clearly,  neatly,  and  well  arranged, 
always  makes  a stronger  impression  on  the  mind,  than  one  that 
is  expressed  inaccurately,  or  in  a feeble  or  embarrassed  man- 
ner. Every  one  feels  this  upon  a comparison : and  if  the  effect 
be  sensible  in  one  sentence,  how  much  more  in  a whole  dis- 
course, or  comparison  that,  is  made  up  of  such  sentences? 

The  fundamental  rule  for  writing  with  accuracy,  and  into 
which  all  others  might  be  resolved,  undoubtedly,  is,  to  commu* 
nicate^  in  correct  language,  and  in  the  cleq^rest  and  most  natural 
order,  the  ideas  which  we  mean  to  transfuse  into  the  minds  of 
others.  Such  a selection  and  arrangement  of  words,  as  do 
most  justice  to  the  sense,  and  express  it  to  most  advantage, 
make  an  agreeable  and  strong  impression.  To  these  points 
have  tended  all  the  rules  w^hich  have  been  given.  Did  we 
always  think  clearly,  and  were  we,  at  the  same  time,  fully 
masters  of  the  language  in  which  we  write,  there  would  be 
occasion  for  few  rules.  Our  sentences  would  then,  of  course, 
acquire  all  those  properties  of  clearness,  unity,  strength,  and 
accuracy,  which  have  been  recommended.  For  we  may  r.est 
assured,  that  whenever  we  express  ourselves  ill,  besides  the 
mismanagement  of  language,  there  is,  for  the  most  part,  some 
mistake  in  our  manner  of  conceiving  the  subject.  Embarrassed, 
obscure,  and  feeble  sentences,  are  generally,  if  not  always,  the 
result  of  embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  thought.  Thought 
and  expression  act  and  re-act  upon  each  other.  The  under- 
standing and  language  have  a strict  connexion  ; and  they  who 
are  learning  to  compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  with  accu- 
racy and  order,  are  learning,  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with 
accuracy  and  order ; a consideration  which  alone  will  recom- 
pense the  student,  for  his  attention  to  this  branch  of  literature. 

We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  Third  Part  of  our  subject, 
namely  the  great  principal  or  standard,  by  which  the  propriety 
of  language  is  ascertained  and  determined. 


(357) 


PART  III. 

OF  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY  OF 
EXPRESSION. 

With  respect  to  the  Great  Principle^  which,  on  all  occasions, 
decides  the  propriety  of  language. 

AMIDST  the  diversity  and  fluctuation  of  sentiment,  respect- 
ing the  correctness  of  language  and  the  true  idiom  of  our  tongue, 
which  are  so  frequently  found  to  prevail  amongst  writers  and 
critics,  the  student  will  naturally  wish  to  be  directed  to  some 
authority  and  standard,  by  which  his  doubts  may,  on  most,  if  not 
all  occasions,  be  removed,  and  the  propriety  of  his  literary  com- 
positions ascertained.  This  principle  or  standard,  is  reputable, 
national,  and  present  use. 

In  the  course  of  our  granimatical  labours,  we  have  occasion- 
ally referred,  or  alluded,  to  this  standard : but  the  nature  and 
importance  of  it  require  a more  extensive  and  particular  exam- 
ination. A proper  view  of  the  subject  involves,  indeed,  much 
critical  discussion,  and  many  necessary  cautions,  rules,  and 
distinctions.  But  although  the  execution  of  such  a work,  is  a 
delicate  and  arduous  task,  it  has  been  happily  accomplished  by 
the  learned  and  ingenious  Doctor  Campbell,  in  his  “ Philosophy 
of  Rhetoric.”  We  shall  therefore,  availing  ourselves  of  his 
labours,  produce  a copious  extract  (with  some  additions  and 
alterations)  from  what  he  has  written  on  the  subject ; which  we 
hope  will  afford  the  ingenious  student  complete  satisfaction. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  nature  and  characters  of  the  use  which  gives  law  to  language. 
Every  tongue  whatever  is  founded  in  use  or  custom. 
‘‘  Whose  arbitrary  sway 

Words  and  the  forms  of  language  must  obey.” — ^Francis. 

Language  is  purely  a species  of  fashion,  (for  this  holds  equally 
of  every  tongue,)  in  which  by  the  general,  but  tacit  consent 

♦ tt  Ugug 

Quern  penes  arbitrium  est,  et  jus,  et  norma  loquendi.” — Horace. 


358 


APPENDIX. 


of  the  people  of  a particular  state  or  country,  certain  sounds 
come  to  be  appropriated  to  certain  things,  as  their  signs  ; and 
certain  ways  of  inflecting  and  combining  those  sounds  come  to 
be  established,  as  denoting  the  relations  which  subsist  among 
the  things  signified. 

It  is  not  the  business  of  grammar,  as  some  critics  seem  pre- 
posterously to  imagine,  to  give  law  to  the  fashion^,  which  regu- 
late our  speech.  On  the  contrary,  from  its  conformity  to  these, 
and  from  that  alone,  it  derives  all  its  authority  and  value.  For, 
what  is  the  grammar  of  any  language  ? It  is  no  other  than  a 
collection  of  general  observations  methodically  digested,  and 
comprising  all  the  modes  previously  -and  independently  estab- 
lished, by  which  the  significations,  derivations,  and  combinations 
of  words  in  that  language,  are  ascertained.  It  is  of  no  conse- 
quence here  to  what  causes  originally  these  modes  or  fashions 
owe  their  existence;  whether  to  imitation,  or  reflection,  to 
affectation,  or  to  caprice : they  no  sooner  obtain  and  become 
general,  than  they  are  the  laws  of  language,  and  the  grammarian’s 
only  business  is,  to  note,  to  collect,  and  methodise  them.*  Nor 
does  this  truth  concern  only  those  more  comprehensive  analogies 
or  rules,  which  affect  whole  classes  of  words ; such  as  nouns, 
verbs,  and  the  other  parts  of  speech ; but  it  concerns  every 
individual  word,  iri  the  inflecting  or  the  combining  of  which,  a 
particular  mode  has  prevailed.  Every  single  anomaly,  there- 
fore, though  departing  from  the  rule  assigned  to  the  other  words 
of  the  same  class^  and  on  that  account  called  an  exception, 
stands  on  the  same  basis,  on  which  the  rules  of  the  tongue  are 
founded,  custom  having  prescribed  for  it  a separate  rule. — If 
use  be  here  a matter  of  such  consequence,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary, before  advancing  any  farther,  to  ascertain  precisely,  what 
it  is.  We  shall  otherwise  be  in  danger,  though  we  agree 
about  the  same,  of  differing  widely  in  the  notion  that  we  assign 
to  it. 

SECTION  I. 

Of  reputable  use. 

In  what  extent  then  must  the  term  be  understood?  It  is 
sometimes  called  general  use  ; yet  is  it  not  manifest,  that  the 
generality  of  people  speak  and  write  very  badly  ? Nay,  is  not 
this  a truth  that  will  be  even  generally  acknowledged  ? It  will 
be  so ; and  this  very  acknowledgment  shows,  that  many 
terms  and  idioms  may  be  common,  which,  nevertheless,  have 


^ It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that,  with  the  moral  misapplication  of  words  and  phrases, 
this  work  has  not  any  concern.  No  usage  whatever  can  justify  sucn  perversions  of  language. 


THE  LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


359 


not  the  general  sanction  ; no,  nor  even  the  suffrage  of  those 
that  use  them.  The  use  here  spoken  of,  implies  not  only  cur- 
rency but  vogue.  It  is  properly  reputable  custom. 

This  leads  to  a distinction  between  good  use,  and  bad  use  in 
language,  the  former  of  which  will  be  found  to  have  the 
approbation  of  those  who  have  not  themselves  attained  it. 
The  far  greater  part  of  mankind,  perhaps  ninety-nine  of  a 
hundred,  are,  by  reason  of  poverty  and  other  circumstances, 
deprived  of  the  advantages  of  education,  and  obliged  to  toil 
for  bread,  almost  incessantly,  in  some  narrow  occupation. 
They  have  neither  the  leisure  nor  the  means  of  attaining 
scarcely  any  knowledge  except  what  lies  within  the  contracted 
circle  of  their  several  professions.  As  the  ideas  which  occupy 
their  minds  are  few,  the  portion  of  the  language  known  to  them 
must  be  very  scanty.  It  is  impossible  that  our  knowledge  of 
words  should  outstrip  our  knowledge  of  things.  It  may,  and 
often  does,  .come  short  of  it.  Words  may  be  remembered  as 
sounds,  but  cannot  be  understood  as  signs,  whilst  we  remain 
unacquainted  with  the  things  signified. 

; From  the  practice  of  those  who  are  conversant  in  any  art, 
elegant  or  me^chanical,  we  may  always  take  the  sense  of  the 
terms  and  phrases  belonging  to  that  art  : in  like  manner,  from 
the  practice  of  those  who  have  had  a liberal  education,  and  are 
therefore  presumed  to  be  best  acquainted  with  men  and  things, 
we  judge  of  the  general  use  in  language.  If,  in  this  particular, 
there  be  any  deference  to  the  practice  of  the  great  and  rich,  it 
is  not  ultimately  because  they  are  greater  and  richer  than  others ; 
but  because,  from  their  greatness  and  riches,  they  are  imagined 
to  be  wiser  and  more  knowing.  The  source,  therefore,  of  that 
preference  which  distinguishes  good  use  from  bad  in  language, 
is  a natural  propension  of  the  human  mind  to  believe,  that  those 
are  the  best  judges  of  the  proper  signs,  and  of  the  proper 
application  of  them,  who  understand  best  the  things  which  they 
represent. 

But  who  are  they,  that  in  the  public  estimation  are  possessed 
of  this  character?  This  question  is  of  the  greatest  moment  for 
ascertaining  that  use,  which  is  entitled  to  the  epithets  reputable 
and  good.  Vaugelas  makes  them  in  France  to  be,  the  sound- 
est part  of  the  court,  and  the  soundest. part  of  the  authors  of 
the  age.” — With  us  Britons,  the  first  part,  at  least,  of  this 
description,  will  not  answ^er.  Use  in  language  requires  firmer 
ground  to  stand  upon.  No  doubt,  the  conversation  of  men 
of  rank  and  eminence,  whether  of  the  court  or  not,  wiH 
have  its  influence.  And  in  what  concerns  merely  the  pro- 


360 


APPENDIX. 


nunication,  it  is  the  only  rule  to  which  we  can  refer  the  matter, 
in  every  doubtful  case  : but  in  what  concerns  the  words  them- 
selves, their  construction  and  application,  it  is  of  importanpe  to 
have  some  certain,  steady,  and  well  known  standard  to  recur 
to,  a standard  which  every  one  has  access  to  canvass  and 
examine.  And  this  can  be  no  other  than  authors  of  reputation. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  these  are^  by  universal  consent,  in 
actual  possession  of  this -authority;  as  to  this  tribunal,  when  any 
doubt  arises,  the  appeal  is  always  made. 

I choose  to  name  them  authors  of  reputation,  rather  than 
good  authors,  for  two  reasons : first,  because  it  is  more  strictly 
conformable  to  the  truth  of  the  case.  It  is  solely  the  esteem  of 
the  public,  and  not  their  intrinsic  merit,  (though  these  two  go 
generally  together,)  which  raises  them  to  this  distinction,  and 
stamps  a value  on  their  language.  Secondly,,  this  character  is 
more  definite  than  the  other,  and  therefore  more,  extensively  in- 
telligible. Between  two  or  more  authors,  different  readers  will 
differ  exceedingly,  as  to  the  preference  in  point  of  merit,  who 
agree  perfectly  as  to  the  respective  places  they  hold  in  the  favor 
of  the  public.  You  may  find  persons  of  a taste  so  particular,  as 
to  prefer  Parnel  to  Milton  ; but  you  will  hardly  find  a person  that 
will  dispute  the  superiority  of  the  latter  in  the  article  of  fame. 
For  this  reason,  I affirm,  that  Vaugelas’s  definition  labours  under 
an  essential  defect,  in  as  much  as  it  may  be  difficult  to  meet  with 
two  persons  whose  judgments  entirely  coincide,  in  determining 
who  are  the  sounder  part  of  the  court,  or  of  the  authors  of  the 
age.  I need  scarcely  add,  that  when  I speak  of  reputation  I 
mean  not  only  in  regard  to  knowledge,  but  in  regard  to  the 
talent  of  communicating  knowledge.  I could  name  writers, 
who,  in  respect  of  the  first,  have  been  justly  valued  by  the 
public,  but  who,  on  account  of  a supposed  deficiency  in  respect 
of  the  second,  are  considered  of  no  authority  in  language. 

Nor  is  there  the  least  ground  to  fear,  that  we  should  be 
cramped  here  within  too  narrow  limits.  In  the  English  tongue, 
there  is  a plentiful  supply  of  noted  writings,  in  all  the  various 
kinds  of  composition,  in  prose  and  verse,  serious  and  ludicrous, 
grave  and  familiar.  Agreeably  then  to  this  first  qualification  of 
the  term,  we  must  understand  to  be  comprehended  under 
general  use,  whatever  modes  of  speech  are  authorized  as  good, 
by  the  writings  of  a great  number^  if  not  the  majority  of  celebrated 
authors. 


THE  LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


361 


SECTION  II. 

*■ 

Of  national  use. 

Another  qualification  of  the  term  use  which  deserves  our 
attention,  is,  that  it  must  be  national.  This  I consider  in  a two- 
fold view,  as  it  stands  opposed  both  io  provincial  and  io  foreign. 

In  every  province  there  are  peculiarities  of  dialect,  which 
affect  not  only  the  pronunciation  and  the  accent,  but  even  the 
inflection  and  the  combination  of  words,  whereby  their  idiom  is 
distinguished  both  from  that  of  the  nation,  and  from  that  of 
every  other  province.  The  narrowness  of  the  circle  to  which 
the  currency  of  the  words  and  phrases  of  such  dialects  is  con- 
fined, sufficiently  discriminates  them  from  that  which  is  properly 
styled  the  language,  and  which  commands  the  circulation  in- 
comparably wider.  This  is  one  reason,  I imagine,  why  the 
term  use^  on  this  subject,  is  commonly  accompanied  with  the 
epithet  general.  In  the  use  of  provincial  idioms,  there  is,  it 
must  be  acknowledged,  a pretty  considerable  concurrence  both 
of  the  middle  and  of  the  lower  ranks.  But  still  this  use  is 
bounded  by  the  province,  county,  or  district,  which  gives  name 
to  the  dialect,  and  beyond  which  its  peculiarities  are  sometimes 
unintelligible,  and  often  ridiculous.  But  the  language,  properly 
so  called,  is  found  current,  especially  in  the  upper  and  the 
middle  ranks,  over  the  whole  British  empire.  Thus,  though  in 
every  province,  they  frequently  ridicule  the  idioms  of  every 
other  province,  they  all  vail  to  the  English  idiom,  and  scruple 
not  to  acknowledge  its  superiority  over  their  own. 

What  has  now  been  said  of  provincial  dialects,  may,  with 
very  little  variation,  be  applied  to  professional  dialects,  or  the 
cant  which  is  sometimes  observed  to  prevail  among  those  of  the 
same  profession  or  way  of  life.  The  currency  of  the  latter 
cannot  be  so  exactly  circumscribed  as  that  of  the  former,  whose 
distinction  is  purely  local ; but  their  use  is  not  on  that  account 
either  more  extensive  or  more  reputable. 

It  was  remarked,  that  national  might  also  be  opposed  to  for- 
eign. I imagine  it  is  too  evident  to  need  illustration,  that  the 
introduction  of  extraneous  words  and  idioms,  from  other  lan- 
guages and  foreign  nations,  cannot  be  a smaller  transgression 
against  the  established  custom  of  the  English  tongue,  than  the 
introduction  of  words  and  idioms  peculiar  to  some  precincts  of 
England,  or  at  least  somewhere  current  within  the  British  pale. 
VoL.  I.  48 


362 


APPENDIX. 


The  only  material  difference  between  them  is,  that  the  one  is 
more  commonly  the  error  of  the  learned,  the  other  of  the  vulgar. 
But  if,  in  this  view,  the  former  is  entitled  to  greater  indulgence, 
from  the  respect  paid  to  learning  ; in  another  view,  it  is  entitled 
to  less,  as  it  is  much  more  commonly  the  result  of  affectation. 
— Thus  two  essential  qualities  of  usage,  in  regard  to  language, 
have  been  settled,  that  it  be  both  reputable  and  national. 


SECTION  III. 


Of  present  use. 


But  there  will  naturally  arise  here  another  question ; ‘‘Is 
not  use,  even  good  and  national  use,  in  the  same  country,  dif- 
ferent in  different  periods  ? and  if  so  to  the  usage  of  what  period 
shall  we  attach  ourselves,  as  the  proper  rule  ? If  you  say  the 
present,  as  it  may  reasonably  be  expected  that  you  will,  the 
difficulty  is  not  entirely  removed.  In  what  extent  of  signifi- 
cation must  we  understand  the  word  present  ? How  far  may 
we  safely  range  in  quest  of  authorities  ? or,  at  what  distance 
backwards  from  this  moment  are  authors  still  to  be  accounted 
as  possessing  a legislative  voice  in  language?”  To  this,  I own, 
it  is  difficult  to  give  an  answer  with  all  the  precision  that  might 
be  desired.  Yet  it  is  certain,  that  when  we  are  in  search  of 
precedents  for  any  word  or  idiom,  there  are  certain  mounds 
which  we  cannot  overleap  with  safety.  For  instance,  the 
authority  of  Hooper  or  Raleigh,  however  great  their  merit  and 
their  fame  be,  will  not  be  admitted  in  support  of  a term  or  ex- 
pression, not  to  be  found  in  any  good  writer  of  a later  date. 

In  truth,  the  boundary  must  not  be  fixed  at  the  same  distance, 
in  every  subject.  Poetry  has  ever  been  allowed  a wider  range 
than  prose  ; and  it  is  but  just  that,  by  an  indulgence  of  this 
kind,  some  compensation  should  be  made  for  the  peculiar 
restraints  she  is  laid  under  by  the  measure.  Nor  is  this  only  a 
matter  of  convenience  to  the  poet,  it  is  also  a source  of  gratifi- 
cation to  the  reader.  Diversity  in  the  style  relieves  the  ear, 
and  prevents  its  being  tired  with  the  too  frequent  recurrence  of 
the  rhymes,  or  sameness  of  the  metre.  But  still  there  are 
limits  to  this  diversity.  The  authority  of  Milton  and  of  Waller, 
on  this  article,  remains  as  yet  unquestioned.  I should  not  think 
it  prudent  often  to  introduce  words  or  phrases,  of  which  no 
example  could  be  produced  since  the  days  of  Spencer. 

And  even  in  prose,  the  bounds  are  not  the  same  for  every 


THE  LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


363 


kind  of  composition.  In  matters  of  science,  for  instance,  whose 
terms,  from  the  nature  of  the  thing,  are  not  capable  of  such 
a currency  as  those  which  belong  to  ordinary  subjects,  and  are 
within  the  reach  of  ordinary  readers,  there  is  no  necessity  of 
confining  an  author  within  a very  narrow  circle.  But  in  com- 
posing pieces  which  come  under  this  last  denomination,  as 
history,  biography,  travels,  moral  essays,  familiar  letters,  and 
the  like,  it  is  safest  for  an  author  to  consider  those  words  and 
idioms  as  obsolete,  which  have  been  disused  by  all  good  authors, 
for  a longer  period  than  the  age  of  man  extends  to.  It  is  not 
by  ancient,  but  by  present  use,  that  our  style  must  be  regulated. 
And  that  use  can  never  be  denominated  present,  which  has 
been  laid  aside  time  immemorial,  or,  which  amounts  to  the 
same  thing,  falls  not  within  the  knowledge  or  remembrance  of 
any  now  living. 

This  remark  not  only  affects  terms  and  phrases,  but  also  the 
declension,  combination,  and  construction  of  words.  Is  it  not 
then  surprising  to  find,  that  one  of  Dr.  Lowth’s  penetration, 
should  think  a single  person  entitled  to  revive  a form  of  inflec- 
tion in  a particular  word,  which  had  been  rejected  by  all  good 
writers  of  every  denomination,  for  more  than  a hundred  and 
fifty  years  Biit  if  present  use  is  to  be  renounced  for  ancient, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  determine  at  what  precise  period  anti- 
quity is  to  be  regarded  as  a rule.  One  inclines  to  remove  the 
standard  to  the  distance  of  a century  and  a half ; another  may, 
with  as  good  reason,  fix  it  thrfee  centuries  backwards,  and 
another  six.  And  if  the  language  of  any  of  these  periods  is  to 
be  judged  by  the  use  of  any  other,  it  will  be  found,  no  doubt, 
entirely  barbarous.  To  me  it  is  so  evident,  either  that  the 
present  use  must  be  the  standard  of  the  present  language,  or 
that  the  language  admits  no  standard  whatever,  that  I cannot 
conceive  a clearer  and  more  indisputable  principle,  from  which 
to  bring  an  argument  to  support  it. 

Yet  it  is  certain,  that  even  some  of  our  best  critics  and  gram- 
marians^ talk  occasionally,  as  if  they  had  a notion  of  some  other 
standard,  though  they  never  give  us  a single  hint  to  direct  us 
where  to  search  for  it.  Dr.  Johnson,  for  example,  in  the  preface 
to  his  very  valuable  Dictionary,  acknowledges  properly  the 
absolute  dominion  of  custom  over  language ; and  yet,  in  the 
explanation  of  particular  words,  expresses  himself  sometimes  in 
a manner  that  is  inconsistent  with  this  doctrine  ; “ This  word,” 
says  he  in  one  place,  “ though  common,  and  used  by  the  best 
writers,  is  perhaps  barbarous.”  I entirely  agree  with  Dr.  Priestly, 
that  it  will  never  be  the  arbitrary  rule  of  any  man,  or  body  of 


* In  a note  on  the  irregular  verb  eitf  he  says,  Mltjdleton  hath,  with  great  propriety, 

restored  the  true  participle  sitte7i/’ 


364 


APPENDIX. 


men  whatever,  that  will  ascertain  the  language,  there  being  no 
other  dictator  here  than  use. 

It  is  indeed  easier  to  discover  the  aim  of  our  critics,  in  their 
observations  on  this  subject,  than  in  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
which  they  employ;  these  are  often  used  without  precision; 
their  aim,  however,  is  generally  good.  It  is,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, to  give  a check  to  innovation.  But  the  means  which  they 
use  for  this  purpose,  have  sometimes  even  a contrary  tendency. 
If  you  will  replace  what  has  been  long  since  expunged  from  the 
language,  and  extirpate  what  is  firmly  rooted,  undoubtedly  you 
yourself  become  an  innovator.  If  you  desert  the  present  use, 
and  by  your  example,  at  least,  establish  it  as  a maxim,  that  every 
critic  may  revive  at  pleasure,  old-fashioned  terms,  inflections, 
and  combinations,  and  make  such  alterations  on  words  as  will 
bring  them  nearer  to  what  he  supposes  to  be  the  etymon,  there 
can  be  nothing  fixed  or  staple  on  the  subject.  Possibly  you 
prefer  the  usage  that  prevailed  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth; 
another  may,  with  as  good  reason,  have  partiality  for  that  which 
subsisted  in  the  days  of  Chancer.  And  with  regard  to  etymol- 
ogy, about  which  grammarians  make  so  much  useless  bustle ; 
if  every  one  has  a privilege  of  altering  words,  according  to  his 
own  opinion  of  their  origin,  the  opinions  of  the  learned  being  on 
this  subject  so  various,  nothing  but  a general  chaos  can  ensue. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said,  “Are  we  to  catch  at  every 
new-fashioned  term  and  phrase,  which  whim  or  affectation  may 
invent,  and  folly  circulate  ? Can  this  ever  tend  to  give  either 
dignity  to  our  style,  or  premanency  to  our  language  — It  can- 
not surely. 

If  we  recur  to  the  standard  already  assigned,  namely,  the 
writings  of  a plurality  of  celebrated  authors,  there  will  be  no 
scope  for  the  comprehension  of  words  and  idioms,  w hich  can 
be  denominated  novel  and  upstart.  It  must  be  owned,  that 
we  often  meet  with  such  terms  and  phrases,  in  newspapers, 
periodical  pieces,  and  political  pamphlets.  The  writers  to  the 
times,  rarely  fail  to  have  their  performances  studded  with  a 
competent  number  of  these  fantastic  ornaments.  A popular 
orator  in  the  House  of  Commons,  has  a sort  of  patent  from 
the  public,  during  the  continuance  of  his  popularity,  for  coin- 
ing as  many  as  he  pleases.  And  they  are  no  sooner  issued, 
than  they  obtrude  themselves  upon  us  from  every  quarter,  in 
all  the  daily  papers,  letters,  essays,  addresses,  &c.  But  this  is 
of  no  significancy.  Such  words  and  phrases  are  but  the  in- 
sects of  a season,  at  the  most.  The  people,  always  fickle,  are 
just  as  prompt  to  drop  them,  as  they  were  to  take  them  up ; 


THE  LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


365 


and  not  one  of  a hundred  survives  the  particular  occasion  or 
party-struggle  which  gave  it  birth.  We  may  justly  apply  to 
them,  what  Johnson  says  of  a great  number  of  the  terms  of  the 
laborious  and  mercantile  part  of  the  people ; “ This  fugitive 
cant  cannot  be  regarded  as  any  part  of  the  durable  materials  of 
a language  ; and  therefore  must  be  suffered  to  perish,  with  other 
things  unworthy  of  preservation.” 

As  use,  therefore,  implies  duration,  and  as  even  a few  years 
are  not  sufficient  for  ascertaining  the  characters  of  authors,  I 
have,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  following  sheets,  taken  my  prose 
examples,  neither  from  living  authors,  nor  from  those  who  wrote 
before  the  Revolution ; not  from  the  first,  because  an  author’s 
fame  is  not  so  firmly  established  in  his  lifetime ; nor  from  the 
last,  that  there  may  be  no  suspicion  that  the  style  is  superannu- 
ated. The  present  translation  of  the  Bible,  I must  indeed  except 
from  this  restriction.  The  continuance  and  universality  of  its 
use,  throughout  the  British  dominions,  afford  an  obvious  reason 
for  the  exception.* 

Thus  I have  attempted  to  explain  what  that  use  is,  which  is 
the  sole  mistress  of  language ; and  to  ascertain  the  precise 
import  and  extent  of  these  her  essential  attributes,  reputable^ 
national,  and  present ; and  to  give  the  directions  proper  to  be 
observed  in  searching  for  the  laws  of  this  empress.  In  truth, 
grammar  and  criticism  are  but  her  ministers ; and  though,  like 
other  ministers,  they  would  sometin^es  impose  the  dictates  of 
their  own  humour  upon  the  people,  as  the  commands  of  their 
sovereign,  they  are  not  so  often  successful  in  such  attempts,  as 
to  encourage  the  frequent  repetition  of  them. 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  nature  and  use  of  verbal  Criticism,  with  its  principal  canons. 

It  may  be  alleged  by  some  persons,  that  “if  custom,  which 
is  so  capricious  and  unaccountable,  is  every  thing  in  language, 
of  what  significance  is  either  the  grammarian  or  the  critic  ?” 
— Of  considerable  significance  notwithstanding;  and  of  most 
then  when  they  confine  themselves  to  their  legal  departments, 
and  do  not  usurp  an  authority  that  does  not  belong  to  them. 
The  rnan,  who,  in  a country  like  ours,  should  compile  a succinct, 
perspicuous,  and  faithful  digest  of  the  laws,  though  no  lawgiver, 


* The  vulgar  translation  of  the  Bible  (says  Dr.  Lowth)  is  the  best  standard  of  our  language 


366 


APPENDIX. 


^vould  be  universally  acknowledged  to  be  a public  benefactor. 
How  easy  would  that  important  branch  of  knowledge  be  ren- 
dered by  such  a work,  in  comparison  of  what  it  must  be, 
when  we  have  nothing  to  have  recourse  to,  but  a labyrinth  of 
statutes,  reports,  and  opinions.  That  man,  also  would  be  of 
considerable  use,  though  not  in  the  same  degree,  who  should 
vigilantly  attend  to  every  illegal  practice  that  was  beginning  to 
prevail,  and  evince  its  danger,  by  exposing  its  contrariety  to  law. 
Of  similar  benefit,  though  in  a different  sphere,  are  grammar  and 
criticism.  In  language,  the  grammarian  is  properly  the  com- 
piler of  the  digest ; and  the  verbal  critic,  the  man  who  season- 
ably notifies  the  abuses  that  are  creeping  in.  Both  tend  to 
facilitate  the  study  of  the  tongue  to  strangers,  and  to  render 
natives  more  perfect  in  the  knowledge  of  it;  to  advance  general 
use  into  universal ; and  to  give  a greater  stability,  at  least,  if 
not  permanency,  to  custom,  the  most  mutable  thing  in  nature. 
These  are  advantages  which,  with  a moderate  share  of  atten- 
tion, may  be  discovered  from  what  has  been  already  said  on 
the  subject ; but  they  are  not  the  only  advantages.  From  what 
I shall  have  occasion  to  observe  afterward,  it  will  probably 
;appear,  that  these  arts,  by  assisting  to  suppress  every  unlicensed 
term,  and  to  stigmatize  every  improper  idiom,  tend  to  give 
greater  precision,  and  consequently  more  perspicuity  and 
beauty,  to  our  style. 

The  observations  made  in  the  preceding  chapter,  might 
easily  be  converted  into  so  many  canons  of  criticism ; by  which, 
whatever  is  repugnant  to  reputable,  to  national,  or  to  present 
use,  in  the  sense  wherein  these  epithets  have  been  explained, 
would  be  condemned  as  a transgression  of  the  radical  laws  of 
the  language.  But  on  this  subject  of  use,  there  arise  two 
eminent  questions,  the  determination  of  which  may  lead  to  the 
establishment  of  other  canons  not  less  important.  The  first 
question  is  this ; Is  reputable,  national,  and  present  use,  which, 
for  brevity’s  sake,  I shall  hereafter  simply  denominate  good  use, 
always  uniform  in  her  decisions  ? The  second  is ; As  no  term, 
idiom,  or  application,  that  is  totally  unsupported  by  her,  can  be 
admitted  to  be  good,  is  every  term,  idiom,  and  application,  that 
is  countenanced  by  her  to  be  esteemed  good,  and  therefore 
worthy  to  be  retained  ? - 


SECTION  I. 

Good  use  not  always  uniform  in  her  decisions. 

In  answer  to  the  former  of  these  questions,  I acknowledge, 
that,  in  every  case,  there  is  not  a perfect  uniformity  in  the  de- 


THE  LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


367 


terminations,  even  of  such  use  as  may  justly  be  denominated 
good.  Wherever  a considerable  number  of  authorities  can  be 
produced,  in  support  of  two  different,  though  resembling  modes 
of  expression  for  the  same  thing,  there  is  always  a divided  use, 
and  one  cannot  be  said  to  speak  barbarously,  or  to  oppose  the 
usage  of  the  language,  who  conforms  to  either  side.  This  divi- 
ded use  has  place,  sometimes  in  construction,  and  sometimes  in 
arrangement.  In  all  such  cases  there  is  scope  for  choice  ; and 
it  belongs,  without  question,  to  the  critical  art,  to  lay  down  the 
principles,  by  which,  in  doubtful  cases,  our  choice  should  be 
directed.  The  following  canons  are  humbly  proposed,  in  order 
to  assist  us  in  assigning  the  preference.  Let  it,  in  the  mean- 
time, be  remembered,  as  a point  always  presupposed,  that  the 
authorities  on  the  opposite  sides,  are  equal,  or  nearly  so.  When 
those  of  one  side  greatly  preponderate,  it  is  in  vain  to  oppose 
the  prevailing  usage.  Custom,  when  wavering,  may  be  swayed, 
but  when  reluctant,  will  not  be  forced.  And  in  this  depart- 
ment a person  never  effects  so  little,  as  when  he  attempts  too 
much. 


Canon  the  first. 


When  use  is  divided  ^as  to  any  particular  words  or  phrases, 
and  when  one  of  the  expressions  is  susceptible  of  a different 
signification,  whilst  the  other  never  admits  but  one  sense ; 
both  perspicuity  and  variety  require,  that  the  form  of  expres- 
sion, which  is,  in  every  instance,  strictly  unequivocal,  should  be 
preferred. 

For  this  reason  aught,  signifying  any  thing,  is  preferable  to 
ought,  which  is  one  of  our  defective  verbs.  In  the  preposition 
toward,  and  towards,  and  the  adverbs  forward  and  forwardsy 
scarce  and  scarcely,  backward  and  backwards,  the  two  forms 
are  used  indiscriminately.  But  as  the  first  form  in  all  these  is 
also  an  adjective,  it  is  better  to  confine  the  particles  to  the 
second. 

The  following  pertinent  illustrations  of  the  first  canon,  are 
taken  from  Dr.  Crombie.  To  purpose,  for  ‘^to  intend,”  is 
better  than  to  propose,  which  signifies  also,  “ to  lay  before,” 
or  “ submit  to  consideration  and  proposal,  for  a thing 
offered  or  proposed,”  is  better  than  proposition,”  which  de- 
notes also  “ a position,”  or  “ the  affirmation  of  any  principle 
or  maxim.”  Thus  we  say,  “ He  demonstrated  Euclid’s  pro- 
position:’^^ and,  “He  rejected  Xhci  proposal  of  his  friend.” — - 
“ I am  mistaken  is  frequently  used  to  denote,  “ I misunder- 


368 


APPENDIX. 


Stand,”  or  am  in  error;”  but  as  this  expression  may  also 
signify,  I am  misunderstood,”  it  is  better  to  say,  ‘‘I  mis- 
take.” 


Canon  the  second. 

In  doubtful  cases,  regard  ought  to  be  had  in  our  decisions  to 
the  analogy  of  the  language. 

For  this  reason  I prefer  contemporary  to  cotemporary.  The 
general  use,  in  words  compounded  with  the  syllable  con,  is  to 
retain  the  n before  a consonant,  and  to  expunge  it  before  a 
vowel  or  an  h mute.  Thus  we  say,  concurrence,  conjuncture, 
concomitant ; but  co-equal,  co-eternal,  co-incide,  co-heir.  If, 
by  the  former  canon,  the  adverbs  backwards  and  forwards^  are 
preferable  to  backward  and  forward:  by  this  canon,  from 
the  principle  of  analogy,  afterwards  and  homewards  should  be 
preferred  io  afterward  homeward. — The  phrase,  “though 

he  were  ever  so  good,”  is  preferable  to,  “ though  he  were  never 
so  good.”  In  this  decision,  I subscribe  to  the  judgment  of  Dr. 
Johnson. — Sometimes  whether  followed  by  no,  sometimes  by 
not.  For  instance,  some  would  say,  “ Whether  he  will  or  no 
others,  “ Whether  he  will  or  no^.”  Of  these  it  is  the  latter  only 
that  is  analogical.  There  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  verb  in  the  last 
clause,  which  when  you  supply,  you  find  it  necessary  to  use  the 
adverb  noif;”  “ Whether  he  will  or  no^.” 

Canon  the  third. 

When  the  terms  or  expressions  are  in  other  respects  equal, 
that  ought  to  be  preferred  which  is  most  agreeable  to  the  ear. — 
Of  this  we  have  many  examples.  Delicateness  has  very  properly 
given  way  to  delicacy ; and  for  a like  reason  authenticity  will 
probably  soon  displace  authenticalness^  and  vindictive  dispossess 
vindicative  altogether. 

Canon  the  fourth. 

In  cases  wherein  none  of  the  foregoing  rules  gives  either 
side  a ground  of  preference,  a regard  to  simplicity,  (in  which 
I include  etymology  when  manifest,)  ought  to  determine  our 
choice. 

Under  the  name  simplicity,  I must  be  understood  to  compre- 
hend also  brevity  ; for  that  expression  is  always  the  simplest, 
which,  with  equal  purity  and  perspicuity,  is  the  briefest. 
We  have,  for  instance,  several  active  verbs,  which  are  used 
either  with  or  without  a preposition  indiscriminately.  Thus 


THE  LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


369 


we  say,  either  accept  or  accept  of^  admit  or  admit  of,  approve  or 
approve  of ; in  like  manner,  aMress  or  address  to,  attain  or 
attain  to.  In  such  instances  it  will  hold,  I suppose,  pretty  gen- 
erally, that  the  simple  form  is  preferable. 

SECTION  II. 

Every  thing  favoured  by  good  use,  not  on  that  account  worthy  to 
be  retained. 

I COME  now  to  the  second  question  for  ascertaining  both  the 
extent  of  the  authority  claimed  by  custom,  and  the  rightful  pre- 
rogatives of  criticism.  As  no  term,  idiom,  or  application,  that 
is  totally  unsupported  by  use,  can  be  admitted  to  be  good ; is 
every  term,  idiom,  and  application,  that  is  countenanced  by  use, 
to  be  esteemed  good,  and  therefore  worthy  to  be  retained  ? — 
I answer,  that  though  nothing  in  language  can  be  good,  from 
which  use  withholds  her  approbation,  there  may  be  many  things 
to  which  she  gives  it,  that  are  not  in  all  respects  good,  or  such 
as  are  worthy  to  be  retained  and  imitated.  In  some  instances, 
custom  may  very  properly  be  checked  by  criticism,  which  has  a 
sort  of  negative,  and  though  not  the  censorian  power  of  instant 
degradation,  the  privilege  of  remonstrating,  and  by  means  of 
this,  when  used  discreetly,  of  bringing  what  is  bad  into  disre- 
pute, and  so  cancelling  it  gradually ; but  which  has  no  positive 
right  to  establish  any  thing. — I shall  therefore  subjoin  a few 
remarks  under  the  form  of  canons,  in  relation  to  those  words 
or  expressions,  which  may  be  thought  to  merit  degradation 
from  the  rank  they  have  hitherto  maintained ; submitting  these 
remarks  entirely,  as  every  thing  of  the  kind  must  be  submitted, 
to  the  final  determination  of  the  impartial  public. 

Canon  the  first. 

All  words  and  phrases  which  are  remarkably  harsh  and  un- 
harmonious,  and  not  absolutely  necessary,  should  be  rejected. 
— Such  are  the  words,  un-success  ful-ness,  dis-interest-ed-ness ; 
conventiclers,  peremptorily ; holihj,  farriering.  They  are  heavy 
and  drawling,  ill  compacted,  and  difficult  of  utterance : and 
they  have  nothing  to  compensate  for  their  defect  of  harmony, 
and  unpleasantness  of  sound. 

Canon  the  second 

When  etymology  plainly  points  to  a signification  different 
from  that  which  the  word  commonly  bears,  propriety  and 

VoL.  1.  49 


370 


APPENDIX. 


simplicity  both  require  its  dismission.— Of  this  kind  is  the 
word  beholden,  for  obliged  or  indebted.  It  should  regularly  be 
the  passive  participle  of  the  verb  to  behold,  which  would  convey 
a sense  totally  different.  The  verb  to  unloose,  should  anal- 
ogically  signify  to  tie,  in  like  manner  as  to  untie  signifies  to  loose. 
To  what  purpose  is  it,  then,  to  retain  a term,  without  any 
necessity  in  a,  signification  the  reverse  of  that  which  its  etymol- 
ogy manifestly  suggests  ? 


Canon  the  third. 

When  any  words  become  obsolete,  or  at  least  ai’e  never  used, 
except  as  constituting  part  of  particular  phrases,  it  is  better  to 
dispense  with  their  service  entirely,  and  give  up  the  phrases. — 
Examples  of  this  we  have  in  the  words  lief,  dint,  whit,  moot, 
pro,  and  con  ; as,  “ I had  as  lief  go  myself,”  for,  “ I should  like 
as  well  to  go  myself.”  ‘‘  He  convinced  his  antagonist  by  dint 
of  argument  f that  is,  ^^by  strength  of  argument.”  ‘^He  made 
them  yield  by  dint  of  arms,^'"—^''  by  force  of  arms.”  ‘‘  He  is  not 
a whit  better, “ no  better.”  “ The  case  you  mention  is  a moot 
point^—^  a disputable  point.”  “ The  question  was  strenuously 
debated  pro  and  con,^^ — “ on  both  sides.”  These  are  low  phrase- 
ologies; and  savour  so  much  of  cant,  that  good  writers  will 
carefully  avoid  them. 


Canon  the  fourth. 

All  those  phrases,  which,  when  analyzed  grammatically,  in- 
clude a solecism  ; and  all  those  to  which  use  has  affixed  a par- 
ticular sense,  but  which,  when  explained  by  the  general  and 
established  rules  of  the  language,  are  susceptible  either  of  a 
different  sense,  or  of  no  sense,  ought  to  be  discarded  altogether. 

It  is  this  kind  of  phraseology  which  is  distinguished  by  the 
epithet  idiomatical,  and  which  has  been  originally  the  spawn, 
partly  of  ignorance,  and  partly  of  affectation.  Of  the  first 
sort,  which  includes  a solecism,  is  the  phrase,  “ I had  rather  do 
such  a thing,”  for,  ‘‘  I would  rather  do  it.”  “ I had  do,^^  is  a 
gross  violation  of  the  rules  of  conjugation  in  our  language. — 
Of  the  second  sort,  which,  when  explained  grammatically,  leads 
to  a different  sense  from  what  the  words  in  conjunction  gener- 
ally bear,  is,  the  following  expression,  common  in  the  mouths 
of  many  persons ; “ He  sings  a good  song.”  The  words  strictly 
considered,  signify,  that  “ the  song  is  good ;”  whereas  the 
speaker’s  meaning  is,  that  “ He  sings  well.” — Under  the  third 
sort,  which  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  literally  conveying 
any  sense,  may  be  ranked  a number  of  vile,  but  common 


LAW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


371 


phrases,  sometimes  to  be  found  in  good  authors ; like  shooting 
at  rovers,  having  a month's  mind,  currying  favour,  dancing  at- 
tendance, and  many  others. 

So  much  for  the  canons  of  verbal  criticism,  which  properly 
succeed  the  characters  of  good  use,  proposed  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  for  the  detection  of  the  most  flagrant  errors  in  the 
choice,  the  construction,  and  the  application  of  words.  The 
first  four  of  these  canons  are  intended  to  suggest  the  principles 
by  which  our  choice  ought  to  be  directed,  in  cases  wherein  use 
itself  is  wavering,  and  the  last  four,  to  point  out  those  farther 
improvements,  which  the  critical  art,  without  exceeding  her 
le^al  powers,  may  assist  in  producing.  There  are,  indeed, 
•writers  who  seem  disposed  to  extend  her  authority  much  further. 
But  we  ought  always  to  remember,  that  as  the  principal  mode 
of  improving  a language,  which  she  is  empowered  to  employ,  is 
by  condemning  and  exploding,  there  is  considerable  danger,  lest 
she  carry  her  improvements  this  way  too  far.  Our  mother- 
tongue,  by  being  too  much  impaired,  may  be  impoverished  ; and 
so  more  injured  in  copiousness  and  nerves,  than  all  our  refine- 
ments will  ever  be  able  to  compensate.  For  this  reason  there 
ought,  in  support  of  every  sentence  of  proscription,  to  be  an 
evident  plea  from  the  principles  of  perspicuity,  elegance,  or 
harmony. 


ADDRESS 


TO  YOUNG  STUDENTS.* 


The  Compiler  of  these  elements  of  the  English 
language,  takes  the  liberty  of  presenting  to  you  a 
short  address.  He  presumes  it  will  be  found  to 
comport  entirely  with  the  nature  and  design  of  his 
work ; and  he  hopes  it  will  not  be  unacceptable  to 
you.  It  respects  your  future  walks  in  the  paths  of 
literature;  the  chief  purpose,  to  which  you  should 
apply  your  acquisitions;  and.  the  true  sources  of 
your  present  and  future  happiness. 

In  forming  this  Grammar,  and  the  volume  of  Illus- 
trations connected  with  it,  the  author  was  influenced 
by  a desire  to  facilitate  your  progress  in  learning, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  impress  on  your  minds  prin- 
ciples of  piety  and  virtue.  He  wished  also  to  assist, 
in  some  degree,  the  labours  of  those  who  are  culti- 
vating your  understandings,  and  providing  for  you  a 
fund  of  rational  and  useful  employment ; an  Employ- 
ment calculated  to  exclude  those  frivolous  pursuits, 
and  that  love  of  ease  and  sensual  pleasure,  which 
enfeeble  and  corrupt  the  minds  of  many  inconsiderate 
youth,  and  render  them  useless  to  society. 

Without  your  own  best  exertions,  the  concern  of 
others  for  your  welfare,  will  be  of  little  avail;  with 
them,  you  may  fairly  promise  yourselves  success. 
The  writer  of  this  address,  therefore,  recommends  to 
you,  an  earnest  co-operation  with  the  endeavours  of 
your  friends,  to  promote  your  improvement  and 


♦ To  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  study  of  this  Grammar. 


ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG  STUDENTS. 


373 


happiness.  This  co-operation,  whilst  it  secures  jour 
own  progress,  will  aflbrd  you  the  heart-felt  satisfac- 
tion of  knowing  that  you  are  cherishing  the  hopes, 
and  augmenting  the  pleasures,  of  those  with  whom 
you  are  connected  by  the  most  endearing  ties.  He 
recommends  to  you  also,  serious  and  elevated  views 
of  the  studies  in  which  you  may  be  engaged.  What- 
ever may  be  your  attainments,  never  allow  yourselves 
to  rest  satisfied  with  mere  literary  acquisitions,  nor 
with  a selfish  or  contracted  application  of  them.— 
When  they  advance  only  the  interests  of  this  stage 
of  being,  and  look  not  beyond  the  present  transient 
scene,  their  influence  is  circumscribed  within  a very 
narrow  sphere.  The  great  business  of  this  life  is  to 
prepare,  and  qualify  us,  for  the  enjoyment  of  a better, 
by  cultivating  a pure  and  humble  state  of  mind,  and 
cherishing  habits  of  piety  towards  God,  and  benevo- 
lence to  men.  Every  thing  that  promotes  or  retards 
this  important  work,  is  of  great  moment  to  you,  and 
claims  your  first  and  most  serious  attention. 

If,  then,  the  cultivation  of  letters,  and  an  advance- 
ment in  knowledge,  are  found  to  strengthen  and 
enlargeyour  minds,  to  purify  and  exalt  your  pleasures, 
and  to  dispose  you  to  pious  and  virtuous  sentiments 
and  conduct,  they  produce  excellent  effects ; which, 
with  your  best  endeavours  to  improve  them,  and  the 
Divine  blessing  superadded,  will  not  fail  to  render 
you,  not  only  wise  and  good  yourselves,  but  also  the 
happy  instruments  of  diffusing  wisdom,  religion,  and 
goodness  around  you.  Thus  improved,  your  acqui- 
sitions become  handmaids  to  virtufe;  and  they  may 
eventually  serve  to  increase  the  rewards  which  the 
Supreme  Being  has  promised  to  faithful  and  v^^ell- 
directed  exertions,  for  the  promotion  of  truth  and 
goodness  amongst  men. 

But  if  you  counteract  the  hopes  of  your  friends, 
and  the  tendency  of  these  attainments ; if  you  grow 
vain  of  your  real  or  imaginary  distinctions,  and  regard 
with  contempt,  the  virtuous,  unlettered  mind ; if 


374 


ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG  STUDENTS. 


you  suffer  yourselves  to  be  absorbed  in  over-curious 
or  trifling  speculations;  if  your  heart  and  principles 
be  debased  and  poisoned,  by  the  influence  of  cor- 
rupting and  pernicious  books,  for  which  no  elegance 
ot  composition  can  make  amends;  if  you  spend  so 
much  of  your  time  in  literary  engagements,  as  to 
make  them  interfere  with  higher  occupations,  and 
lead  you  to  forget,  that  pious  and  benevolent  action 
is  the  great  end  of  your  being : if  such  be  the  unhappy 
misapplication  of  your  acquisitions  and  advantages, 
— instead  of  becoming  a blessing  to  you,  they  will 
prove  the  occasion  of  greater  condemnation ; and,  in 
the  hour  of  serious  thought,  they  may  excite  the 
painful  reflections, — that  it  would  have  been  better 
for  you,  to  have  remained  illiterate  and  unaspiring  ; 
to  have  been  confined  to  the  humblest  walks  of  life ; 
and  to  have  been  even  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers 
of  water  all  your  days. 

Whilst  you  contemplate  the  dangers  to  which  you 
are  exposed,  the  sorrows  and  dishonour  which  accom- 
pany talents  misapplied,  and  a course  of  indolence 
and  folly,  may  you  exert  your  utmost  endeavours  to 
avoid  them ! Seriously  reflecting  on  the  great  end 
for  which  you  w'ere  brought  into  existence;  on  the 
bright  and  encouraging  examples  of  many  excellent 
young  persons ; and  on  the  mournful  deviations 
of  others,  who  once  were  promising;  may  you  be 
so  wise  as  to  choose  and  follow  that  path,  which 
leads  to  honour,  usefulness,  and  true  enjoyment ! 
This  is  the  morning  of  your  life,  in  which  pursuit  is 
ardent,  and  obstacles  readily  give  way  to  vigour  and 
perseverance.  Embrace  this  favourable  season ; 
devote  yourselves  to  the  acquisition  ol  knowledge 
and  virtue;  and  humbly  pray  to  God  that  he  may 
bless  your  labours.  Often  reflect  on  the  advantages 
you  possess,  and  on  the  source  from  whence  they 
are  all  derived.  A lively  sense  of  the  privileges  and 
blessings,  by  which  you  have  been  distinguished, 
will  induce  you  to  render  to  your  heavenly  Father, 


ADDRESS  TO  YOUNG  STUDENTS. 


375 


the  just  returns  of  gratitude  and  love:  and  these 
fruits  of  early  piety  will  be  regarded  by  him  as 
acceptable  offerings,  and  secure  to  you  his  favour 
and  protection. 

Trusting  in  the  goodness  of  the  Almighty,  may 
you  never  suffer  your  minds  to  be  too  much  de- 
pressed with  the  view  of  your  imperfections.  Though 
our  frailties  and  depravity  may  be  very  great,  and 
deeply  affecting,  yet  true  repentance  towards  God ; 
faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  ; and  the  gracious  aid 
of  the  Holy  Spirit ; are  abundantly  sufficient  to 
strengthen  and  purify  our  hearts,  and  to  render  us 
acceptable  to  the  Father  of  mercies.  And  we  have 
the  comfortable  promise,  that  He  will  favourably 
regard  the  prayers  of  his  children.  Whatever  there- 
fore may  be  your  difficulties  and  discouragements, 
in  resisting  the  allurements  of  vice,  you  may  be 
humbly  confident,  that  Divine  assistance  will  be 
afforded  to  all  your  good  and  pious  resolutions;  and 
that  every  virtuous  effort  will  have  a correspondent 
reward. 

In  your  pursuits  of  pleasure,  and  amusement,  it 
will  be  happy  for  you  to  select  those  only  which  are 
innocent  and  allowable,  and  which  leave  behind 
them  no  sorrowful  reflections.  You  may  rest  assured, 
that  hoW  flattering  soever  the  vain  enjoyments  of  the 
world  may,  for  a time,  appear,  they  will  finally  disap- 
point the  expectations  of  their  votaries ; that  all  the 
advantages  arising  from  vicious  indulgences,  are  light 
and  contemptible,  as  well  as  exceedingly  transient, 
compared  with  the  substantial  enjoyments,  the  pre- 
sent pleasures  and  the  future  hopes,  which  result  from 
piety  and  virtue.  The  Holy  Scriptures  assures  us, 
that  “The  ways  of  wisdom  are  ways  of  pleasantness, 
and  that  all  her  paths  are  peace  “ that  religion  has 
the  promise  of  the  life  that  now  is,  and  of  that  which 
is  to  come and  that  the  truly  good  man,  whatever 
may  be  the  condition  allotted  to  him  by  Divine  Pro- 
vidence, “in  all  things  gives  thanks,  and  rejoices 


376  ADDRESS  TO  VOENG  STUDENTS. 

even  in  tribulation.”  Some  of  these  sentiments  have 
been  finely  illustrated  by  a celebrated  poet.  The 
author  of  this  address  presents  the  illustration  to  you, 
as  a striking  and  beautiful  portrait  of  virtue ; with 
his  most  cordial  wishes,  that  your  hearts  and  lives 
may  correspond  to  it;  and  that  your  happiness  here, 
may  be  an  earnest  of  happiness  hereafter. 

“ Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below  : 

The  only  point  where  human  bliss  stands  still ; 

And  tastes  the  good,  without  the  fall  to  ill ; 

^ Where  only  merit  constant  pay  receives, 

Is  bless’d  in  what  it  takes,  and  what  it  gives  ; 

The  joy  unequalPd,  if  its  end  it  gain, 

And  if  it  lose,  attended  with  no  pain  : 

Without  satiety,  though  e’er  so  bless’d ; 

And  but  more  relish’d  as  the  more  distress’d  : 

The  broadest  mirth  unfeeling  folly  wears. 

Less  pleasing  far  than  virtue’s  very  tears  : 

Good,  from  each  object,  from  each  place  acquir’d  ; 

For  ever  exercis’d,  yet  never  tir’^d  ; 

Never  elated,  while  one  man’s  oppress’d  ; 

Never  dejected,  while  another’s  bless’d  ; 

And  where  no  wants,  no  wishes  can  remain  ; 

Since  but  to  wish  more  virtue  is  to  gain. — 

For  him  alone  hope  leads  from  goal  to  goal, 

And  opens  still,  and  opens  on  his  soul  ; 

Till  lengthen’d  on  to  faith,  and  unconfin’d. 

It  pours  the  bliss  that  fills  up  all  the  niind.” 

Pope. 


END  OF  THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 


AN 


ENGLISH  GEAMMAR; 


COMPREHENDING 

THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  RULES 

OP  THE 

LANGUAGE, 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  APPROPRIATE  EXERCISES, 

AND 

A KEY  TO  THE  EXERCISES. 


BY  BINDLEY  MURRAY. 


“ They  who  are  learning  to  compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  with  accuracy  and  order,  are 
learning  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with  accuracy  and  order.” — Blair. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 

VOL  11. 


THE  SEVENTH  AMERICAN,  FROM  THE  LAST  ENGLISH  EDITION 
CORRECTED  AND  MUCH  ENLARGED. 


NEW  YORK : 

PUBLISHED  BY  COLLINS  & CO.;  COLLINS  «fe  HANNAY; 
SAMUEL  WOOD  & SONS. 


1832. 


NEW  YORK : 

R.  & G.  S.  WOOD,  PRINTERS,  261  PEARL-STREET. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


This  volume  comprehends, 

Exercises  adapted  to  the  various  rules ; 

Secondly — A Key  to  the  Exercises ; — -and 

Thirdly — A copious  Alphabetical  Index  to  the 
whole  work. 

The  Exercises  and  Key  form  practical  illustrations 
of  the  principles,  and  of  the  most  important  notes 
and  observations,  contained  in  the  first  volume.  The 
correspondence  between  the  two  volumes,  has  been 
so  carefully  marked,  that  the  reader  will  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  comparing  every  rule  in  the  firsts  with  its 
appropriate  Exercises  and  Key,  in  the  second.  In  this 
comparison  he  will  always  find  a variety  of  exempli- 
fication, and,  in  many  instances,  extended  views  of 
the  subject.  These  examples  supersede  the  necessity 
of  a great  number  of  minute,  subordinate  rules. 

In  forming  the  Alphabetical  Index,  it  was  not  the 
author’s  sole  design  to  assist  the  student,  in  readily 
discovering  particular  points  of  grammar.  He  wished 
also  to  express  the  most  important  principles  of  the 
art,  in  short,  comprehensive,  and  striking  sentences, 
calculated  to  stimulate  the  learner’s  curiosity,  and  to 
impress  the  subjects  more  deeply  in  his  memory.  The 
author  was  desirous,  that  the  work  should  at  once 
form  an  Index  to  particulars,  and  an  Epitome  of  the 
chief  rules  and  principles  of  the  language. 

Holdgate.,  near  York.,  1808. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO  THE  DUODECIMO  EDITION.* 


The  principles  of  knowledge  become  most  intelligible  to 
young  persons  when  they  are  explained  and  inculcated  by 
practical  illustration  and  direction.  This  mode  of  teaching  is 
attended  with  so  many  advantages,  that  it  can  scarcely  be  too 
much  recommended  or  pursued.  Instruction  which  is  enlivened 
by  pertinent  examples,  and  in  which  the  pupil  is  exercised  in 
reducing  the  rules  prescribed  to  practice,  has  a more  striking- 
effect  upon  the  mind,  and  is  better  adapted  to  fix  the  attention, 
and  sharpen  the  understanding,  than  that  which  is  divested  of 
those  aids,  and  confined  to  bare  positions  and  precepts;  in 
which  it  too  frequently  happens,  that  the  learner  has  no  further 
concern,  than  to  read  and  repeat  them.  The  time  and  care 
employed  in  practical  application,  give  occasion  to  survey  the 
subject  minutely,  and  in  different  points  of  view ; by  which  it 
becomes  more  known  and  familiar,  and  produces  stronger  and 
more  durable  impressions. 

These  observations  are  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  study  of 
grammar,  and  the  method  of  teaching  it.  The  rules  require 
frequent  explanation ; and,  besides  direct  elucidation,  they 
admit  of  examples  erroneously  constructed,  for  exercising  the 
student’s  sagacity  and  judgment.  To  rectify  these,  attention 
and  reflection  are  requisite ; and  the  knowledge  of  the  rule 
necessarily  results  from  the  study  and  correction  of  the  sentence. 
But  these  are  not  all  the  advantages  which  arise  from  Gram- 
matical Exercises.  By  discovering  their  abilities  to  detect  and 
amend  errors,  and  their  consequent  improvement,  the  scholars 
become  pleased  with  their  studies,  and  are  animated  to  proceed, 
and  surmount  the  obstacles  which  occur  in  their  progress.  The 
instructer  too  is  relieved  and  encouraged  in  his  labours.  By 
discerning  exactly  the  powers  and  improvement  of  his  pupils,  he 
perceives  the  proper  season  for  advancing  them  ; by  observing 
the  points  in  which  they  are  deficient,  he  knows  precisely  where 
to  apply  his  directions  and  explanations. 


* The  introduction  to  the  Duodecimo  Edition,  is  retained  in  this  volume,  for  the  same  reason 
that  the  original  Introduction  to  tlie  Grammar,  is  retained  in  the  first  volume. 


INTRODUCTION. 


V 


These  considerations  have  induced  the  Compiler  to  collect 
and  arrange  a variety  of  erroneous  examples,  adapted  to  the 
different  rules  and  instructions  of  English  Grammar,  and  to 
the  principles  of  perspicuous  and  accurate  writing.  It  has  not 
indeed  been  usual,  to  make  Grammatical  Exercises,  in  our 
language,  very  numerous  and  extensive : but  if  the  importance 
and  usefulness  of  them  be  as  great  as  they  are  conceived  to  be, 
no  apology  will  be  necessary  for  the  large  field  of  employment, 
which  the  following  work  presents  to  the  student  of  English 
Grammar.  If  he  detained  longer  than  is  common  in  this 
part  of  his  studies,  the  probable  result  of  it,  an  accurate  and 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  subject,  will  constitute  an  ample 
recompense. 

The  reader  will  perceive,  that  some  of  the  rules  and  obser- 
vations under  the  part  of  Syntax,  contain  a much  greater 
number  of  examples  than  others.  This  has  arisen  from  the 
superior  importance  of  these  rules,  and  from  the  variety  requisite 
to  illustrate  them  properly.  When  a few  instances  afford  suffi- 
cient practice  on  the  rule,  the  student  is  not  fatigued  with  a 
repetition  of  examples,  which  would  cast  no  new  light  on  the 
subject. 

In  selecting  the  instances  of  false  construction,  the  Compiler 
has  studied  to  avoid  those  that  are  glaringly  erroneous,  and  to 
fix  upon  such  only  as  frequently  occur  in  writing  or  speaking. 
If  there  be  any  of  a different  complexion,  it  is  presumed  that 
they  are  but  few,  and  that  they  will  be  found  under  those  rules 
only,  which,  from  the  nature  of  them,  could  not  have  been 
otherwise  clearly  exemplified  to  young  persons.  The  examples 
applicable  to  the  principal  notes  and  observations,  are  carefully 
arranged  under  the  respective  rules  of  Syntax ; and  regularly 
numbered,  to  make  them  correspond  to  the  subordinate  rules  in 
the  Grammar. 

In  a work  which  consists  entirely  of  examples,  and  with 
which  the  learners  will,  consequently,  be  much  occupied  and 
impressed,  the  Compiler  would  have  deemed  himself  culpable 
had  he  exhibited  such  sentences  as  contained  ideas  inapplicable 
to  young  minds,  or  which  were  of  trivial  or  injurious  nature. 
He  has  therefore  been  solicitous  to  avoid  all  exceptionable 
matter ; and  to  improve  his  work,  by  blending  moral  and  useful 
observations  with  grammatical  studies.  Even  sentiments  of  a 
pious  and  religious  nature,  have  not  been  thought  improper  to 
be  occasionally  inserted  in  these  Exercises.  The  understanding 
and  sensibility  of  young  persons,  are  much  underrated  by  those 
who  think  them  incapable  of  comprehending  and  relishing  this 
kind  of  instruction.  The  sense  and  love  of  goodness  are  early 
and  deeply  implanted  in  the  human  mind ; and  often,  by  their 


VI 


INTRODUCTION. 


infant  energies,  surprise  the  intelligent  observer: — why,  then, 
should  not  these  emotions  find  their  proper  support  and  incent- 
ives, among  the  elements  of  learning?  Congenial  sentiments, 
thus  disposed,  besides  making  permanent  impressions,  may  serve 
to  cherish  and  expand  those  generous  principles ; or  at  least,  to 
prepare  them  for  regular  operation,  at  a future  period.  The 
importance  of  exhibiting  to  the  youthful  mind,  the  deformities  of 
vice ; and  of  giving  it  just  and  animating  views  of  piety  and 
virtue,  makes  it  not  only  warrantable,  but  our  duty  also,  to 
embrace  every  proper  occasion  to  promote,  in  any  degree,  these 
valuable  ends. 

In  presenting  the  learner  with  so  great  a number  of  examples, 
it  was  difficult  to  preserve  them  from  too  much  uniformity.  The 
Compiler  has,  however,  been  studious  to  give  them  an  arrange- 
ment and  diversity,  as  agreeable  as  the  nature  of  the  subject 
would  admit : and  to  render  them  interesting,  as  well  as 
intelligible  and  instructive,  to  young  persons. 

Holdgate,  near  Yoi%  1797. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  1. 


EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

Chap.  1. — Exercises  in  parsing,  as  it  respects  Etymology 

alone,  1 

2. — Exercises  in  parsing,  as  it  respects  both  Etymology 

and  Syntax,  8 


PART  IL 

EXERCISES  IN  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Chap.  1. — Instances  of  false  Orthography,  arranged  under 

the  respective  Rules,  . . . . 27 

2. — Instances  of  false  Orthography,  promiscuously 

disposed,  32 


PART  III. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

Chap.  I. — Instances  of  false  Syntax,  disposed  under  par- 
ticular Rules,  ......  43 

2. — Instances  of  false  Syntax,  promiscuously  disposed,  83 

PART  IV. 

EXERCISES  IN  PUNCTUATION. 

Chap.  I. — Sentences  which  require  the  application  of  the 

Comma,  disposed  under  the  particular  Rules,  97 

2. — Sentences  which  require  the  insertion  of  the 

Semicolon  and  Comma,  . ^ . 104 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Chap.  3. — Sentences  requiring  the  application  of  the  Colon, 

&c.  . . ....  . 105 

4.  — Sentences  which  require  the  insertion  of  the 

Period, 106 

5.  — Sentences  requiring  the  application  of  the  Dash ; 

of  the  Notes  of  Interrogation  and  Exclamation ; 
and  of  the  Parenthetical  characters,  . . 107 

6.  — Promiscuous  instances  of  defective  Punctuation,  108 


PART  V. 

EXERCISES  TO  PROMOTE  PERSPICUOrS  AND  ACCURATE 
• WRITING. 

First,  with  respect  to  single  words  and  phrases. 

Chap.  1. — Violations  of  the  Rules  of  Purity,  . . 117 

3. — Violations  of  the  Rules  of  Propriety,  . . 118 

3. — ^Violations  of  the  Rules  of  Precision,  . . 124 


Secondly,  with  respect  to  the  construction  of  sentences. 

Chap.  1. — Sentences  in  which  the  Rules  of  Clearness  are 

violated, 125 

3. — Sentences  in  which  the  Rules  of  Unity  are 

violated, 129 

3.  — Sentences  in  which  the  Rules  for  promoting  the 

Strength  of  a sentence  are  violated,  . 131 

4.  — Instances  of  an  irregular  use  of  Figures  of  Speech,  139 

5.  — Violations  of  the  Rules  respecting  perspicuous 

and  accurate  writing,  promiscuously  disposed,  141 


APPENDIX. 

Chap.  1. — On  transposing  the  members  of  a sentence,  . 153 
2. — On  variety  of  expression,  ....  155 


Contents  to  the  Key,  see  page 


163 


EXERCISES- 


PART  L 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EXERCISES  m PARSING,  AS  IT  RESPECTS  ETYMOLOGY  ALONE. 


SECTION  I. 

Etymological  Parsing  Table, 

WHAT  part  of  speech  ? 

1.  An  Article, — What  kind  ? Why? 

2.  A Substative. — Common  or  proper?  What  gender? 
Number  ? Case  ? Why  ? 

3.  An  Adjective. — What  degree  of  comparison?  To  what 
does  it  belong  ? Why  an  adjective  ? 

4.  A Pronoun, — ^What  kind  ? Person  ? Gonder  ? Number  ? 
Case?  Why? 

5.  A Verb, — What  kind?  Mood?  Tense?  Number?  Person? 
Why  ? If  a participle,  Why  ? Active  or  passive  ? 

6.  An  Adverb,— Why  is  it  an  adverb  ? 

7.  A Preposition. — Why  a preposition  ? 

8.  A Conjunction, — What  kind  ? Why  is  it  a conjunction  ? 

9.  An  Interjection.— VVhy  ? 

SECTION  II. 

Specimens  of  Etymological  Parsing, 

“ Hope  animates  us.’’ 

Hope  is  a common  substantive  of  the  third  person,  in  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  [Decline  the  sub- 
Vol.  11.  1 


2 


EXERCISES. 


stantive.']  Animates  is  a regular  verb  active,4ndicative  mood, 
present  tense  third  person  singular.  [Repeat  the  present 
tense,  the  imperf  ect  tense,  and  the  perfect  participle : and 
sometimes  conjugate  the  verb  entirely. 1 Z7i  is  a personal  pro- 
noun, first  person  plural,  and  in  the  objective  case.  [Decline 
thepronounP^ 

“ A peaceful  mind  is  virtue’s  reward.” 

A is  the  indefinite  article.  Feaceful  is  an  adjective.  [Repeat 
the  degrees  of  comparison^  Mind  is  a common  substantive,  of 
the  third  person,  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  nominative 
case.  [Decline  the  substantive.']  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter, 
indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular. 
[Repeat  the  present  tense,  the  imperf  ect  tense,  and  the  participle  : 
and  occasionally  conjugate  the  verb  entirely.]  Virtues  is  a com- 
mon substantive  of  the  third  person,  in  the  singular  number, 
and  the  possessive  case.  [Decline  the  substantive.]  Reward 
is  a common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  in  the  singular 
number,  and  the  nominative  case. 

Deliberate  slowly,  but  execute  promptly.” 

Deliberate  is  a regular  verb  neuter,  in  the  imperative  mood, 
and  of  the  second  person  singular.  Slowly  is  an  adverb.  But 
is  a conjunction.  Execute  is  a regular  verb  active,  in  the  im- 
perative mood,  and  of  the  second  person  singular.  Promptly 
is  an  adverb. 

‘l-We  should  give  to  them  that  ask,  and  are  in  need.” 

We  is  a personal  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  the  plural  num- 
ber, and  in  the  nominative  case.  [Decline  the  pronoun.]  Should 
give  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  in  the  potential  mood,  the  im- 
perfect tense,  and  the  first  person  plural.  To  is  a preposition. 
Them  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  plural  num- 
ber, and  in  the  objective  case.  That  is  a relative  pronoun. 
Ask  is  a regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
third  person  plural.  And  is  a copulative  conjunction.  Are  is 
an  irregular  verb  neuter.  In  is  a preposition.  Need  is  a com- 
mon substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  person,  and  in 
the  singular  number. 

“ O virtue  ! how  amiable  thou  art !” 

O is  an  interjection.  Virtue  is  a common  substantive,  of 
the  neuter  gender,  of  the  third  person,  in  the  singular  number, 
and  the  nominative  case.  How  is  an  adverb.  Thou  is  a per- 


PARSING. 


3 


sonal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person,  the  singular  number,  and 
in  the  nominative  case.  [Decline  the  pronoun.']  Art  is  an  irreg- 
ular verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  second 
person  singular.  ^ 

SECTION  III. 

Examples  of  all  parts  of  speech,  of  the  cases  of  nouns  and 
pronouns,  the  comparison  of  adjectives,  and  the  moods  and 
tenses  of  verbs, 

1. 

Article,  Substantive,  Adjective,  pronoun,  and  Veidj. 


A fragrant  flower. 

The  verdant  fields. 
Peaceful  abodes. 

Fruit  delicious. 

A happier  life. 

A better  world. 

The  sweetest  incense. 
The  noblest  prospect. 
Virtue’s  fair  form. 

The  good  man’s  hope. 

An  affectionate  parent. 

An  obedient  son. 

Charles  is  disinterested. 
You  respect  him. 

We  completed  our  work. 
Your  hope  has  failed. 

He  had  resigned  himself. 
Their  fears  will  prevail. 
You  shall  submit. 

He  will  have  determined. 
We  shall  have  agreed. 
Let  me  depart. 

Do  you  instruct  him. 
Prepare  your  lessons. 

Let  us  improve  ourselves. 
They  may  offend. 

I can  forgive. 

He  might  surpass  them. 
We  could  overtake  him. 

I would  be  happy. 

You  should  repent. 

He  may  have  succeeded. 


He  might  have  failed. 

We  should  have  considered. 

To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

To  have  conquered  himself 
was  a high  praise. 

Promoting  others’  good,  we 
advance  our  own. 

He  lives  respected. 

Having  resigned  his  office,  he 
retired. 

They  are  discouraged. 

He  was  condemned. 

We  have  been  rewarded. 

She  had  been  admired. 

Virtue  will  be  rewarded. 

The  person  will  have  been 
executed,  when  the  pardon 
arrives. 

Let  him  be  animated. 

Be  you  entreated. 

It  can  be  enlarged. 

You  may  be  discovered. 

He  might  be  convinced. 

It  would  be  caressed. 

I may  have  been  deceived. 

He  might  have  been  lost. 

To  be  trusted,  we  must  be 
virtuous. 

To  have  been  admired,  avail- 
ed him  little. 

Being  reviled,  we  bless. 


4 


EXERCISES. 


Ridiculed,  despised,  persecut- 
ed, he  maintained  his  prin- 
ciples. 

Having  been  deserted,  he  be- 
came discouraged. 

The  sight  being  new,  he  start- 
led. 

Our  hearts  are  deceitful. 


His  esteem  is  my  honour. 
Every  heart  knows  its  own 
sorrows. 

Which  was  his  work  ? 

Hers  is  done,  mine  is  not. 

Who  can  help  us? 

Whose  books  are  these  ? 

One  may  deceive  one’s  self. 


2. 

Adverb^  Preposition,  Conjunction,  and  Interjection. 


I have  seen  him  once,  perhaps 
twice. 

Thirdly,  and  lastly,  I shall  con- 
clude. 

This  plant  is  found  here,  and 
elsewhere. 

Only  to-day  is  properly  ours. 

The  task  is  already  performed. 

We  could  not  serve  him  then, 
but  we  will  hereafter. 

He  is  much  more  promising 
now  than  formerly. 

We  often  resolve,  but  seldom 
perform. 

We  are  wisely  and  happily 
directed. 

He  has  certainly  been  dili- 
gent, and  he  will  probably 
succeed. 

Mentally  and  bodily,  we  are 
curiously  and  wonderfully 
formed. 

They  travelled  through  France, 
in  haste,  towards  Italy. 

From  virtue  to  vice,  the  pro- 
gress is  gradual. 

By  diligence  and  frugality,  we 
arrive  at  competency. 

We  are  often  below  our  wish- 
es, and  above  our  desert. 

Some  things  make  for  him, 
others  against  him. 


By  this  imprudence,  he  was 
plunged  into  new  difficul- 
ties. 

Without  the  aid  of  Charity,  he 
supported  himself  with  credit. 

* On  all  occasions  she  behaved 
with  propriety. 

We  in  vain  look  for  a path  be- 
tween virtue  and  vice. 

He  lives  within  his  income. 

The  house  was  sold  at  a great 
price,  and  above  its  value. 

She  came  down  stairs  slowly, 
but  went  briskly  up  again. 

His  father,  and  mother,  and 
uncle,  reside  at  Rome. 

We  must  be  temperate,  if  we 
would  be  healthy. 

He  is  as  old  as  his  classmate, 
but  not  so  learned. 

Charles  is  esteemed,  because 
he  is  both  discreet  and  be- 
nevolent. 

We  will  stay  till  he  arrives. 

He  retires  to  rest  soon,  that  he 
may  rise  early. 

We  ought  to  be  thankful,  for 
we  have  received  much. 

Though  he  is  often  advised,  yet 
he  does  not  reform. 

Reproof  either  softens,  or  hard- 
ens its  object. 


PARSING. 


5 


Neither  prosperity,  nor  adver- 
sity, has  improved  him. 

He  can  acquire  no  virtue*,  un- 
less he  make  some  sacra- 
fices. 

Let  him  that  standeth  take  heed 
lest  he  fall. 

He  will  be  detected,  though  he 
deny  the  fact. 

If  he  has  promised,  he  should 
act  accordingly. 

If  he  were  encouraged,  he 
would  amend. 

Though  he  condemn  me,  I will 
respect  him. 

Their  talents  are  more  brilliant 
than  useful. 

Notwithstanding  his  poverty, 
he  is  a wise  and  worthy 
person. 

If  our  desires  are  moderate  our 
wants  will  be  few. 


Hope  often  amuses,  but  seldom 
satisfies  us. 

Though  he  is  lively,  yet  he  is 
not  volatile. 

0 peace ! how  desirable  thou 
art ! 

1 have  been  often  occupied, 
alas ! with  trifles. 

Strange  ! that  we  should  be  so 
infatuated. 

O ! the  humiliations  to  which 
vice  reduces  us. 

Hark ! how  sweetly  the  wood- 
lark sings ! 

Ah  ! the  delusions  of  hope. 

Behold  ! how  pleasant  it  is  for 
brethren  to  dwell  together 
in  unity ! 

Hail,  simplicity ! source  of 
genuine  joy. 

Welcome  again  ! my  long  lost 
friend. 


SECTION  IV. 

A few  instances  of  the  same  words  constituting  several  of  the 
parts  of  speech. 


Calm  was  the  day,  and  the 
scene  delightful. 

We  may  expect  a calm  after  a 
storm. 

To  prevent  passion  is  easier 
than  to  calm  it. 

Better  is  a little  with  content, 
than  a great  deal  with  anxiety. 

The  gay  and  dissolute  think 
little  of  the  miseries  which 
are  stealing  softly  after 
them. 

A little  attention  will  rectify 
some  errors. 

Though  he  is  out  of  danger  he 
is  still  afraid. 


He  laboured  to  still  the  tumult* 

Still  waters  are  commonly 
deepest. 

Fair  and  softly  go  far. 

The  fair  was  numerously  at- 
tended. 

His  character  is  fair  and  hon- 
ourable. 

Damp  air  is  unwholesome. 

Guilt  often  casts  a damp  over 
our  sprightliest  hours. 

Soft  bodies  damp  the  sound 
much  more  than  hard  ones. 

Tho^she  is  rich  and  fair,  yet 
she  is  not  amiable. 


6 


Exercises. 


They  are  yet  young,  and  must 
suspend  their  judgment  yet 
awhile. 

Many  persons  are  better  than 
we  suppose  them  to  be. 

The  few  and  the  many  have 
their  prepossessions. 

Few  days  pass  without  some 
clouds. 

The  hail  was  very  destructive. 

Hail  virtue ! source  of  every 
good. 

We  hail  you  as  friends. 

Much  money  is  corrupting. 

Think  much  and  speak  little. 

He  has  seen  much  of  the  world, 
and  been  much  carressed. 

His  years  are  more  than  hers : 
but  he  has  not  more  know- 
ledge. 

The  more  we  are  blessed,  the 
more  grateful  we  should  be. 

The  desire  of  getting  more  is 
rarely  satisfied. 

He  has  equal  knowledge,  but 
inferior  judgment. 

She  is  his  inferior  in  sense,  biU 
his  equal  in  prudence. 

Every  being  loves  its  like. 


We  must  make  a like  space 
between  the  lines. 

Behave  yourselves  like  men. 

We  are  too  apt  to  like  perni- 
cious company. 

He  may  go  or  stay  as  he  likes. 

They  strive  to  learn. 

He  goes  to  and  fro. 

To  his  wisdom  we  owe  our 
privilege. 

The  proportion  is  ten  to  one. 

He  has  served  them  with  his 
utmost  ability. 

When  we  do  our  utmost,  no 
more  is  required. 

I will  submit,  for  I know  sub- 
mission brings  peace. 

It  is  for  our  health  to  be  tempe- 
rate. 

0 ! for  better  times. 

1 have  a regard  for  him. 

He  is  esteemed  both  on  his  own 
account,  and  on  that  of  his 
parents. 

Both  of  them  deserve  praise. 

Yesterday  was  a fine  day. 

I rode  out  yesterday. 

I shall  write  to-morrow. 

To-morrow  may  be  brighter 
than  to-day. 


SECTION  V. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  in  Etymological  Parsing. 

In  your  whole  behaviour,  be  humble  and  obliging. 

Virtue  is  the  universal  charm. 

True  politeness  has  its  seat  in  the  heart. 

We  should  endeavour  to  please,  rather  than  to  shine  and 
dazzle. 

Opportunities  occur  daily  for  strengthening  in  ourselves  the 
habits  of  virtue. 

Compassion  prompts  us  to  relieve  the  wants  of  others. 

A good  mind  is  unwilling  to  give  pain  to  either  man  or  beast. 

Peevishnes  and  passion  often  produce,  frcfm  trifles,  the  most 
serious  mischiefs. 


PARSING. 


7 


Discontent  often  nourishes  passions,  equally  malignant  in  the 
cottage  and  in  the  palace. 

A great  proportion  of  human  evils  is  created  by  ourselves. 

A passion  for  revenge,  has  always  been  considered  as  the 
mark  of  a little  and  mean  mind. 

If  greatness  flatters  our  vanity,  it  multiplies  our  dangers. 

To  our  own  failings  we  are  commonly  blind. 

The  friendships  of  young  persons,  are  often  founded  on  ca- 
pricious likings. 

In  your  youthful  amusements,  let  no  unfairness  be  found. 

Engrave  on  your  minds  this  sacred  rule : “ Do  unto  others, 
as  you  would  wish  that  they  should  do  unto  you.” 

Truth  and  candour  possess  a powerful  charm : they  be- 
speak universal  favour. 

After  the  first  departure  from  sincerity,  it  is  seldom  in  our 
power  to  stop : one  artifice  generally  leads  on  to  another. 

Temper  the  vivacity  of  youth,  with  a proper  mixture  of 
serious  thought. 

The  spirit  of  true  religion  is  social,  kind,  and  cheerful. 

Let  no  compliance  with  the  intemperate  mirth  of  others, 
ever  betray  you  into  profane  sallies. 

In  preparing  for  another  world,  we  must  not  neglect  the 
duties  of  this  life. 

The  manner  in  which  we  employ  our  present  time,  may 
decide  our  future  happiness  or  misery-. 

Happiness  does  not  grow  up  of  its  own  accord,  it  is  the  fruit 
of  long  cultivation,  and  the  acquisition  of  labour  and  care. 

A plain  understanding  is  often  joined  with  great  worth. 

The  brightest  parts  are  sometimes  found  without  virtue  or 
honour. 

How  feeble  are  the  attractions  of  the  fairest  form,  when  no- 
thing within  corresponds  to  them  ! 

Piety  and  virtue  are  particularly  graceful  and  becoming  in 
youth. 

Can  we,  untouched  by  gratitude,  view  that  profusion  of  good 
which  the  Divine  hand  pours  around  us  1 

There  is  nothing  in  human  life  more  amiable  and  respectable, 
than  the  character  of  a truly  humble  and  benevolent  man. 

What  feelings  are  more  uneasy  and  distressful,  than  the  work- 
ings of  sour  and  angry  passions  ? 

No  man  can  be  active  in  disquieting  others,  who  does  not, 
at  the  same  time,  disquiet  himself. 

A life  of  pleasure  and  dissipation,  is  an  enemy  to  health, 
fortune,  and  character. 

To  correct  the  spirit  of  discontent,  let  us  consider  how 
little  we  deserve,  and  how  much  we  enjoy. 

As  far  as  happiness  is  to  be  found  on  earth,  we  must  look  for 


8 


EXERCISES. 


it  not  in  the  world,  or  the  things  of  the  world:  but  within 
ourselves,  in  our  temper,  and  in  our  heart. 

Though  bad  men  attempt  to  turn  virtue  into  ridicule,  they 
honour  it  at  the  bottom  of  their  hearts. 

Of  what  small  moment  to  our  real  happiness,  are  many  of 
those  injuries  which  draw  forth  our  resentment ! 

In  the  moments  of  eager  contention,  every  thing  is  magnified 
and  distorted  in  its  appearanee. 

Multitudes  in  the  most  obscure  stations,  are  not  less  eager  in 
their  petty  broils,  nor  less  tormented  by  their  passions,  than  if 
princely  honours  were  the  prize  for  which  they  contend. 

The  smooth  stream,  the  serene  atmosphere,  the  mild  zephyr, 
are  the  proper  emblems  of  a gentle  temper,  and  a peaceful  life. 
Among  the  sons  of  strife,  all  is  loud  and  tempestuous. 


CHAPTER  11. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING,  AS  IT  RESPECTS  BOTH  ETYMOLOGY  AND 

SYNTAX. 


SECTION  I. 

Syntactical  Parsing  Tahle^ 

Article.  Why  is  it  the  definite  article  ? ^ 

Why  the  indefinite  ? 

Why  omitted  ? Why  repeated? 

Substantive.  Why  is  it  in  the  possessive  case  ? 

Why  in  the  objective  case  ? 

Why  in  apposition  ? 

Why  is  the  apostrophic  s omitted  ? 

Adjective.  What  is  its  substantive  ? 

Why  in  the  singular,  why  in  the  plural  number  ? 
Why  in  the  comparative  degree,  &c.  ? 

Why  placed  after  its  substantive  ? 

Why  omitted  ? Why  repeated  ? 

Pronoun.  What  is  its  antecedent  ? 

Why  is  it  in  the  singular,  why  in  the  plural 
number  ? 

Why  of  the  masculine,  why  of  the  feminine,  why 
of  the  neuter  gender  ? 


PARSING. 


9 


Verb. 


Adverb. 


Preposition. 


Conjunction. 


Interjection. 


Why  of  the  first,  of  the  second,  or  of  the  third 
person  ? 

Why  is  it  the  nominative  case  ? 

Why  the  possessive  ? Why  the  objective  ? 

Why  omitted  ? Why  repeated  ? 

What  is  its  nominative  case  ? 

What  «ase  does  it  govern  ? 

Why  is  it  in  the  singular?  Why  in  the  plural 
number  ? 

Why  in  the  first  person,  &c.  ? 

Why  is  it  in  the  infinitive  mood  ? 

Why  in  the  subjunctive,  &c.  ? 

Why  in  this  particular  teftse  ? 

What  relation  has  it  to  another  verb,  in  point  of 
time  ? 

Why  do  participles  sometimes  govern  the  objec- 
tive case  ? 

Why  is  the  verb  omitted  ? Why  repeated? 

What  is  its  proper  situation  ? 

Why  is  the  double  negative  used  ? 

Why  rejected? 

What  case  does  it  govern  ? 

Which  is  the  word  governed  ? 

Why  this  preposition  ? 

Why  omitted  ? Why  repeated  ? 

What  moods,  tenses,  or  cases,  does  it  connect  ? 
And  why  ? What  mood  does  it  require  ? 

Why  omitted  ? Why  repeated  ? 

Why  does  the  nominative  case  follow  it  ? 

Why  the  objective  ? Why  omitted  ? Why 
repeated  ? 


SECTION  II. 

Specimens  of  Syntactical  Parsing. 

‘‘  Vice  degrades  us.” 

Vice  is  a common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  in  the 
singular  number,  and  the  nominative  case.  Degrades  is  a 
regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third  person 
singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  “ vice,”  according  to 
RULE  I.  which  says,  (here  repeat  the  rule).  Us  is  a personal 
pronoun,  first  person  plural,  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed 
by  the  active  verb  “ degrades,”  agreeably  to  rule  xi,  which 
says,  &c. 

VoL.  II. 


2 


10 


EXERCISES. 


“ He  who  lives  virtuously  prepares  for  all  events.’’ 

He  is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  and  rnasculine  gender.  Who  is  a relative  pronoun, 
which  has  for  its  antecedent  ‘‘he,”  with  which  it  agrees  in 
gender  and  number,  according  to  rule  v.  which  says,  &:c. 
Lives  a regular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  “who,” 
according  to  rule  vi.  which  says,  &c.  Virtuously  is  an  ad- 
verb of  quality.  Prepares  a regular  verb  neuter,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its 
nominative  “he,”  For  is  a preposition.  All  is  an  adjective 
pronoun,  of  the  indefinite  kind,  the  plural  number,  and  belongs 
to  its  substantive  “ events,”  with  which  it  agrees  according  to 
RULE  VIII.  which  says,  &c.  Events  is  a common  substantive 
of  the  third  person,  in  the  plural  number,  and  the  objective 
case,  governed  by  the  preposition  “ for,”  according  to  rule  xvii. 
which  says,  &c. 

“ If  folly  entice  thee,  reject  its  allurements.” 

^ is  a copulative  conjunction.  Folly  is  a common  substan- 
tive of  the  third  person,  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  nomi- 
native case.  Entice  is  a regular  verb  active,  subjunctive  mood, 
present  tense,  third  person  singular,  and  is  governed  by  the 
conjunction  “ if,”  according  to  rule  xix.  which  says,  &c.  Thee 
is  a personal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person  singular,  in  the 
objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  “entice,”  agreeably 
to  RULE  XI.  which  says,  &c.  Reject  is  a regular  active  verb, 
imperative  mood,  second  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its 
nominative  case,  “ thou,”  implied.  Its  is  a personal  pronoun, 
third  person,  singular  number,  and  of  the  neuter  gender,  to 
agree  with  its  substantive  “ folly,”  according  to  rule  v.  which 
says,  &c.  It  is  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  the  noun 
“ allurements,”  agreeably  to  rule  x.  which  says,  &c.  Allure- 
ments is  a common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  in  the  plural 
number,  and  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb, 
“ reject,”  according  to  rule  xi.  which  says,  &c. 


PARSING. 


11 


SECTION  III. 

Exercises  on  the  firsts  second^  thirds  and  fourth  Rules  of 
Syntax.^ 

1.  The  contented  mind  spreads  ease  and  cheerfulness 
around  it. 

The  school  of  experience  teaches  many  useful  lessons. 

In  the  path  of  life  are  many  thorns,  as  well  as  flowers. 

Thou  shouldst  do  justice  to  all  men,  even  to  enemies. 

2.  Vanity  and  presumption  ruin  many  a promising  youth. 
Food,  clothing,  and  credit,  are  the  rewards  of  industry. 

He  and  William  live  together  in  great  harmony. 

3.  No  age,  nor  condition,  is  exempt  from  trouble. 

Wealth,  or  virtue,  or  any  valuable  acquisition,  is  not  attain- 
able by  idle  wishes. 

4.  The  British  nation  is  great  and  generous. 

The  company  is  assembled.  It  is  composed  of  persons  pos- 
sessing very  different  sentiments. 

A herd  of  cattle,  peacefully  grazing,  affords  a pleasing  sight. 


SECTION  IV. 


Exercises  on  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  Rules  of  Syntax. 

5.  The  man,  who  is  faithfully  attached  to  religion,  may  be 
relied  on  with  confidence. 

The  vices  which  we  should  especially  avoid,  are  those  which 
most  easily  beset  us. 

6.  They  who  are  born  in  high  stations,  are  not  always  happy. 
Our  parents  and  teachers  are  the  persons  whom  we  ought,  in 

a particular  manner,  to  respect. 

If  our  friend  is  in  trouble,  we,  whom  he  knows  and  loves, 
may  console  him. 

7.  Thou  art  the  man  who  has  improved  his  privileges,  and 
who  will  reap  the  reward. 


* In  parsing  tee  exercises,  the  pupil  should  repeat  the  respective  rule  of  Syntax,  and  show 
that  It  applies  to  the  sentence  which  he  is  parsing.  / , u 


12 


EXERCISES. 


I am  the  person  who  owns  a fault  committed,  and  who  dis- 
dains to  conceal  it  by  falsehood. 

8.  That  sort  of  pleasure  weakens  and  debases  the  mind. 

Even  in  these  times,  there  are  many  persons,  who,  from  dis- 
interested motives,  are  solicitous  to  promote  the  happiness  of 
others. 


SECTION  V. 

Exercises  on  the  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  Rules  of 
Syntax, 

9.  The  restless,  discontented  person,  is  not  a good  friend,  a 
good  neighbour,  or  a good  subject. 

The  young,  the  healthy,  and  the  prosperous,  should  not  pre- 
sume on  their  advantages. 

10.  The  scholar’s  diligence  will  secure  the  tutor’s  approba- 
tion. 

The  good  parent’s  greatest  joy,  is,  to  see  his  children  wise 
and  virtuous. 

11.  Wisdom  and  virtue  enoble  us.  Vice  and  folly  debase  us. 
Whom  can  we  so  justly  love,  as  them  who  have  endeavoured 

to  make  us  wise  and  happy  ? 

12.  When  a person  has  nothing  to  do,  h^  is  almost  always 
tempted  to  do  wrong. 

We  need  not  urge  Charles  to  do  good ; he  loves  to  do  it. 

We  dare  not  leave  our  studies  without  permission. 


section  VI. 

Exercises  on  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and 
seventeenth  Rules  of  Syntax. 

13.  The  business  is,  at  last,  completed ; but  long  ago  1 
intended  to  do  it. 

I expected  to  see  the  king,  before  he  left  Windsor. 

The  misfortune  did  happen : but  we  early  hoped  and  endea- 
voured to  prevent  it. 

To  have  been  censured  by  so  judicious  a friend,  would  have 
greatly  discouraged  me. 


PARSING. 


13 


14.  Having  early  disgraced  himself,  he  became  mean  and 
dispirited. 

Knowing  him  to  be  my  superior,  I cheerfully  submitted. 

15.  We  should  always  prepare  for  the  worst,  and  hope  for 
the  best. 

A young  man,  so  learned  and  virtuous,  promises  to  be  a very 
useful  member  of  society. 

When  our  virtuous  friends  die,  they  are  not  lost  for  ever ; 
they  are  only  gone  before  us  to  a happier  world. 

16.  Neither  threatenings,  nor  any  promises,  could  make  him 
violate  the  truth. 

Charles  is  not  insincere  ; and  therefore  w^e  may  trust  him. 

17.  From  whom  was  that  information  received  ? 

To  whom  do  that  house,  and  those  fine  gardens,  belong? 


SECTION  VII. 

Exercises  on  the  eighteenth,  nineteenth,  twentieth,  twenty-first, 
and  twenty-second  Rules  of  Syntax. 

18.  He  and  I commenced  our  studies  at  the  same  time. 

If  we  contend  about  trifles,  and  violently  maintain  our  opin- 
ion, we  shall  gain  but  few  friends. 

19.  Though  James  and  myself  are  rivals,  we  do  not  cease  to 
be  friends. 

If  Charles  acquire  knowledge,  good  manners,  and  virtue,  he 
will  secure  esteem. 

William  is  respected,  because  he  is  upright  and  obliging. 

20.  These  persons  are  abundantly  more  oppressed  than  we 
are. 

JThough  I am  not  so  good  a scholar  as  he  is,  I am,  perhaps, 
no  less  attentive  than  he,  to  study. 

21.  Charles  was  a man  of  knowledge,  learning,  politeness, 
and  religion. 

In  our  travels,  we  saw  much  to  approve,  and  much  to  con- 
demn. 

22.  The  book  is  improved  by  many  useful  corrections,  altera- 
tions, and  additions. 

She  is  more  talkative  and  lively  than  her  brother,  but  not  so 
well  informed,  nor  so  uniformly  cheerful. 


14 


EXERCISES. 


SECTION  VIII. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  in  Syntactical  Parsing. 

PROSE. 

Dissimulation  in  youth,  is  the  forerunner  of  perfidy  in  old 
age.  Its  first  appearance  is  the  fatal  omen  of  growing  depravity, 
and  future  shame. 

If  we  possess  not  the  power  of  self-government,  we  shall  be 
the  prey  of  every  loose  inclination  that  chances  to  arise. 
Pampered  by  continual  indulgence,  all  our  passions  will  become 
mutinous  and  headstrong.  Desire,  not  reason,  will  be  the  ruling 
principle  in  our  conduct. 

Absurdly  we  spend  our  time  in  contending  about  the  trifles 
of  a day,  while  we  ought  to  be  preparing  for  a higher  exist- 
ence. 

How  little  do  they  know  of  the  true  happiness  of  life,  who 
are  strangers  to  that  intercourse  of  good  offices  and  kind 
affections,  which,  by  a pleasing  charm,  attaches  men  to  one 
another,  and  circulates  rational  enjoyment  from  heart  to  heart ! 

If  we  view  ourselves,  with' all  our  imperfections  and  failings, 
in  a just  light,  we  shall  rather  be  surprised  at  our  enjoying  so 
many  good  things,  than  discontented,  because  there  are  any 
which  we  want. 

True  cheerfulness  makes  a man  happy  in  himself,  and  pro- 
motes the  happiness  of  all  around  him.  It  is  the  clear  and  calm 
sunshine  of  the  mind  illuminated  by  piety  and  virtue. 

Wherever  views  of  interest,  and  prospects  of  return,  mingle 
with  the  feelings  of  affection,  sensibility  acts  an  imperfect  part, 
and  entitles  us  to  small  share  of  commendation. 

Let  not  your  expectations  from  the  years  that  are  to  come, 
rise  too  high ; and  your  disappointments  will  be  fewer,  and 
more  easily  supported. 

To  live  long,  ought  not  to  be  our  favourite  wish,  so  much 
as  to  live  well.  By  continuing  too  long  on  earth,  we  might 
only  live  to  witness  a greater  number  of  melancholy  scenes, 
and  to  expose  ourselves  to  a wider  compass  of  human  wo. 

How  many  pass  away  some  of  the  most  valuable  years  of 
their  lives,  tossed  in  a whirlpool  of  what  cannot  be  called  plea- 
sure, so  much  as  mere  giddiness  and  folly ! 

Look  round  you  with  attentive  eye,  and  weigh  characters 
well,  before  you  connect  yourselves  too  closely  with  any  who 
court  your  society. 


PARSING. 


15 


The  true  honour  of  a man  consists  not  in  the  multitude  of 
riches,  or  the  elevation  of  rank;  for  experience  shows,  that 
these  may  be  possessed  by  the  worthless,  as  well  as  by  the 
deserving. 

Beauty  of  form  has  often  betrayed  its  possessor.  The  flower 
is  easily  blasted.  It  is  short-lived  at  the  best ; and  trifling,  at 
any  rate,  in  comparison  with  the  higher  and  more  lasting 
beauties  of  the  mind. 

A contented  temper  opens  a clear  sky,  and  brightens  every 
object  around  us.  It  is  in  the  sullen  and  dark  shade  of  discon- 
tent, that  noxious  passions,  like  venomous  animals,  breed  and 
prey  upon  the  heart. 

Thousands  whom  indolence  has  sunk  into  contemptible 
obscurity,  might  have  come  forward  to  usefulness  and  honour, 
if  idleness  had  not  frustrated  the  effects  of  all  their  powers. 

Sloth  is  like  the  slowly-flowing  putrid  stream,  which  stag- 
nates in  the  marsh,  breeds  venomous  animals,  and  poisonous 
plants ; and  infects  with  pestilential  vapours  the  whole  country 
round  it. 

Disappointments  derange,  and  overcome,  vulgar  minds.  The 
patient  and  the  wise,  by  a proper  improvement,  frequently  make 
them  contribute  to  their  high  advantage. 

Whatever  fortune  may  rob  us  pf,  it  cannot  take  away  what 
is  most  valuable,  the  peace  of  a good  conscience,  and  the  cheer- 
ing prospect  of  a happy  conclusion  to  all  the  trials  of  life,  in  a 
better  world. 

Be  not  overcome  by  the  injuries  you  meet  with,  so  as  to 
pursue  revenge  ; by  the  disasters  of  life,  so  as  to  sink  into  des- 
pair ; by  the  evil  examples  of  the  world,  so  as  to  follow  them 
into  sin.  Overcome  injuries,  by  forgiveness ; disasters,  by  for- 
titude ; evil  examples,  by  firmness  of  principle. 

Sobriety  of  mind  is  one  of  those  virtues  which  the  present 
condition  of  human  life  strongly  inculcates.  The  uncertainty 
of  its  enjoyments,  checks  presumption ; the  multiplicity  of  its 
dangers,  demands  perpetual  caution.  Moderation,  vigilance, 
and  self-government,  are  duties  incumbent  on  all,  but  especially, 
on  such  as  are  beginning  the  joyrney  of  life. 

The  charms  and  comforts  of  virtue  are  inexpressible ; and 
can  only  be  justly  conceived  by  those  who  possess  her.  The 
consciousness  of  Divine  approbation  and  support,  and  the 
steady  hope  of  future  happiness,  communicate  a peace  and 
joy,  to  which  all  the  delights  of  the  world  bear  no  resem- 
blance. 

If  we  knew  how  much  the  pleasures  of  this  life  deceive 
and  betray  their  unhappy  votaries ; and  reflected  on  the  disap- 
pointments in  pursuit,  the  dissatisfhetion  in  enjoyment,  or  the 
uncertainty  of  possession,  which  every  where  attend  them  ; 


16 


EXERCISES. 


we  should  cease  to  be  enamoured  with  these  brittle  and  tran- 
sient joys ; and  should  wisely  fix  our  hearts  on  those  virtuous 
attainments,  which  the  world  can  neither  give  nor  take  away. 


Order  is  Heaven’s  first  law  : and  this  confess’d, 
Some  are,  and  must  be,  greater  than  the  rest, 

More  rich,  more  wisQ  ; but  who  infers  from  hence, 
That  such  are  happier,  shocks  all  common  sense. 

Needful  austerities  our  wills  restrain  ; 

As  thorns  fence  in  the  tender  plant  from  harm. 

Reason’s  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense. 

Lie  in  three  words,  health,  peace,  and  competence  : 
But  health  consists  with  temperance  alone : 

And  peace,  0 virtue  ! peace  is  all  thy  own. 

On  earth  nought  precious  is  obtain’d 
But  what  is  painful  too  ^ 

By  travail  and  to  travail  born. 

Our  sabbaths  are  but  few. 

Who  noble  ends  by  noble  means  obtains. 

Or  failing,  smiles  in  exile  or  in  chains. 

Like  good  Aurelius  let  him  reign,  or  bleed 
Like  Socrates,  that  man  is  great  indeed. 

Our  hearts  are  fasten’d  to  this  world, 

By  strong  and  endless  ties  ; 

But  ev’ry  sorrow  cuts  a string. 

And  urges  us  to  rise. 

Oft  pining  cares  in  rich  brocades  are  dress’d, 

And  diamonds  glitter  on  an  anxious  breast. 

Teach  me  to  feel  another’s  woe, 

To  hide  the  fault  I see  ; 

That  mercy  I to  others  show. 

That  mercy  show  to  me. 

This  day  be  bread,  and  peace,  my  lot ; 

All  else  beneath  the  sun 
Thou  know’st  if  best  bestow’d  or  not ; 

And  let  thy  will  be  done. 


PARSING. 


17 


Vice  is  a monster  of  so  frightful  mien, 

As  to  be  hated,  needs  but  to  be  seen  : 

Yet  seen  too  oft,  familiar  with  her  face. 

We  first  endure,  then  pity,  then  embrace. 

If  nothing  more  than  purpose  in  thy  power, 

Thy  purpose  firm,  is  equal  to  the  deed  : 

Who  does  the  best  his  circumstance  allows. 

Does  well,  acts  nobly ; angels  could  no  more. 

In  faith  and  hope  the  world  will  disagree  ; 

But  all  mankind’s  concern  is  charity. 

To  be  resign’d  when  ills  betide. 

Patient  when  favors  are  denied. 

And  pleas’d  with  favours  given  ; 

Most  surely  this  is  Wisdom’s  part, 

This  is  that  incetise  of  the  heart. 

Whose  fragrance  s^iells  to  Pleav’n. 

All  fame  is  foreign,  but  of  true  desert ; 

Flays  round  the  head,  but  comes  not  the  heart ; 

One  self-approving  hour  whole  years  outweighs 
Of  stupid  starers,  and  of  loud  huzzas  ; 

And  more  true  joy  Marcellus  exil’d  feels. 

Than  Cmsar  with  a senate  at  his  heels. 

Far  from  the  madding  crowd’s  ignoble  strife. 

Their  sober  wishes  never  learn’d  to  stray  ; 

Along  the  cool  sequester’d  vale  of  life. 

They  kept  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  way. 

What  nothing  earthly  gives,  or  can  destroy. 

The  soul’s  calm  sunshine,  and  the  heartfelt  joy. 

Is  virtue’s  prize. 

Pity  the  sorrows  of  a poor  old  man, 

Whose  trembling  limbs  have  borne  him  to  your  door, 
Whose  days  are  dwindled  to  the  shortest  span  : 

Oh ! give  relief,  and  Heav’n  will  bless  your  store. 

Who  lives  to  nature,  rarely  can  be  poor ; 

Who  lives  to  fancy,  never  can  be  rich. 

When  young,  life’s  journey  I began. 

The  glitt’ring  prospect  charm’d  my  eyes ; 

I saw,  along  th’  extended  plain, 

Joy  after  joy  successive  rise. 

VoL.  11.  3 


18 


EXERCISES. 


But  soon  I found  ’twas  all  a dream  : 

And  learn’d  the  fond  pursuit  to  shun, 

Where  few  can  reach'  the  purpos’d  aim, 

And  thousands  daily  are  undone. 

’Tis  greatly  wise  to  talk  with  our  past  hours  ; 
And  ask  them  what  report  they  bore  to  Heav’n. 

All  nature  is  but  art  unknown  to  thee ; 

All  chance,  direction  which  thou  canst  not  see  ; 
All  discord,  harmony  not  understood  ; 

All  partial  evil,  universal  good. 

Heaven’s  choice  is  safer  than  our  own ; 

Of  ages  past  inquire. 

What  the  most  formidable  fate  ; 

‘‘  To  have  our  own  desire.” 


SECTION  IX. 

Mode  of  verbally  correcting  erroneous  sentences.^ 

When  all  the  exercises  have  been  regularly  parsed,  in 
writings  it  would  tend  to  perfect  the  student’s  knowledge  of 
^the  rules,  and  to  give  him  an  habitual  dexterity  in  applying 
them,  if  he  were  occasionally  to  correct,  verhcdly^  erroneous 
sentences  purposely  selected  from  different  parts  of  the  book ; 
to  recite  the  rules  by  which  they  are  governed  ; and,  in  his 
own  language,  to  detail  the  reasons  on  which  the  corrections 
are  founded.  The  following  examples  will  afford  some  idea 
of  the  manner,  in  which  the  verbal  corrections  are  to  be  made. 
They  may  also  serve  to  give  a radical  knowledge  of  some  of 
the  principal  rules  of  Syntax. 

“ The  man  is  prudent  which  speaks  little.” 

This  sentence  is  incorrect  because  which  is  a pronoun  of  the 
neuter  gender,  and  does  not  agree  in  gender  with  its  ante- 
cedent man  which  is  masculine.  But  a pronoun  should 
agree  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  &c.  according  to  the 
fifth  rule  of  Syntax.  Which  should  therefore  be  who,  a relative 

* If  any  student  wishes  to  see  a general  guide  and  set  of  directions,  respecting  the  mode  of 
Parsing  and  using  the  Exercises,  from  the  commencement  to  the  conclusion  of  his  grammatical 
studies,  he  may  iind  them  at  pages  10,  11,  12,  13,  of  the  English  exercises  in  Duodecimo. 
They  arc  not  in  all  respects,  adapted  to  the  Octavo  edition  of  the  Grammar,  and  the  objects  which 
the  author  has  in  view. 

Though  the  key  to  the  Exercises  will  be  found,  in  many  instances,  of  considerable  use, 
and  some  times  indispensable,  it  should,  on  no  occasion,  be  consulted,  till  the  sentence 
which  is  to  be  rectified,  has  been  well  considered,  and  lias  received  the  student’s  best 
correction. 


PARSING. 


19 


pronoun,  agreeing  with  its  antecedent  man ; and  the  sentence 
should  stand  thus:  “The  man  is  prudent  who  speaks  little.” 


‘‘  After  I visited  Europe,  I returned  to  America.” 

This  sentence  is  not  correct : because  the  verb  visited  is  in 
the  imperfect  tense,  and  yet  used  here  to  express  an  action, 
not  only  past,  but  prior  to  the  time  referred  to  by  the  verb 
returned,  to  which  it  relates.  By  tjie  thirteenth  Rule  of  Syn- 
tax, when  verbs  are  used  that  in  point  of  time,  relate  to  each 
other,  the  order  of  time  should  be  observed.  The  imperfect 
tense  visited,  should  therefore  have  been,  had  visited,  in  the 
pluperfect  tense,  representing  the  action  of  visiting,  not  only 
as  past,  but  also  as  prior  to  the  time  of  returning.  The  sen- 
tence corrected  would  stand  thus:  “After  I had  visited  Europe, 
I returned  to  America.”- 


“I  have  seen  the  Museum  the  last  .week  ; at  least,  I have  seen  it 

lately.” 

This  sentence  is  irregular  and  ungrammatical.  The  perfect 
tense  I have  seen,  when  properly  applied,  refers  to  past  time 
with  an  allusion  to  the  time  present ; that  is,  it  comprehends  a 
period  which  extends  to  the  present  time : and  therefore  it 
cannot  accord  with  the  expressions,  the  last  week,  and  lately, 
which  refer  to  past  time,  exclusive  of  any  relation  to  the  time 
present.  The  time  signified  by  these  expressions,  is  so  clearly 
past,  and  so  totally  unconnected  and  inconsistent  with  the 
present  period,  that  they  cannot  belong  to  a tense  which  has 
the  definition  of  the  perfect  tense.  The  words  last  week  and 
lately,  correspond  only  with  the  imperfect  tense ; and  there- 
fore the  sentence,  in  its  true  grammatical  form,  would  stand 
thus:  “I  saw  the  Museum  the  last  week ; at  least,  I saw  it 
lately.” 

“ The  number  of  persons,  men,  women,  and  children,  which  were 
lost  in  the  sea,  were  very  great.” 

This  sentence  violates  the  rules  of  grammar.  The  sub- 
stantive numher,  though  signifying  many,  suggests  the  idea  of  a 
whole  or  unity,  and  the  assertion  is  made  of  it  as  such : the 
latter  verb  were  is  therefore  improperly  put  in  the  plural. 
The  clause  should  be,  “ The  number  vns  very  great.” 
The  pronoun  which  is  also  incorrectly  applied.  Its  antece- 
dents, persons,  &c.,  are  of  the  masculine  and  feminine  gender, 
and  therefore,  as  pronouns  must  agree  with  their  antecedents 


20 


EXERCISES. 


in  gendei’  as  well  as  number,  the  pronoun  should  be  who  in- 
stead  of  which,  viz.  who  were  lost.” — At  first  view,  the 
words  “The  number  of  persons,”  appear  to  form  conjointly 
the  nominative  to  the  verb : but  this  is  not  the  case.  The  noun 
numher  is  the  prominent,  leading  object,  to  which  the  verb  is 
attracted,  and  which  supports  the  following  adjuncts.  These 
adjuncts  are  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  prepo- 
sition of,  and  cannot  therefore  be  nominatives.  This  appears 
from  the  last  note  under  the  first  rule  of  Syntax.— The  sen- 
tence in  question,  wdien  fully  corrected,  w^ould  therefore  be  as 
follows  : “ The  number  of  persons,  men,  women,  and  children, 
who  were  lost  in  the  sea,  was  very  great.” 

“ He  and  they  we  own  as  our  rulers,  but  who  do  you  submit  to 

This  is  a very  inaccurate  sentence.  The  pronouns  he  and 
they,  in  the  first  member  of  it,  are  expressed  as  nominatives, 
without  any  verb  or  verbs^  either  mentioned  or  implied,  to 
which  they  can  relate ; and  they  are  not  in  the  case  absolute. 
The  relative  lolio,  in  the  second  member,  is  also  in  the  nomina- 
tive case,  without  any  correspondent  verb.  The  verb  own  is 
an  active  verb,  and  has  for  its  objects  the  preceding  pronouns  ; 
they  should  therefoi^e  be  in  the  objective  case,  him  and  them, 
conformably  to  the  eleventh  Rule  of  Syutax,  whicb  declares, 
that  “ Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case.”  The  relative 
who  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  to,  and  consequently 
should  be  put  in  the  objective  case  whom,  wdth  the  preposition 
before  it ; agreeably  to  the  seventeenth  Rule  of  Syntax,  and 
the  first  note  under  the  rule : which  require  the  objective  case 
after  prepositions,  and  that  this  case  should  be  preceded  by  the 
preposition.  The  whole  sentence  regularly  expressed  w^ould 
be  as  follows  : “ Him  and  them  w^e  own  as  our  rulers  ; but  to 

whom  do  you  submit  ?” 

“ I know  who  he  means.’’ 

This  sentence  is  ungrammatical,  because  wh,o  is  put  in  the 
nominative  case,  without  any  verb  expressed  or  understood, 
to  which  it  can  apply  as  such ; and  because  this  relative  being 
the  object  of  the  active  verb  means,  ought  to  be  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  according  to  the  eleventh  Rule  of  Syntax,  which 
says,  that  “ Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case.”  The 
sentence  should  therefore  be  expressed;  “I  know  whom  he 
means  :”  or,  “ I know  the  person  whom  he  means.” 


PARSING. 


21 


They  were  more  learned  than  either  him  or  her,  but  not  more 
happy.’’ 

This  sentence  presents  a very  irregular  construction.  The 
pronouns  him  and  her  are  put  in  the  objective  case,  though 
there  is  not  any  verb,  or  other  word  in  the  sentence,  either 
expressed  or  implied,  that  requires  these  pronouns  to  be  in 
the  objective.  They  are  not  governed,  as  may  appear  at  the 
first  view,  by  the  conjunction  than:  but  they  agree  with  the 
verb  was,  which  is  understood,  and  to  which  verb  they  form 
the  nominative  case  : “ more  learned  than  either  he  or  she 
was.”  In  such  sentences,  if  the  word  or  words  understood 
are  supplied,  the  true  construction  will  be  apparent,  agreeably 
to  the  twentieth  Rule  of  Syntax.  The  whole  sentence  when 
properly  corrected,  will,  therefore  stand  thus:  “They  were 
more  learned  than  either  he  or  she  was,  but  not  more  happy.” 

“ Their  schemes  defeated,  and  both  him  and  them  disgraced,  they 
all  retired  from  public  notice.” 

This  sentence  violates  the  rules  of  grammar.  The  pro- 
nouns him  and  them  are  put  in  the  objective  case,  without  any 
verb,  preposition,  or  other  word,  to  require  their  being  in 
that  case.  They  are  therefore  to  be  considered  as  in  the 
nominative  case,  and  as,  in  this  case,  they  have  no  personal 
tense  of  a verb,  and  are  placed  before  a participle,  independ- 
ently on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  they  properly  form  the  case 
absolute : according  to  the  fifth  note  under  the  first  Rule  of 
Syntax.  The  sentence  then,  when  properly  corrected, 
would  be  in  the  following  form  : “ Their  schemes  defeated, 
and  both  he  and  they  disgraced,  they  all  retired  from  public 
notice.” 

“ Who  do  you  believe  him  to  be 

This  is  an  incorrect  sentence.  The  relative  who  is  in  the 
nominative  case,  without  any  verb,  expressed  or  understood, 
to  which  it  can  refer ; and  there  is  no  grammatical  rule 
which  requires  it  to  be  in  the  nominative.  By  the  fourth 
note,  under  the  eleventh  Rule  of  Syntax,  the  verb  to  be  has 
the  same  case  after  it  in  construction,  as  that  which  precedes 
it : and  therefore  who  should  be  whom,  because  him  is  in 
the  objective  case,  and  the  relative,  in  its  true  construction 
follows  the  verb  to  he,  and  receives  its  influence.  The  verb 
believe  governs  the  pronoun  him  in  the  objective  case  ; and 
though  the  relative  precedes  the  verb  to  be,  in  its  place  of 
the  sentence,  yet,  in  grammatical  construction, . it  follows 


23 


EXERCISES. 


that  verb ; which  will  appear  by  changing  the  form  of  the 
sentence  thus : “ You  believe  him  to  be  whom  T’  As  the 
verb  to  be  may  be  considered  as  a conductor  of  cases,  and  as 
the  words  preceding  and  following  it,  are  in  apposition  to  each 
other ; these  ideas  may  farther  show  the  propriety  of  putting 
the  relative  in  the  objective  case.  In  the  following  corrected 
form  of  the  sentence,  the  two  w'ords  him  and  whom  are  put  in 
apposition,  that  is,  they  refer  to  the  same  person,  and  are 
conducted  by  the  verb  to  be  : “ Whom  do  you  believe  him  to 
be?” 

“ Prudence,  policy,  nay,  his  own  true  interest,  strongly  recommends 
the  line  of  conduct  proposed  to  him.” 

This  sentence  is  not  grammatical.  The  verb  recommends, 
in  the  singular  number,  supposes  that  the  nominative,  “ his  own 
true  interest,”  is  designed  to  be  not  only  particulariy,  but  ex- 
clusively referred  to  by  the  verb,  as  the  only  nominative  to 
which  it  relates.  But  this  is  not  the  drift  of  the  sentence. 
The  writer  intended  to  signify  that  prudence,  policy,  and  inter- 
est, all  recommended  the  line  ’of  conduct,  but  with  a particular 
regard  and  emphasis  with  respect  to  interest.  The  passage, 
therefore,  when  properly  corrected,  would  run  thus : “ Pru- 
dence, policy,  nay,  even  his  own  interest  recommend  the  line 
of  conduct  proposed  to  him.” 

The  officer  with  his.  guard  are  in  full  pursuit  of  the  fugitives.” 

This  is  an  incorrect  sentence.  By  the  verb  being  in  the 
plural  number,  it  is  supposed  that  it  has  a plural  nominative, 
which  is  not  the  case.  The  only  nominative  to  the  verb,  is 
the  officer : the  expression,  his  guard,  are  in  the  objective  case, 
governed  by  the  preposition  with;  and  they  cannot  conse- 
quently form  the  nominative,  or  any  part  of  it ; for,  according 
to  the  seventeenth  Rule  of  Syntax,  prepositions  govern  the 
objective  case.  The  prominent  subject,  and  the  true  nomina- 
tive of  the  verb,  and  to  which  the  verb  peculiarly  refers,  is 
the  officer.  And  therefore  the  passage,  when  regularly  ex- 
pressed, will  be  as  follows  : The  officer,  with  his  guard,  is 
in  full  pursuit  of  the  fugitives  ;”  or,  “ The  officer  and  his  guard 
are  in  full  pursuit  of  the  fugitives.” 

“ Not  only  his  business,  but  his  character  also,  have  been  impaired.” 

This  is  a construction  not  according  to  the  rules  of  gram- 
mar. The  verb  have,  in  the  plural  number,  presupposes  a 
plural  nominative,  which  is  not  found  in  the  sentence.  The 


PARSING. 


23 


assertion  is  not  made  of  business  and  character  conjointly  \ but 
only  of  character.  This  is  the  prominent  subject,  and  the 
point  to  which  the  writer  peculiar  adverts,  and  to  which  he 
means  to  attract  the  reader’s  attention ; and  therefore  the  verb 
should  correspond  with  it.  The  words  his  business  are  referred 
to  incidentally,  or  as  a circumstance  supposed  to  be  known  j 
and  may  properly  be  considered  as  having  the  verb  belonging 
to  it,  separately  understood.  In  this  point  of  view,  therefore^ 
the  sentence,  when  put  into  regular  form,  would  run  thus  : “Not 
only  his  business,  but  his  character  also,  has  been  impaired. 

“ The  judge  too,  as  well  as  the  jury,  were  very  severe.’’' 

This  is  an  irregular  and  ungrammatical  sentence.  Th6  verb 
is  made  plural  from  an  idea  that  the  writer  intended  to  make 
his  assertion  as  applicable  to  the  jury  as  to  the  judge,  and  to 
excite  the  reader  s attention  equally  to  both.  But  this  was  not 
his  design.  The  intention  evidently  was,  to  speak  of  the  judge’s 
severity,  and  to  attract  the  reader’s  mind  peculiarly  to  that 
assertion.  The  idea  of  the  jury’s  being  severe,  is  hinted  at,  but 
placed  as  it  were  in  the  back  ground : it  is  an  incidental  cir- 
cumstance, supposed  to  be  known,  and  may  be  considered  in 
the  nature  of  an  adjunct  to  the  chief  subject,  with  the  verb 
understood.  The  severity  of  the  judge  is  the  principal  and 
prominent  object  of  the  sentence,  and  that  to  which  the  reader 
is  expected  to  attend,  as  the  main  design  of  the  writer.  Under 
these  views,  the  sentence,  when  corrected  would  be  in  the 
following  form : “ The  judge  too  as  well  as  the  jury,  was  very 

severe.” 

“ Charles  intended  to  have  purchased  an  estate  in  the  summer  of 

1815.” 

This  sentence  violates  the  order  of  time,  and  the  rule  of 
grammar.  The  perfect  of  the  infinitive  is  here,  by  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence,  supposed  to  precede  the  intention ; 
but  this  is  impossible.  The  intention  to  purchase  must  neces- 
sarily have  existed,  prior  to  the  purchase ; and  the  relative  time 
of  the  two  verbs  should  be  expressed  accordingly.  Whether 
we  suppose  the  meaning  to  be,  that  the  intention  existed,^n  the 
summer  of  1815,  or  that  the  purchase  was  to  be  made  at  that 
period,  in  either  case,  the  purchase  must  be  considered  as  pos- 
terior to  the  intention.  It  is  absurd  to  say,  that  Charles  intended 
to  do  a thing  which,  by  the  form  of  the  verb  in  the  past  time  of 
the  infinitive,  is  supposed  to  have  been  done  before  the  intention 
existed.  In  such  sentences  as  that  under  consideration,  what- 


24 


EXERCISES. 


fevier  period  of  past  time  is  assumed  for  the  intention,  the  object 
to  which  the  intention  refers,  must  at  that  period,  have  been 
contemplated  as  future.  Though  both  the  intention  and  pur- 
chase are  now  past,  with  respect  to  the  present  time,  they  were 
not  so  at  the  time  referred  to : and  they  must  be  viewed  exactly 
in  the  same  light,  with  respect  to  the  true  construction  of  the 
sentence,  as  if  the  intention  to  purchase  now  existed.  No  per- 
son would  say,  “ I intend  to  have  purchased  an  estate,”  instead 
of,  “ I intend  to  purchase  it.”  The  sentence  in  question,  would, 
therefore,  when  properly  corrected  by  the  thirteenth  Rule  of 
Syntax,  stand  as  follows:  “In  the  summer  of  181.5,  Charles 
intended  to  purchase  an  estate.” 

Every  thought  and  every  desire,  are  known  to  the  great  searcher 
of  hearts. 

This  sentence  is  not  grammatical.  The  verb  are,  in  the 
plural,  requires  a correspondent  plural  nominative,  which  is  not 
found  in  the  sentence.  The  pronoun  every,  in  the  two  clauses 
of  the  sentence,  is  singular,  and  does  not  lose  its  nature,  nor 
receive  any  modification  by  repetition.'  How  frequently  soever 
it  may  be  added  to  a different  substantive,  it  is  still  the  pronoun 
every,  and  retains  its  peculiar  signification,  which  is,  that  of  many, 
it  refers  to  each  one  of  them  all  taken  separately ; as  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences : “ Every  man,  every  woman,  every  child, 
every  individual,  was  drowned  “ Every  one  of  the  men  and 
women  was  lost.”  The  conjunction  does  not  alter  the  construc- 
tion. Whatever  number  of  nouns  may  be  connected  by  a 
conjunction  with  the  pronoun  every,  this  pronoun  is  as  applicable 
to  the  whole  mass  of  them,  as  to  any  one  of  the  nouns : and 
therefore  the  verb  is  correctly  put  in  the  singular  number,  and 
refers  to  the  whole,  separately  and  individually  considered.  In 
short,  this  pronoun  so  entirely  coalesces  with  the  nouns,  how- 
ever numerous  and  united,  that  it  imparts  its  peculiar  nature  to 
them  all,  and  makes  the  whole  number  correspond  together,  and 
requires  a similar  construction.  These  views  of  the  subject  show% 
that  the  sentence  in  question,  when  properly  corrected,  would 
stand  thus : “ Every  thought  and  every  desire,  is  known  to  the 
great  searcher  of  hearts.” — This  correction  is  made  agreeably 
to  the  note  to  Rule  viii.  of  the  key.  Syntax.  See  “ Adjective 
Pronouns.”  The  construction  forms  one  of  the  exceptions  to 
the  second  Rule  of  Syntax. 


PARSING. 


25 


This  was  the  cause,  which  first  gave  rise  to  such  a barbarous 

practice.’’ 

This  sentence  is  inaccurate.  The  words  first  and  rise  have 
here  the  same  meaning ; and  the  word  such  is  not  properly 
applied.  This  word  signifies  of  that  hind : but  the  author  does 
not  refer  to  a kind  or  species  of  barbarity.  He  means  a degree 
of  it : and  therefore  the  word^  so,  instead  of  such,  ought  to  have 
been  used.  The  words  cause  and  gave  rise,  are  also  tautological: 
one  of  them  should,  consequently,  be  omitted.  The  sentence 
corrected  would  stand  thus : “ This  was  the  original  cause  of  so 
barbarous  a practice ; or,  ‘‘  of  a practice  so  barbarous.” 


Vol.  II. 


4 


A ' 


r 


PART  11. 


EXERCISES  IN  ORTHOGRAPHY, 


CHAPTER  I. 

Containing  instances  of  false  Orthography,  arranged  under 
the  respective  rules. 


RULE  L 

Monosyllables  ending  with  f,  1,  or  s,  preceded  by  a single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant:  as  staff,  mill,  pass,  <^c.  The 
only  exceptions  are,  of,  if,  as,  is,  has,  was,  yes,  his,  this,  us,  and 
thus. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  23.  and  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  1. 

It  is  no  great  merit  to  spel  properly ; but  a great  defect  to 
do  it  incorrectly. 

Jacob  worshiped  his  Creator,  leaning  on  the  top  of  his  staf. 

We  may  place  too  little,  as  well  as  too  much  stres  upon 
dreams. 

Our  manners  should  be  neither  gros,  nor  excessively  refined. 
RULE  II. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  any  consonant  but  f,  1,  or  s,  and 
preceded  by  a single  vowel,  never  double  the  final  consonant ; 
excepting  only,  add,  ebb,  butt,  egg,  odd,  err,  inn,  bunn,  purr,  and 
buzz. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  2. 

A carr  signifies  a chajriot  of  war,  or  a small  carriage  of 
burden. 

In  the  names  of  druggs  and  plants,  the  mistake  in  a word 
may  endanger  life. 

Nor  undelightful  is  the  ceaseless  humm 
^ To  him  who  muses  through  the  woods  at  noon. 


28 


EXERCISES. 


The  finn  of  a fish  is  the  limb  by  which  he  balances  his  body, 
and  moves  in  the  water. 

Many  a trapp  is  laid  to  ensnare  the  feet  of  youth. 

Many  thousand  families  are  supported  by  the  simple  business 
of  making  matts. 

RULE  III. 

^ % 

Words  ending  with  y preceded  hy  a consonant,  form  the 
plurals  of  nouns,  the  persons  of  verbs,  verbal  nouns,  past  parti- 
ciples, comparatives,  and  superlatives,  by  changing  y into  i : as, 
spy,  spies;  I carry,  thou  carriest;  he  carrieth  or  carries; 
carrier, . carried  ; happy,  happier,  happiest. 

The  present  participle  in  ing,  retains  the  y,  that  i may  not  be 
doubled : as  carry,  carrying  : bury,  burying,  SfC. 

But  y,  preceded  by  a vowel,  in  such  instances  as  the  above,  is 
not  changed ; as,  boy,  boys ; I cloy,  he  cloys,  cloyed,  ^c. : except 
in  lay,  pay,  and  say ; from  which  are  formed,  laid,  paid,  and 
said : and  their  compounds,  unlaid,  unpaid,  unsaid,  ^c. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  3. 

We  should  subject  our  fancys  to  the  government  of  reason. 

If  thou  art  seeking  for  the  living  among  the  dead,  thou 
wearyest  thyself  in  vain. 

If  we  have  denyed  ourselves  sinful  pleasures,  we  shall  be 
great  gainers  in  the  end. 

We  shall  not  be  the  happyer  for  possessing  talents  and  afflu- 
ence, unless  we  make  a right  use  of -them. 

The  truly  good  mind  is  not  dismaied  by  poverty,  afflictions, 
or  death. 

RULE  IV. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a consonant,  upon  assum- 
ing an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a consonant,  commonly 
change  y into  \:  as  happy,  happily,  happiness.  But  when  y is 
preceded  by  a vowel,  it  is  very  rarely  changed  in  the  additional 
syllable  : as,  coy,  coyly  ; boy,  boyish,  boyhood;  annoy,  annoyed, 
annoyance  ; joy , joyless,  joyf  ul,  ^c. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap  * 1.  Rule  4. 

It  is  a great  blessing  to  have  a sound  mind,  uninfluenced  by 
fancyful  humours. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


29 


Common  calamities,  and  common  blessings,  fall  heavyly  upon 
the  envious. 

The  comelyness  of  youth  are  modesty  and  frankness ; of  age, 
condescension  and  dignity.  , 

When  we  act  against  conscience,  we  become  the  destroiers 
of  our  own  peace. 

We  may  be  plaiful,  and  yet  innocent ; grave  and  yet  corrupt. 
It  is  only  from  general  conduct,  that  our  true  character  can  be 
portraied. 

RULE  V. 

Monosyllables^  and  words  accented  on  the'  last  syllable,  end- 
ing with  a single  consonant  preceded  by  a single  vowel,  double 
that  consonant,  when  they  take  another  syllable  beginning  with  a 
vowel : as,  wit,  witty ; thin,  thinnish  ; to  abet,  an  abettor  ; to  be- 
gin, a beginner. 

But  if  a dipthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  on  the  preceding 
syllable,  the  consonant  remains  single : as,  to  toil,  toiling ; to 
offer,  an  offering ; maid,  maiden,  ^c. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  5. 

When  we  bring  the  lawmaker  into  contempt,  we  have  in 
effect  annuled  his  laws. 

By  def^ring  our  repentance  we  accumulate  our  sorrows. 

The  pupils  of  a certain  ancient  philosopher,  were  not, 
during  their  first  years  of  study,  permited  to  ask  any  ques- 
tions. 

We  all  have  many  failliugsand  lapses  to  lament  and  recover. 

There  is  no  affliction  with  which  we  are  visitted,  that  may 
not  be  improved  to  our  advantage.  ^ 

The  Christian  Lawgiver  has  prohibitted  many  things,  which 
the  heathen  philosophers  allowed. 

RULE  VI. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  but  1,  and  taking  ness, 
less,  ly,  or  ful,  after  them,  preserve  the  letter  double  : as,  harm- 
lessness, carelessness,  carelessly,  stiffly,  successful,  distressful,  ^c. 
But  those  words  which  end  with  double  1,  and  take  ness,  less,  ly, 
or  ful,  after  them,  generally  omit  one  1 : as  fulness,  skilless,  fully, 
skilful,  ^c. 

f 


See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap  1 . Rule  6. 


30 


EXERCISES. 


Restlesness  of  mind  disqualifies  us,  both  for  the  enjoyment 
of  peace,  and  the  performance  of  our  duty. 

The  arrows  of  calumny  fall  harmlesly  at  the  feet  of  virtue. 

The  road  to  the  blisful  regions,  is  as  open  to  the  peasant  as 
to  the  king. 

A chilnes,  or  shivering  of  the  body,  generally  precedes  a 
fever. 

To  recommend  virtue  to  others,  our  lights  must  shine  bright- 
ly, not  dullly. 

* The  silent  stranger  stood  amaz’d  ,to  see 
Contempt  of  wealth,  and  willful  poverty. 

RULE  VIL 

Ness,  less,  ly,  and  ful,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent 
do  not  cut  it  off : as,  paleness,  guileless,  closely,  peaceful ; except 
in  a few  words : as  duly,  truly,  awful. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  7. 

The  warmth  of  disputation,  destroys  that  sedatness  of  mind 
which  is  necessary  to  discoyer  truth. 

All  these  with  ceasless  praise  his  works  behold, 

Both  day  and  night. 

In  all  our  reasonings,  our  mind  should  be  sihcerly  employed 
in  the  pursuit  of  truth. 

Rude  behaviour,  and  indecent  language,  are  peculiarly  dis- 
gracful  to  youth  of  education. 

The  true  worship  of  God  is  an  important  and  aweful  ser- 
vice. 

Wisdom  alone  is  truely  fair  ; folly  only  appears  so. 

RULE  VIII. 

Ment,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e,  generally  preserves 
the  e from  elision ; as,  abatement,  chastisement,  incitement,  SfC. 
The  words  judgment,  abridgment,  acknowledgment  are  deviations 
from  the  rule. 

Like  other  terminations  it  changes  y into  i,  when  preceded  by 
a consonant : as,  accompany,  accompaniment : merry,  merriment. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  8. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


31 


The  study  of  the  English  language  is  making  daily  advance- 
ment. 

A jifdicious  arrangment  of  studies  facilitates  improvment. 

To  shun  allurments  is  not  hard, 

To  minds  resolv’d,  forewarn’d,  and  well  prepar’d. 


RULE  IX. 


Able  and  ible,  when  incorporated  into  words  ending  with  silent 
e,  almost  always  cut  it  off:  as,  hlamCi  hlamable ; cure,  curable  ; 
sense,  sensible,  but  if  c or  g soft  comes  before  e in  the  original 

word,  the  e is  then  preserved  in  words  compounded  with  able : as, 
change,  changeable ; peace,  peaceable,  &c. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  9. 

Every  person  and  thing  connected  with  self,  is  apt  to  appear 
good  and  desireable  in  our  eyes. 

Errors  and  misconduct  are  more  excuseable  in  ignorant,  than 
in  well-instructed  persons. 

The  divine  laws  are  not  revorseible  by  those  of  men. 

Gratitude  is  a forceible  and  active  principle  in  good  and  gene- 
rous minds. 

Our  natural  and  involuntary  defects  of  body  are  not  chargable 
upon  us. 

We  are  made  to  be  servicable  to  others  as  well  as  to  our- 
selves. ' 

RULE  X.  ^ 

When  ing  or  ish  is  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e,  the  e is 
almost  universally  omitted  : as  place,  placing  ; lodge,  lodging ; 
slave,  slavish  ; prude,  prudish, 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chjip.  1.  Rule  10. 

An  obligeing  and  humble  disposition,  is  totally  unconnected 
with  a servile  and  cringeing  humour. 

By  solaceing  the  sorrows  of  others,  the  heart  is  improved,  at 
the  same  time  that  our  duty  is  performed. 

Labour  and  expense  are  lost  upon  a droneish  spirit. 

The  inadvertences  of  youth  may  be  excused,  but  knaveish 
tricks  should  meet  with  severe  reproof. 


32 


EXERCISES. 


RULE  XL 

Compounded  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  simple  words  of  which  they  are  formed : as^  glasshouse^ 
skylight,  thereby,  hereafter.  Mamj  words  ending  with  double  1, 
are  exceptions  to  this  rule : as,  already,  welfare,  wilful,  fulfil ; 
and  also  the  words,  wherever,  Christmas,  Lammas,  ^c. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  1.  Rule  11. 

The  pasover  was  a celebrated  feast  among  the  Jews. 

A virtuous  woman  looketh  well  to  the  ways  of  her  houshold. 

These  people  salute  one  another,  by  touching  the  top  of  their 
forheads. 

That  which  is  sometim.es  expedient  is  not  allways  so. 

We  may  be  hurtfull  to  others,  by  our  example,  as  well  as  by 
personal  injuries. 

In  candid  minds,  truth  finds  an  entrance,  and  a Wellcome 
too. 

Our  passtimes  should  be  innocent : and  they  should  not  occur 
too  frequently. 


CHAPTER  II. 

CONTAINING  INSTANCES  OF  FALSE  ORTHOGRAPHY  PROMISCUOUSLY 

disposed. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  2.  Rule  1. 

As  the  learners  must  be  supposed  to  be  tolerably  versed  in 
the  spelling  of  words  in  very  familiar  use,  the  Compiler  has 
generally  selected,  for  the  following  exercises,  such  words  as 
are  less  obviously  erroneous,  and  in  the  use  of  which  young 
persons  are  more  likely  to  commit  mistakes.  Though  the  in- 
stances which  he  gives  of  these  deviations  are  not  very  nume- 
rous, yet  it  is  presumed,  they  are  exhibited  with  sufficient  varie- 
ty, to  show  the  necessity  of  care  and  attention  in  combining 
letters  and  syllables;  and  to  excite  the  ingenious  student  to 
investigate  the  principles  and  rules  of  our  Orthography,  as  well 
as  to  distinguish  the  exceptions  and  variations  which  every  where 
attend  them. 

In  rectifying  these  exercises,  the  Compiler  has  been  governed 
by  Doctor  Johnson’s  Dictionary,  as  the  standard  of  propriety 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


33 


This  work  is,  indisputably,  the  best  authority  for  the  Orthography 
of  the  English  language ; though  the  author,  in  some  instances, 
has  made  decisions,  which  are  not  generally  approved,  and  for 
w^hich  it  is  not  easy  to  account. 


SECTION  I. 


See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  2.  Section  1. 

Neglect  no  opportunity  of  doing  good. 

No  man  can  stedily  build  upon  accidents. 

How  shall  we  keep,  what  sleeping  or  awake, 

A weaker  may  surprize,  a stronger  take  ? 

Neither  time  nor  misfortunes  should  eraze  the  rememberance 
of  a friend. 

Moderation  should  preside,  both  in  the  kitchin  and  the  parlor. 

Shall  we  recieve  good  at  the  Divine  hand,  and  shall  we  not 
recieve  evil 

In  many  designs,  we  may  succede  and  be  miserable. 

We  should  have  sence  and  virtue  enough  to  receed  from  our 
demands,  when  they  appear  to  be  unresonable. 

All  our  comforts  procede  from  the  Father  of  goodness. 

The  ruin  of  a state  is  generally  preceeded  by  a universal  de- 
genaracy  of  manners,  and  a contempt  of  religion. 

His  father  omited  nothing  in  his  education,  that  might  render 
him  virtuous  and  useful!. 

The  daw  in  the  fable  was  dressed  in  pilferred  ornaments. 

A favor  confered  with  delicacy,  doubles  the  obligation. 

They  tempted  their  Creator,  and  limitted  the  Holy  One  of 
Israel. 

The  precepts  of  a good  education  have  often  recured  in  the 
time  of  need. 

We  are  frequently  benefitted  by  what  we  have  dreaded. 

It  is  no  great  virtue  to  live  loveingly  with  good  natured  and 
meek  persons. 

The  Christian  religion  gives  a more  lovly  character  of  God, 
than  any  religion  ever  did. 

Without  sinisterous  views,  they  are  dextrous  managers  of  their 
own  interest. 

Any  thing  commited  to  the  trust  and  care  of  another,  is  a 
deposit. 

Here  finnish’d  he,  and  all  that  he  had  made 
Vieu’d  and  beheld  ! All  was  intirely  good. 

VoL.  II.  5 


34 


EXERCISES. 


It  deserves  our  best  skil  to  enquire  into  those  rules,  by  which 
We  may  guide  our  judgement. 

Food,  clotheing,  and  habitations,  are  the  rewards  of  in- 
dustry. 

If  we  lie  no  restraint  upon  our  lusts,  no  conlroul  upon  our 
apetites  and  passions,  they  will  hurry  us  into  guilt  and  misery. 

An  Independant  is  one  who,  in  religious  affairs,  holds  that 
every  congregation  is  a compleat  Church. 

Receive  his  councill,  and  securly  move : 

Entrust  thy  fortune  to  the  Power  above. 

Following  life  in  cretures  we  disect, 

We  lose  it  in  the  moment  we  detect. 

The  acknowledgement  of  our  transgressions  must  precede  the 
forgivness  of  them. 

Judicious  abridgements  often  aid  the  studys  of  youth. 

Examine  how  thy  humour  is  enclin’d. 

And  which  the  ruleing  passion  of  thy  mind. 

He  faulters  at  the  question  : 

His  fears,  his  words,  his  looks  declare  him  guilty. 

Calicoe  is  a thin  cloth  made  of  cotton ; sometimes  stained 
wdth  lively  colors. 

To  promote  iniquity  in  others,  is  nearly  the  same  as  being  the 
acters  of  it  ourselvs. 

The  antecedant,  in  grammar,  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which 
the  relative  refers. 


SECTION  II. 


See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  2.  Section  2. 


Be  not  affraid  of  the  wicked : they  are  under  the  controul  of 
Providence.  Consciousness  of  guilt  may  justly  afright  us. 

Convey  to  others  no  inteligence  which  you  would  be  ashamed 
to  avow. 

Many  are  weighed  in  the  ballance,  and  found  wanting. 

How  many  disapointments  have,  in  their  consequences,  saved 
a man  from  ruin  ! 

A well-poised  mind  makes  a chearful  countenance. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


35 


A certain  housholder  planted  a vinyard,  but  the  men  imployed 
in  it  made  ungrateful  returns. 

Let  us  show  dilligence  in  every  laudible  undertaking. 

Cinamon  is  the  fragrant  bark  of  a low  tree  in  the  Hand  of 
Ceylon. 

A ram  will  but  with  his  head,  though  he  be  brought  up  tame, 
and  never  saw  the  action. 

We  percieve  a piece  of  silver  in  a bason,  when  water  is 
poured  on  it,  though  we  could  not  discover  it  before. 

Virtue  imbalms  the  memory  of  the  good. 

The  king  of  Great  Brittain  is  a limitted  monarch ; and  the 
Brittish  nation  a free  people. 

The  physician  may  dispence  the  medicin,  but  Providence 
alone  can  bless  it. 

In  many  pursuits,  we  imbark  with  pleasure,  and  land  sorrow- 
fully. 

Rocks,  mountains,  and  caverns,  are  of  indispensible  use,  both 
to  the  earth  and  to  man. 

The  hive  of  a city,  or  kingdom,  is  in  the  best  condition,  when 
their  is  the  least  noize  or  buz  in  it. 

The  roughnesses  found  on  our  enterance  into  the  paths  of 
virtue  and  learning,  grow  smoother  as  we  advance. 

That  which  was  once  the  most  beautifull  spot  of  Italy,  coverred 
with  pallaces,  imbellished  by  princes,  and  cellebrated  by  poets, 
has  now  nothing  to  show  but  ruins. 

Batterring  rams  were  antiently  used  to  beat  down  the  walls 
of  a city. 

Jocky  signifies  a man  who  rides  horses  in  a race ; or  who 
deals  in  horses. 

The  harmlesness  of  many  animals,  and  the  injoyment 
which  they  have  of  life,  should  plead  for  them  against  cruel 
useage. 

We  may  be  very  buzy  to  no  usefull  purpose. 

We  cannot  plead  in  abutment  of  our  guilt,  that  we  are  igno- 
rent  of  our  duty. 

Genuine  charaty,  how  liberal  soever  it  may  be,  will  never 
impoverish  ourselves.  If  we  sew  spareingly,  we  shall  reap 
acordingly. 

However  disagreable,  we  must  resolutly  perform  our  duty. 

A fit  of  sickness  is  often  a kind  chastisment  and  disciplin,  to 
moderate  our  affection  for  the  things  of  this  life. 

It  is  a happyness  to  young  persons,  when  they  are  preserved 
from  the  snares  of  the  world,  as  in  a garden  inclosed. 

Health  and  peace,  the  most  valueable  posessions,  are  obtained 
at  small  expence. 

Inccnce  signifies  perfumes  exhailed  by  fire,  and  made  use  of 
in  religious  ceremonies. 


36 


EXERCISES. 


True  happyness  is  an  ennemy  to  pomp  and  noize. 

Few  reflexions  are  more  distresing,  than  those  which  we  make 
on  our  own  ingratitude. 

There  is  an  inseparable  connection  between  piety  and  virtue. 

Many  actions  have  a fair  complection,  which  have  not  sprung 
from  virtue. 

Which  way  soever  we  turn  ourselves,  we  are  incountered 
with  sensable  demonstrations  of  a Deity. 

If  we  forsake  the  ways  of  virtue,  we  cannot  alledge  any  color 
of  ignorance,  or  want  of  instruction. 


SECTION  III. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  2.  Section  3. 

There  are  more  cultivators  of  the  earth,  than  of  their  own 
hearts. 

Man  is  incompassed  with  dangers  innumerable. 

War  is  attended  with  distresful  and  dessolating  effects.  It  is 
confesedly  the  scorge  of  our  angry  passions. 

The  earth  is  the  Lord’s,  and  the  fullness  thereof. 

The  harvest  truely  is  plenteous,  but  the  laborers  are  few. 

The  greater  our  incitments  to  evil,  the  greater  will  be  our 
victory  and  reward. 

We  should  not  incourage  persons  to  do  what  they  beleive  to 
be  wrong. 

Virtue  is  placed  between  two  extreams,  which  are  both 
equally  blameable. 

We  should  continually  have  the  gaol  in  our  view,  which 
would  direct  us  in  the  race. 

The  goals  were  forced  open,  and  the  prisoners  set  free. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  we  are  charitible  doners,  when  our 
gifts  proceed  from  selfish  motives. 

Straight  is  the  gate,  and  narrow  the  way,  that  lead  to  life 
eternal. 

Integrity  leads  us  straight  forward,  disdaining  all  doubleings 
and  crooked  paths. 

Licenciousness  and  crimes  pave  the  way  to  ruin. 

Words  are  the  countres  of  wise  men,  but  the  money  of 
fools. 

Recompence  to  no  man  evil  for  evil. 

He  was  an  excellent  person ; a mirrour  of  antient  faith  in 
early  youth. 

Meekness  controuls  our  angry  passions  ; candor,  our  severe 
judgements. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  37 

He  is  not  only  a descendent  from  pious  ancesters,  but  an 
inheriter  too  of  their  virtues. 

A dispensatory  is  the  place  where  medicines  are  dispensed ; 
a dispensary  is  a book  in  which  the  composition  of  them  is  de- 
scribed. 

Faithfulness  and  judgment  are  peculiarly  requisit  in  testa- 
mentory  executors. 

To  be  faithfull  among  the  faithles,  argues  great  strength  of 
principal. 

Mountains  appear  to  be  like  so  many  wens  or  unatural  pro- 
tuberancies  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

In  some  places  the  sea  incroaches  upon  the  land ; in  others, 
the  land  upon  the  sea. 

Philosophers  agreed  in  despizing  riches,  as  the  incumberances 
of  life. 

Wars  are  regulated  robberies  and  pyracies. 

Fishes  encrease  more  than  beasts  or  birds,  as  appears  from 
their  numrous  spaun. 

The  pyramids  of  Egypt  have  stood  more  than  three  thousand 
years. 

Precepts  have  small  influence  when  not  inforced  by  example. 

How  has  kind  Heaven  adorn’d  the  happy  land, 

And  scatter’d  blessings  with  a wastful  hand  ! 

A friend  exaggarates  a man’s  virtues,  an  enemy  enflames  his 
crimes. 

A witty  and  humourous  vein  has  often  produced  ennemies. 

Neither  pleasure  nor  buziness  should  ingross  our  time  and 
affections ; proper  seasons  should  be  alotted  for  retirment. 

It  is  laudable  to  enquire  before  we  determin. 

Many  have  been  visitted  with  afflictions,  who  have  not  pro- 
fitted  by  them. 

We  may  be  succesful,  and  yet  disappointed. 


SECTION  IV. 


See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  2.  Section  4. 


The  experience  of  want  inhances  the  value  of  plenty. 

To  maintain  opinions  slifly,  is  no  evidence  of  their  truth,  or 
of  our  moderation. 

Horehound  has  been  famous  for  its  medecinal  qualities ; but 
it  is  now  little  used. 


38 


EXERCISES. 


The  wicked  are  often  ensnared  in  the  trap  which  they  lie  for 
others. 

It  is  hard  to  say  what  diseases  are  cureable : they  are  all  under 
the  guidence  of  Heaven. 

Instructors  should  not  only  be  skilfull  in  those  sciences  which 
they  teach ; but  have  skil  in  the  method  of  teaching,  and  patience 
in  the  practise. 

Science  strengthens  and  inlarges  the  minds  of  men. 

A steady  mind  may  receive  council ; but  there  is  no  hold  on 
a changable  humour. 

We  may  enure  ourselves  by  custom,  to  bear  the  extremities 
of  whether  without  injury. 

Excessive  merryment  is  the  parent  of  greif. 

Air  is  sensable  to  the  touch  by  its  motion,  and  by  its  resist- 
ence  to  bodies  moved  in  it. 

A polite  address  is  sometimes  the  cloke  of  malice. 

To  practice  virtue  is  the  sure  way  to  love  it. 

Many  things  are  plausable  in  theory,  w^hich  fail  in  practise. 

Learning  and  knowledge  must  be  attained  by  slow  degrees ; 
and  are  the  reward  only  of  dilligence  and  patience. 

We  should  study  to  live  peacably  with  all  men. 

A soul  that  can  securly  death  defy. 

And  count  it  nature’s  priviledge  to  die. 

Whatever  promotes  the  interest  of  the  soul,  is  also  condusive 
to  our  present  felicity. 

Let  not  the  sterness  of  virtue  affight  us ; she  will  soon  become 
aimable. 

The  spatious  firmament  on  high. 

With  all  the  blue  etheriel  sky, 

And  spangled  heav’ns  a shineing  frame, 

Their  great  Originel  proclame. 

Passion  is  the  drunkeness  of  the  mind : it  supercedes  the 
workings  of  reason. 

If  we  are  sincere,  we  may  be  assured  of  an  advocate  to  inter- 
sede  for  us. 

We  ought  not  to  consider  the  encrease  of  another’s  reputation, 
as  a diminution  of  our  own. 

The  reumatism  is  a painful  distemper,  supposed  to  procede 
from  acrid  humors. 

The  beautiful  and  accomplished,  are  too  apt  to  study  behai- 
vour  rather  than  virtue. 

The  peazant’s  cabbin  contains  as  much  content  as  the  sove- 
rein’s  pallace. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


39 


True  valor  protects  the  feeble,  and  humbles  the  oppresser. 

David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  was  a wise  and  valient  man. 

Prophecies  and  miracles  proclamed  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the 
savior  of  the  world. 

Esau  sold  his  birthright  for  a savory  mess  of  potage. 

A regular  and  virteous  education,  is  an  inesteemable  blessing. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise  : 

Act  well  your  part ; there,  all  the  honor  lies. 

The  rigor  of  monkish  discipline  often  conceals  great  depravity 
of  heart. 

We  should  recollect,  that  however  favorable  we  may  be  to 
ourselves,  we  are  rigourously  examined  by  others. 


SECTION  V. 

See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  2.  Section  5. 

Virtue  can  render  youth,  as  well  as  old  age,  honorable. 

Rumor  often  tells  false  tales. 

Weak  minds  are  rufled  by  triffling  things. 

The  cabage-tree  is  very  common  in  the  Caribbee  ilands, 
where  it  grows  to  a prodigious  heighth. 

Visit  the  sick,  feed  the  hungry,  cloath  the  naked. 

His  smiles  and  tears  are  too  artifitial  to  be  relied  on. 

The  most  essensial  virtues  of  a Christian,  are  love  to  God, 
and  benevolence  to  man. 

We  should  be  chearful  without  levity. 

A calender  signifies  a register  of  the  year ; and  a calendar,  a 
press  in  which  clothiers  smooth  their  cloth. 

Integrity  and  hope  are  the  sure  paliatives  of  sorrow. 

Camomile  is  an  odouriferous  plant,  and  possesses  consider- 
able medicinel  virtues. 

The  gaity  of  youth  should  be  tempered  by  the  precepts  of  age. 

Certainty,  even  on  distresful  occasions,  is  sometimes  more 
elligible  than  suspence. 

Still  green  with  bays  each  antient  alter  stands, 

Above  the  reach  of  sacriligious  hands. 

The  most  acceptable  sacrifise,  is  that  of  a contrite  and  humble 
heart. 

We  are  accountable  for  whatever  we  patronize  in  others. 

It  marks  a savage  disposition  to  tortur  animals,  to  make  them 
smart  and  agonise,  for  our  diversion. 


40 


EXERCISES. 


The  edge  of  cloath,  where  it  is  closed  by  complicating  the 
threads,  is  called  the  selvidge. 

Soushong  tea  and  Turky  coffee  were  his  favorite  Beveridge  ; 
chocolade  he  seldom  drank. 

The  guilty  mind  cannot  avoid  many  melancholly  apprehen- 
sions. 

If  we  injure  others,  we  must  expect  retalliation. 

Let  every  man  be  fully  perswaded  in  his  own  mind. 

Peace  and  honor  are  the  sheeves  of  virtue’s  harvest. 

The  black  earth,  every  where  obvious  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  we  call  mold. 

The  Roman  pontif  claims  to  be  the  supream  head  of  the 
church  on  earth. 

High-seasoned  food  viciates  the  pallate,  and  occasions  a dis- 
relish for  plain  fare. 

The  conscious  receivor  is  as  bad  as  the  thief. 

Alexander,  the  conquerer  of  the  world,  was,  in  fact,  a robber 
and  a murderer. 

The  Divine  Being  is  not  only  the  Greater,  but  the  Ruler  and 
Preserver  of  the  world. 

Honest  endeavors,  if  persevered  in,  will  finally  be  sucessful. 

He  who  dies  for  religion,  is  a martyr ; he  who  suffers  for  it, 
is  a confessour. 

In  the  paroxism  of  passion,  we  sometimes  give  occasion  for  a 
life  of  repentence. 

The  mist  which  invelopes  many  studies,  is  dissipated  when 
we  approach  them. 

The  voice  is  sometimes  obstructed  by  a hoarsness,  or  by  vis- 
cuous  phlegm. 

The  desart  shall  rejoice,  and  blossom  as  the  rose. 

The  fruit  and  sweetmeats  set  on  table  after  the  meat,  are 
called  the  desert. 

We  traversed  the  flowry  fields,  till  the  falling  dews  admon- 
ished us  to  return. 


SECTION  VI. 


See  the  Key,  Part  2.  Chap.  2.  Section  6. 


There  is  frequently  a worm  at  the  root  of  our  most  florish- 
ing  condition. 

The  stalk  of  ivey  is  tough,  and  not  fragil. 

The  roof  is  vaulted,  and  distills  fresh  water  from  every  part 
of  it. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


41 


Our  imperfections  are  discernable  by  others,  when  we  think 
they  are  concealed. 

They  think  they  shall  be  heard  for  there  much  speak- 

True  criticizm  is  not  a captious,  but  a liberal  art. 

Integrity  is  our  best  defense  against  the  evils  of  life. 

No  circumstance  can  licence  evil,  or  dispence  with  the  rules 
of  virtue. 

We  may  be  cyphers  in  the  world’s  estimation,  whilst  we  are 
advancing  our  own  and  others’  value. 

The  path  of  vertue  is  the  path  of  peace. 

A dipthong  is  the  coilition  of  two  vowels  to  form  one  sound. 

However  forceable  our  temptations,  they  may  be  resisted. 

I acknowlege  my  transgression ; and  my  sin  is  ever  before 
me. 

The  colledge  of  cardinals  are  the  electers  of  the  pope. 

He  had  no  colorable  excuse  to  palliate  his  conduct. 

Thy  humourous  vein,  thy  pleasing  folly, 

Lie  all  neglected,  all  forgot. 

If  we  are  so  conceited  as  obstinatly  to  reject  all  advice,  we 
must  expect  a direliction  of  friends. 

Cronology  is  the  science  of  computeing  and  ajusting  the 
periods  of  time. 

In  groves  we  live,  arid  lay  on  mossy  beds, 

By  chrystal  streams,  that  murmur  through  the  meads. 

It  is  a secret  cowardise  which  induces  us  to  complement  the 
vices  of  our  superiors,  to  applaud  the  libertine,  and  laugh  with 
the  prophane. 

The  lark  each  morning  waked  me  with  her  spritely  lay. 

There  are  no  fewer  than  thirty-two  species  of  the  lily. 

We  owe  it  to  our  visitors  as  well  as  ourselves,  to  entertain 
them  with  useful  and  sensable  conversation. 

Sponsors  are  those  who  become  sureties  for  the  children’s 
education  in  the  Christian  faith. 

The  warder’s  fame  is  often  purchased  by  the  blood  of  thou- 
sands. 

Hope  exhilerates  the  mind,  and  is  the  grand  elixer,  under  all 
the  evils  of  life. 

The  incence  of  gratitude,  whilst  it  expresses  our  duty,  and 
honors  our  benefactor,  perfumes  and  regails  ourselves. 


VoL.  II. 


6 


PART  III. 


EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 


CHAPTER  L 

CONTAINING  INSTANCES  OF  FALSE  SYNTAX,  DISPOSED 
UNDER  THE  PARTICULAR  RULES. 


RULE  L 

A verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case,  in  number  and 
person : as,  “ I learn “ Thou  art  improved  The  birds  sing. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  143,  and  the  Key,  Part  3,  Chap.  1.  Rule  1. 

Disappointments  sinks  the  heart  of  man ; but  the  renewal 
of  hope  give  consolation. 

The  smiles  that  encourage  severity  of  judgment,  hides  malice 
and  insincerity. 

He  dare  not  act  contrary  to  his  instructions. 

Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  contains  forty  pounds  of  flour. 

The  mechanism  of  clocks  and  watches,  were  totally  unknown 
a few  centuries  ago. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  do 
not  exceed  sixteen  millions. 

Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight  some  persons. 

A variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye. 

So  much  both  of  ability  and  merit  are  seldom  found. 

In  the  conduct  of  Parmenio,  a mixture  of  wisdom  and  folly 
were  very  conspicuous. 

He  is  an  author  of  more  credit  than  Plutarch,  or  any  other 
that  write  lives  too  hastily. 

The  inquisitive  and  curious  is  generally  talkative. 

Great  pains  has  been  taken  to  reconcile  the  parties. 


44 


EXERCISES. 


I am  sorry  to  say  it,  but  there  was  more  equivocators  than 
one. 

The  sincere  is  always  esteemed. 

Has  the  goods  been  sold  to  advantage?  and  did  thou  embrace 
the  proper  season  ? 

There  is  many  occasions  in  life,  in  which  silence  and  simpli- 
city is  true  wisdom.  . 

The  generous  never  recounts  minutely  the  actions  they  have 
done  ; nor  the  prudent,  those  they  will  do. 

He  need  not  proceed  in  such  haste. 

The  business  that  related  to  ecclesiastical  meetings,  matters, 
and  persons,  were  to  be  ordered  according  to  the  king’s  direc- 
tion. 

In  him  were  happily  blended  true  dignity  with  softness  of 
manners. 

The  support  of  so  many  of  his  relations,  were  a heavy  tax 
upon  his  industry ; but  thou  knows  he  paid  it  cheerfully. 

What  avails  the  best  sentiments,  if  persons  do  not  live  suit- 
ably to  them  ? * 

Reconciliation  was  offered,  on  conditions  as  moderate  as  was 
consistent  with  a permanent  union. 

Not  one  of  them  whom  thou  sees  clothed  in  purple,  are 
completely  happy. 

And  the  fame  of  this  person,  and  of  his  wonderful  actions, 
were  diffused  throughout  the  country. 

The  variety  of  the  productions  of  genius,  like  that  of  the 
operations  of  nature,  are  without  limit. 

In  vain  our  flocks  and  fields  increase  our  store, 

When  our  abundance  make  us  wish  for  more. 

Thou  shall  love  thy  neighbour  as  sincerely  as  thou  loves 
thyself. 

Has  thou  no  better  reason  for  censuring  thy  friend  and  com- 
panion ? 

Thou  who  art  the  Author  and  Bestower  of  life,  can  doubtless, 
restore  it  also : but  whether  thou  will  please  to  restore  it,  or 
not,  that  thou  only  knows. 

O thou  my  voice  inspire, 

Who  touch’d  Isaiah’s  hallow’d  lips  with  fire. 

Accept  these  grateful  tears  : for  thee  they  flow ; 

For  thee  that  ever  felt  another’s  woe. 

Just  to  thy  word,  in  every  thought  sincere ; 

Who  knew  no  wish  but  what  the  world  might  hear. 


Rule  2. 


SYNTAX, 


45 


The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  i. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  143.,  Vol.  2.  p.  ISO. 

1. *  To  do  unto  all  men,  as  we  would  that  they,  in  similar 
circumstances,  should  do  unto  us,  constitute  the  great  principle 
of  virtue. 

From  a fear  of  the  world’s  censure,  to  be  ashamed  of  the 
practice  of  precepts,  which  the  heart  approves  and  embraces, 
mark  a feeble  and  imperfect  character. 

The  erroneous  opinions  which  we  forrti  concerning  happi- 
ness and  misery,  gives  rise  to  all  the  mistaken  and  dangerous 
passions  that  embroils  our  life. 

To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  are  required  of  all 
men. 

That  .it  is  our  duty  to  promote  the  purity  of  our  minds  and 
bodies,  to  be  just  and  kind  to  our  fellow-creatures,  and  to  be 
pious  and  faithful  to  Him  that  made  us,  admit  not  of  any  doubt 
in  a rational  and  well-informed  mind. 

To  be  of  a pure  and  humible  mind,  to  exercise  benevolence 
towards  others,  to  cultivate  piety  towards  God  is  the  sure 
means  of  becoming  peaceful  and  happy.  - 

It  is  an  important  truth,  that  religion,  vital  religion,  the 
religion  of  the  heart,  are  the  most  powerful  auxiliaries  of  reason, 
in  waging  war  with  the  passions,  and  promoting  that  sweet 
composure  which  constitute  the  peace  of  God. 

The  possession  of  our  senses  entire,  of  our  limbs  uninjured, 
of  a sound  understanding,  of  friends  and  companions,  are  often 
overlooked ; though  it  would  be  the  ultimate  wish  of  many, 
who,  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  deserves  it  as  much  as  ourselves. 

All  that  make  a figure  on  the  great  theatre  of  the  world,  the 
employments  of  the  busy,  the  enterprises  of  the  ambitious,  and 
the  exploits  of  the  warlike ; the  virtues  which  forms  the  happi- 
ness, and  the  crimes  which  occasions  the  misery  of  - mankind ; 
originates  in  that  silent  and  secret  recess  of  thought,  which  are 
hidden  from  every  human  eye. 

2.  If  the  privileges  to  which  he  has  an  undoubted  right,  and 
he  has  long  enjoyed,  should  now  be  wrested  from  him,  would 
be  flagrant  injustice. 

These  curiosities  we  have  imported  from  China,  and  are 
similar  to  those  which  were  some  time  ago  brought  from  Africa* 

Will  martial  flames  for  ever  fire  thy  mind, 

And  never,  never  be  to  Heav’n  resign’d  ] 

* The  examples  under  each  rule  are  regularly  numbered,  to  make  them  correspond  to  the  res» 
pective  subordinate  rules  in  the  Grammar. 


46 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  2. 


3.  Two  substantives,  when  they  come  together,  and  do  not 
signify  the  same  thing,  the  former  must  be  in  the  genitive  case. 

Virtue,  however  it  may  be  neglected  for  a time,  men  are  so 
constituted  as  ultimately  to  acknowledge  and  respect  genuine 
merit. 

4.  The  crown  of  virtue  is  peace  and  honour. 

His  chief  occupation  and  enjoyment  were  controversy. 

5.  Him  destroy’d. 

Or  won  to  what  may  work  his  utter  loss, 

All  this  will  soon  follow. 

Whose  gray  top. 

Shall  tremble,  him  descending. 


RULE  II. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  ^c,  in  the  singular  number,  joined  to- 
gether by  a copulative  conjunction,  expressed  or  understood,  must 
have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns  agreeing  with  them  in  the  plural 
number : as,  ‘‘  Socrates  and  Plato  were  ivise  ; they  were  the  most 
eminent  philosophers  of  Greece “ The  sun  that  rolls  over  our 
heads,  the  food  that  we  receive,  the  rest  that  we  enjoy,  daily  ad- 
monish us  of  a superior  and  superintending  Power. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  149,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  2. 

Idleness  and  ignorance  is  the  parent  of  many  vices. 

Wisdom,  virtue,  happiness,  dwells  with  the  golden  mediocrity. 

In  unity  consists  the  welfare  and  security  of  every  society. 

Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 

His  politeness  and  good  disposition  was,  on  failure  of  their 
effect,  entirely  changed. 

Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. 

Humility  and  knowledge,  with  poor  apparel,  excels  pride 
and  ignorance  under  costly  attire. 

The  planetary  system,  boundless  space,  and  the  immense 
ocean,  affects  the  mind  with  sensations  of  astonishment. 

Humility  and  love,  whatever  obscurities  may  involve  religious 
tenets,  constitutes  the  essence  of  true  religion. 

Religion  and  virtue,  our  best  support  and  highest  honour, 
confers  on  the  mind  principles  of  noble  independence. 

What  signifies  the  counsel  and  care  of  preceptors,  when 
Wouth  think  they  have  no  need  of  assistance  ? 


Rule  3.  SYNTAX.  47 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observa- 
tions under  rule  ii. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  149.  Vol.  2.  p.  182. 

1.  Much  does  human  pride  and  self-complacency  require 
correction. 

Luxurious  living,  and  high  pleasures,  begets  a languor  and 
satiety  that  destroys  all  enjoyment. 

Pride  and  self-sufficiency  stifles  sentiments  of  dependence  on 
our  Creator : levity  and  attachment  to  worldly  pleasures,  des- 
troys the  sense  of  gratitude  to  him. 

3.  Good  order  in  our  affairs,  not  mean  savings,  produce  great 
profits. 

The  following  treatise,  together  with  those  that  accompany 
it,  were  written  many  years  ago,  for  my  own  private  satisfac- 
tion. 

That  great  senator,  in  concert  with  several  other  eminent 
persons,  were  the  projectors  of  the  revolution. 

The  religion  of  these  people,  as  well  as  their  customs  and 
manners  were  strangely  misrepresented. 

Virtue,  joined  to  knowledge  and  wealth,  confer  great  influ- 
ence and  respectability.  But  knowledge,  with  wealth  united, 
if  virtue  is  wanting,  have  a very  limited  influence,  and  are  often 
despised.  ' 

That  superficial  scholar  and  critic,  like  some  renowned  critics 
of  our  own,  have  furnished  most  decisive  proofs,  that  they  knew 
not  the  characters  of  the  Hebrew  language. 

The  buildings  of  the  institution  have  been  enlarged;  the 
expense  of  which,  added  to  the  increased  price  of  provisions, 
render  it  necessary  to  advance  the  terms  of  admission. 

One,  added  to  nineteen,  make  twenty. 

What  black  despair,  what  horror,  fills  his  mind  ! 

3.  Thou,  and  the  gardener,  and  the  huntsman,  must  share 
the  blame  of  this  business  amongst  them. 

My  sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my  brother,  are  daily  employed 
in  their  respective  occupations. 

RULE  III. 

The  conjunction  disjunctive  has  an  effect  contrary  to  that  of 
the  conjunction  copidative : for,  as  the  verb,  noun,  or  pronoun,  is 
referred  to  the  preceding  terms  taken  sciiarately,  it  mast  be  in  the 
singular  number : as,  “ Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused  this 


48 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  4. 


mistake  ‘‘  John,  James,  or  Joseph,  intends  to  accompany  me 
“ There  is,  in  many  minds,  neither  knowledge  nor  understand- 
ingr 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  151,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  3. 

Man’s  happiness,  or  misery,  are,  in  a great  measure,  put  into 
his  own  hands. 

Man  is  not  such  a machine  as  a clock  or  a watch,  which 
move  merely  as  they  are  moved. 

Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of 
life  ; for  they  are,  perhaps,  to  be  your  own  lot. 

Speaking  impatiently  to  servants,  or  any  thing  that  betrays 
unkindness  or  ill-humour,  are  certainly  criminal. 

There  are  many  faults  in  spelling,  which  neither  analogy  nor 
pronunciation  justify. 

When  sickness,  infirmity,  or  reverse  of  fortune,  affect  us,  the 
sincerity  of  friendship  is  proved. 

Let  it  be  remembered,  that  it  is  not  the  uttering,  or  the 
hepiring  of  certain  words,  that  constitute  the  worship  of  the 
Almighty. 

A tart  reply,  a proneness  to  rebuke,  or  a captious  and  con- 
tradictious spirit,  are  capable  of  embittering  domestic  life,  and 
of  setting  friends  at  variance. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  hi. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  151.  Vol.  2.  p.  184. 

1.  Either  thou  or  I art  greatly  mistaken,  in  our  judgment  on 
this  subject. 

I or  thou  am  the  person  who  must  undertake  the  business 
proposed. 

2.  Both  of  the  scholars,  or  one  of  them  at  least,  was  present 
at  the  transaction. 

Some  parts  of  the  ship  and  cargo  were  recovered : but  nei- 
ther the  sailors  nor  the  captain,  was  saved. 

Whether  one  person  or  more  was  concerned  in  the  business, 
does  not  yet  appear. 

The  cares  of  this  life,  or  the  deceitfulness  of  riches,  has 
choked  the  seeds  of  virtue  in  many  a promising  mind. 

RULE  IV. 

A noun  of  multitude,  or  signifying  many,  may  have  a verb  or 
pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  either  of  the  singular  or  plural  nuin- 


Rule  4 


SYNTAX. 


49 


her  ; yet  not  without  regard  to  the  import  of  the  word,  as  con- 
veying unity  and  plurality  of  idea  : as,  “ The  meeting  was  large 
“ The  parliament  is  dissolved “ The  nation  is  powerful  f 
‘‘  My  people  do  not  consider  : they  have  not  known  me  “ The 
multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure  as  their  chief  good  f “ The 
council  were  divided  in  their  sentiments 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  152,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  4. 

The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  give  it  sorfow. 

The  flock,  and  not  the  fleece,  are,  or  ought  to  be  the  objects 
of  the  shepherd’s  care. 

The  court  have  just  ended,  after  having  sat  through  the  trial 
of  a very  long  cause. 

The  crowd  were  so  great,  that  the  judges  with  difficulty'made 
their  way  through  them. 

The  corporation  of  York  consist  of  a mayor,  alderman,  and  a 
common  council. 

The  British  parliament  are  composed  of  king,  lords,  and 
commons. 

When  the  nation  complain,  the  rulers  should  listen  to  their 
voice. 

In  the  days  of  youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursues  pleasure 
as  its  chief  good. 

The  church  have  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishment. 

The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel. 

The  regiment  consist  of  a thousand  men. 

The  meeting  have  established  several  salutary  regulations. 

The  council  was  not  unanimous,  and  it  separated  without 
coming  to  any  determination. 

The  fleet  is  all  arrived  and  moored  in  safety. 

This  people  draweth  near  to  me  with  their  mouth,  and  hon- 
oureth  me  with  their  lips,  but  their  heart  is  far  from  me. 

The  committee  was  divided  in  its  sentiments,  and  it  has  re- 
ferred the  business  to  the  general  meeting. 

The  committee  were  very  full  when  this  point  was  decided  ; 
and  their  judgment  has  not  been  called  in  question. 

Why  do  this  generation  wish  for  greater  evidence,  when  so 
much  is  already  given  ? 

The  remnant  of  the  people  were  persecuted  with  great 
severity. 

Never  were  any  people  so  much  infatuated  as  the  Jewish 
nation. 

The  shoal  of  herrings  were  of  an  immense  extent. 

No  society  are  chargeable  with  the  disapproved  misconduct 
of  particular  members. 

Vol.  II. 


7 


50 


EXERCISES. 


RULE  V. 

Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antecedents,  and  the 
nouns  for  which  they  stand,  in  gender  and  number  : as,  “ This  is 
the  friend  whom  I love  ^ “ That  is  the  vice  which  I hate  “ The 
king  and  the  queen  had  put  on  their  robes “ The  moon  appears, 
and  she  shines,  but  the  light  is  not  her  own^ 

The  relative  is  of  the  same  person  as  the  antecedent,  and  the 
verb  agrees  with  it  accordingly  ; as,  ‘‘  Thou  who  lovest  wisdom 
I who  speak  from  experience 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  154,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1,  Rule  5. 

The  exercise  of  reason  appears  as  little  in  these  sportsmen, 
as  in  the  beasts  whom  they  sometimes  hunt,  and  by  whom  they 
are  sometinaes  hunted. 

They  which  seek  wisdom  will  certainly  find  her. 

The  male  among  birds  seems  to  discover  no  beauty,  but  in 
the  colour  of  its  species. 

Take  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the  furnace,  and  let  Moses  sprinkle 
it  towards  heaven,  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh  : and  it  shall  become 
small  dust. 

Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment  which  were  wdth  her  in  the 
house,  and  put  them  upon  Jacob. 

The  wheel  killed  another  man,  which  is  the  sixth  which  have 
lost  their  lives  by  this  means. 

The  fair  sex,  whose  task  is  not  to  mingle  in  the  labours 
of  public  life,  has  its  own  part  assigned  it  to  act. 

The  Hercules-man*of-war  foundered  at  sea  ; she  overset,  and 
lost  most  of  her  men. 

The  mind  of  man  cannot  be  long  without  some  food  to 
nourish  the  activity  of  his  thoughts.  , 

What  is  the  reason  that  our  language  is  less  refined  than 
those  of  Italy,  Spain,  or  France? 

I do  not  think  any  one  should  incur  censure  for  being  tender 
of  their  reputation. 

Thou  who  has  been  a witness  of  the  fact,  can  give  an  account 
of  it. 

In  religious  concerns,  or  what  is  conceived  to  be  such, 
every  man  must  stand  or  fall  by  the  decision  of  the  Great 
Judge. 

Something  like  what  have  been  here  premised,  are  the  con- 
jectures of  Dryden. 


Rule  5. 


SYNTAX. 


51 


Thou  great  First  Cause,  least  understood ! 

Who  all  my  sense  confin’d 
To  luiow  but  this,  that  thou  ai:t  good, 

And  that  myself  am  blind  ; 

Yet  gave  me  in  this  dark  estate,  &c. 

What  art  thou,  speak,  that  on  designs  unknown, 

While  others  sleep,  thus  range  the  camp  alone  \ 

The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  v. 
if 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  154.  Vol.  2.  p.  186. 

1.  Whoever  entertains  such  an  opinion,  he  judges  errone- 
ously. 

The  cares  of  this  world  they  often  choke  the  growth  of 
virtue. 

Disappointments  and  afflictions,  however  disagreeable,  they 
often  improve  us. 

2.  Moses  was  the  meekest  man -whom  we  read  of  in  the 
Old  Testament. 

Humility  is  one  of  the  most,  amiable  virtues  which  we  can 
possess. 

They  are  Ihe  same  persons  who  assisted  us  yesterday. 

The  men  and  things  which  he  has  studied  have  not  improved 
his  morals. 

3.  Howsoever  beautiful  they  appear,  they  have  no  real 
merit. 

In  whatsoever  '^light  we  view  him,  his  conduct  will  bear 
inspection. 

On  whichsoever  side  they  are  contemplated,  they  appear  to 
advantage. 

However  much  he  might  despise  the  maxims  of  the  king’s 
administration,  he  kept  a total  silence  on  that  subject. 

4.  Which  of  them  two  persons  has  most  distinguished  him- 
self? 

None  more  impatiently  suffer  injuries,  than  those  that  are 
most  forward  in  doing'^lhem. 

5.  He  would  not  be  persuaded  but  what  I was  greatly  in 
fault. 

These  commendations  of  his  children,  appear  to  have  been 
made  in  somewhat  an  injudicious  manner. 


52  EXERCISES.  Rule  6. 

6.  He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  who  surrounded 
him. 

Sidney  was  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  active  governors, 
which  Ireland  had  enjoyed  for  several  years. 

He  was  the  ablest  minister  which  James  ever  possessed. 

The  court,  who  gives  currency  to  manners,  ought  to  be 
exemplary. 

I am  happy  in  the  friend  which  I have  long  proved. 

7.  The  child  whom  we  have  just  seen,  is  wholesomely  fed, 
and  not  injured  by  bandages  or  clothing. 

He  is  like  a beast  of  prey,  who  destroys  without  pity. 

8.  Having  once  disgusted  him,  he  could  never  regain  the 
favour  of  Nero,  who  was  indeed  another  name  for  cruelty. 

Flattery,  whose  nature  is  to  deceive  and  betray,  should  be 
avoided  as  the  poisonous  adder. 

Who  of  those  men  came  to  his  assistance  ? 

9.  The  king  dismissed  his  minister  without  any  inquiry  : who 
had  never  before  committed  so  unjust  an  action. 

There  are  millions  of  people  in  the- empire  of  China,  whose 
support  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  rice. 

10.  It  is  remarkable  his  continual  endeavours  to  serve  us, 
notwithstanding  our  ingratitude. 

It  is  indisputably  true  his  assertion,  though  it  is  a paradox. 

11.  Ah!  unhappy  thee,  who  art  deaf  to  the  calls  of  duty, 
and  of  honour. 

Oh  1 happy  we,  surrounded  with  so  many  blessings. 

% 

RULE  VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verh^  when  no  nomi- 
native case  comes  between  it  and  the  verb  : as  ‘‘  The  master  who 
taught  us  ; “ The  trees  which  are  planted^ 

When  a nominative  comes  between  the  relative  and  the  verb, 
the  relative  is  governed  by  some  word  in  its  own  member  of  the 
sentence  : as,  “ He  who  preserves  me,  to  whom  I owe  my  being, 
whose  I am,  and  whom  I serve  is  etemair 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  159,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  6. 

We  are  dependent  on  each  other’s  assistance  ! whom  is 
there  can  subsist  by  himself? 


Rule  7.  SYNTAX.  53 

If  he  will  not  hear  his  best  friend,  whom  shall  be  sent  to 
admonish  him  ? 

They  who  much  is  given  to,  will  have  much  to  answer 
for. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  they  whom  in  early  life,  have 
been  dark  and  deceitful,  should  afterwards  become  fair  and 
ingenuous. 

They  who  have  laboured  to  make  us  wise  and  good,  are  the 
persons  whom  we  ought  to  love  and  respect,  and  who  we  ought 
to  be  grateful  to. 

The  persons,  who  conscience  and  virtue  support,  may  smile 
at  the  caprices  of  fortune. 

From  the  character  of  those  who  you  associate  with,  your 
own  will  be  estimated. 

This  is  the  student  who  I gave  the  book  to,  and  wdiom,  I am 
persuaded,  deserves  it. 

I.  Of  whom  were  the  articles  bought?  Of  a mercer;  he 
who  resides  near  the  mansion-house. 

Was  any  person  besides  the  mercer  present  ? Yes,  both  him 
and  his  clerk. 

Who  was  the  money  paid  to?  To  the  mercer  and  his 
clerk.  ^ > 

Who  counted  it  ? Both  the  clerk  and  him. 

RULE  VII. 

When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nominatives  of  different 
persons,  the  relative  and  the  verb  may  agree  in  person  with  either, 
according  to  the  sense : as,  “ I am  the  man  who  command  you  f 
or,  “ / am  the  man  who  commands  you^ 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  160,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  7; 

I acknowledge  that  I am  the  teacher,  who  adopt  that  senti- 
ment, and  maintains  the  propriety  of  such  measures. 

Thou  art  a friend  that  hast  often  relieved  me,  and  that  has  not 
deserted  me  now  in  the  time  of  peculiar  need. 

I am  the  man  who  approves  of  wholesome  discipline,  and  who 
recommend  it  to  others  ; but  I am  not  a person  who  pro- 
motes useless  severity,  or  who  object  to  mild  and  generous 
treatment. 

I perceive  that  thou  art  a pupil  who  possesses  bright  parts, 
but  who  hast  cultivated  them  but  little. 

Thou  art  he  who  breathest  on  the  earth  with  the  breath  of 
spring,  and  who  covereth  it  with  verdure  and  beauty. 


54  EXERCISES.  Rule  8. 

I am  the  Lord  thy  God,  who  teacheth  thee  to  profit,  and  who 
lead  thee  by  the  w^ay  thou  shouldst  go. 

Thou  art  the  Lord  who  did  choose  Abraham,  and  broughtest 
him  forth  out  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 

RULE  VIII. 

Every  adjective,  and  every  adjective  pronoun,  belongs  to  a 
substantive : expressed  or  understood ; as,  “ He  is  a good  as 
well  as  a wise  man “ Few  are  happpy  that  is  ; “ persons 
‘‘This  is  a pleasant  walkf  that  is,  “ this  walk  is,”  &c. 

Adjective  pronouns  must  agree  in  number  with  their  substan- 
tives : as,  “ This  book ; these  books ; that  sort,  those  sorts ; 
another  road,  other  roads. 

See  VoL  1.  p.  161,  and  the  Key,  part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  S. 

These  kind  of  indulgences  soften  and  injure  the  mind. 

Instead  of  improvihg  yourself  you  have  been  playing  this 
two  hours. 

Those  sort  of  favours  did  real  injury  under  the  appearance 
of  kindness. 

The  chasm  made  by  the  eaHhquake  was  twenty  foot  broad, 
and  one  hundred  fathom  in  depth. 

How  many  a sorrow  should  we  avoid,  if  we  were  not  indus- 
trious to  make  them  ! 

He  saw  one  or  more  persons  enter  the  garden. 

The  examples  which  folloy:i  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observa- 
tions wwtZer  RULE  VIII. 

^ See  Vol.  1.  p.  161.  Vol.  2.  p.  189. 

1.  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

) 

1.  Charles  was  extravagant,  and  by  this  mean  became  poor 
and  despicable. 

It  was  by  that  ungenerous  mean  that  he  obtained  his  end. 

Industry  is  the  mean  of  obtaining  competency. 

Though  a promising  measure,  it  is  a mean  which  I cannot 
adopt. 

This  person  embraced  every  opportunity  to  display  his  tal- 
ents : and  by  these  means  rendered  himself  ridiculous. 

Joseph  was  industrious,  frugal,  and  discreet ; and  by  this 
means  obtained  property  and  reputation. 


Rule  8. 


SYNTAX. 


55 


2.  Religioa  raises  men  above  themselves;  irreligion  sinks 
them  beneath  the  brutes : that  binds  them  down  to  a poor 
pitiable  speck  of  perishable  earth  ; this  opens  for  them  a pros- 
pect to  the  skies. 

More  rain  falls  in  the  first  two  summer  months,  than  in  the 
first  two  winter  ones : but  it  makes  a much  greater  show  upon 
the  earth,  in  those  than  in  these ; because  there  is  a much  slower 
evaporation. 

Rex  and  Tyrannus  are  of  very  different  characters.  The 
one  rules  his  people  by  laws  to  which  they  consent ; the 
other^  by  his  absolute  will  and  power ; this  is  called  freedom, 
that,  tyranny. 

3.  Each  of  them,  in  their  turn,  receive  the  benefits  to  which 
they  are  entitled. 

My  counsel  to  each  of  you  is,  that  you  should  make  it  your 
endeavour  to  come  to  a friendly  agreement. 

By  discussing  what  relates  to  each  particular,  in  their  order, 
we  shall  better  understand  the  subject. 

Every  person,  whatever  be  their  station,  are  bound  by  the 
duties  of  morality  and  religion. 

Every  leaf,  every  twig,  every  drop  of  water,  teem  with  life. 

Every  man’s  heart  and  temper  is  productive  of  much  inward 
joy  or  bitterness. 

Whatever  he  undertakes,  either  his  pride  or  his  folly  dis- 
gust us. 

Every  man  and  every  woman  were  numbered. 

Neither  of  those  men  seem  to  have  any  idea,  that  their  opin- 
ions may  be  ill-founded. 

When  benignity  and  gentleness  reign  within,  we  are  always 
least  in  hazard  from  without : every  person,  and  every  occur- 
rence, are  beheld,  in  the  most  favourable  light. 

On  either  side  of  the  river  was  there  the  tree  of  life. 


II.  ADJECTIVES. 

4.  She  reads  proper,  writes  very  neat,  and  composes  ac- 
curate. 

He  was  extreme  prodigal,  and  his  property  is  now  near  ex- 
hausted. 

They  generally  succeeded;  for  they  lived  conformable  to 
the  rules  of  prudence. 

We  may  reason  very  clear,  and  exceeding  strong,  without 
knowing  that  there  is  such  a thing  as  syllogism. 

He  had  many  virtues,  and  was  exceeding  beloved. 


56  EXERCISES.  Rule  9, 

The  amputation  was  exceeding  well  performed,  and  saved 
the  patient’s  life. 

He  came  agreeable  to  his  promise,  and  conducted  himself 
suitable  to  the  occasion. 

He  speaks  very  fluent,  reads  excellent,  but  does  not  think  very 
coherent. 

He  behaved  himself  submissive,  and  was  exceeding  careful 
not  to  give  offence. 

They  rejected  the  advice,  and  conducted  themselves  exceed- 
ing indiscreetly. 

He  is  a person  of  great  abilities  and  exceeding  upright : and 
is  like  to  be  a very  useful  member  of  the  community. 

The  conspiracy  was  the  easier  discovered,  from  its  being 
known  to  many. 

Not  being  fully  acquainted  with  the  subject,  he  could  affirm 
no  stronger  than  he  did. 

He  was  so  deeply  impressed  with  the  subject,  that  few  could 
speak  nobler  upon  it. 

We  may  credit  his  testimony,  for  he  says  express,  that  he  saw 
the  transaction. 

Use  a little  wine  for  thy  stomach’s  sake,  and  thine  often  in- 
firmities. 

From  these  favourable  beginnings,  we  may  hope  for  a soon 
and  prosperous  issue. 

He  addressed  several  exhortations  to  them,  suitable  to  their 
circumstances. 

Conformably  to  their  vehemence  of  thought,  was  their  vehe- 
mence of  gesture. 

We  should  implant  in  tlie  minds  of  youth, -such  seeds  and 
principles  of  piety  and  virtue,  as  are  likely  to  take  soonest  and 
deepest  root. 

Such  ah  amiable  disposition  will  secure  universal  regard. 

Such  distinguished  virtues  seldom  occur. 

5.  ’Tis  more  easier  to  build  two  chimneys  than  to  maintain 
one. 

The  tongue  is  like  a race-horse ; which  runs  the  faster  the 
lesser  weight  it  carries. 

The  pleasures  of  the  understanding  are  more  preferable  than 
those  of  the  imagination,  or  of  sense. 

The  nightingale  sings  : hers  is  the  most  sweetest  voice  in  the 
grove. 

The  Most  Highest  hath  created  us  for  his  glory,  and  our  own 
happiness. 


Rule  9. 


SYNTAX. 


57 


The  Supreme  Being  is  the  most  wisest,  and  most  powerful- 
lest,  and  the  most  best  of  beings. 

6.  Virtue  confers  the  supremest  dignity  on  man : and  should 
be  his  chiefest  desire. 

His  assertion  was  more  true  than  that  of  his  opponent ; nay, 
the  words  of  the  latter  were  most  untrue. 

His  work  is  perfect ; his  brothei^s  more  perfect ; and  his 
father’s  the  most  perfect  of  all. 

He  gave  the  fullest  and  the  most  sincere  proof  of  the  truest 
friendship.  » 

7.  A talent  of  this  kind  would,  perhaps,  prove  the  likeliest  of 
any  other  to  succeed. 

He  is  the  strongest  of  the  two,  but  not  the  wisest. 

He  spoke  with  so  much  propriety,  that  I understood  him  the 
best  of  all  the  others  that  spoke  on  the  subject. 

Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  her  daughters. 

8.  He  spoke  in  a distinct  enough  manner  to  be  heard  by  the 
whole  assembly. 

Thomas  is  equipped  with  a new  pair  of  shoes,  and  a new  pair 
of  gloves  : he  is  the  servant  of  an  old  rich  man. 

The  two  first  in  the  row  are  cherry-trees,  the  two  others  are 
pear-trees. 


RULE  IX. 


The  article  a or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  the  singular  number 
only,  individually  or  collectively : as,  a Christian,  an  infidel,  a 
score,  a thousand^ 

The  definite  article  the  may  agree  with  nouns  in  the  singular 
or  the  plural  number : as,  “ The  garden,  the  houses,  the  stars'' 

The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted : when  used,  they  should 
be  justly  applied,  according  to  their  distinct  nature : as,  “ Gold  is 
corrupting  ; The  sea  is  green  ; A lion  is  bold," 

See  Vol.  I.  p.  170,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  9. 

The  fire,  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the  water,  are  four  elements 
of  the  philosophers. 

Reason  was  given  to  a man  to  control  his  passions. 

VoL.  II.  8 


58  EXERCISES.  Rule  9, 

We  have  within  us  an  intelligent  principle,  distinct  from  body 
and  from  matter. 

A man  is  the  noblest  work  of  creation. 

Wisest  and  best  men  sometimes  commit  errors. 

Beware  of  drunkene^s : it  impairs  understanding ; wastes  an 
estate  ; destroys  a reputation ; consumes  the  body  ; and  renders 
the  man  of  the  brightest  parts  the  common  jest  of  the  meanest 
clown. 

He  is  a much  better  writer  than  a reader. 

The  king  has  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  a duke. 

There  are  some  evils  of  life,  which  equally  affect  prince  and 
people. 

We  must  act  our  part  with  a constancy,  though  reward  of  our 
constancy  be  distant. 

We  are  placed  here  under  a trial  of  our  virtue. 

The  virtues  like  his  are  not  easily  acquired.  Such  qualities 
honour  the  nature  of  a man. 

Purity  has  its  seat  in  the  heart ; but  extends  its  influence  over 
so  much  of  outward  conduct,  as  to  form  the  great  and  material 
part  of  a character. 

The  profligate  man  is  seldom  or  never  found  to  be  the  good 
husband,  the  good  father,  or  the  beneficient  neighbour. 

True  charity  is  not  the  meteor,  which  occasionally  glares ; 
but  the  luminary,  which  in  its  ordinary  and  regular  course,  dis- 
penses benignant  influence. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  ix. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  170.  Vol.  2.  p.  192. 

1.  He  has  been  much  censured  for  conducting  himself  with 
^ a little  attention  to  his  business. 

So  bold  a breach  of  order,  called  for  a little  severity  in  punish- 
ing the  offender. 

His  error  was  accompanied  with  so  little  contrition  and  candid 
acknowledgement,  that  he  found  a few  persons  to  intercede  for 
him. 

There  were  so  many  mitigating  circumstances  attending  his 
misconduct,  particularly  that  of  his  open  confession,  that  he 
found  few  friends  who  were  disposed  to  interest  themselves  in 
his  favour. 

As  his  misfortunes  were  the  fruit  of  his  own  obstinacy,  a few 
persons  pitied  him. 

2.  The  fear  of  shame,  and  desire  of  approbation  prevent 
many  bad  actions. 


Rule  10. 


SYNTAX. 


59 


In  this  business  he  was  influenced  by  a just  and  generous 
principle. 

He  was  fired  with  desire  of  doing  something,  though  he 
knew  not  yet,  with  distinctness,  either  end  or  means. 

3.  At  worst,  I could  but  incur  a gentle  reprimand. 

At  best,  his  gift  was  but  a poor  offering,  when  we  consider 
his  estate. 

RULE  X. 

One  substantive  governs  another^  signifying  a different  things 
in  the  possessive  or  genitive  case : as,  “ My  father^ s house  f* 
Man's  happiness “ Virtue's  reward." 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  173,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  10. 

My  ancestors  virtue  is  not  mine. 

His  brothers  offence  will  not  condemn  him. 

I will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten  sake. 

Nevertheless,  Asa  his  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord. 

A mothers  tenderness  and  a fathers  care  are  natures  gift’s  for 
man’s  advantage. 

A mans  manner’s  fi'equently  influence  his  fortune. 

Wisdoms  precepts’  form  the  good  mans  interest  and  hap- 
piness. 


They  slew  Varus,  he  that  was  mentiond  before. 

They  slew  Varus,  who  was  him  that  I mentioned  before. 

The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  x. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  175.  Vol.  2.  p,  194. 

1.  It  was  the  men’s,  women’s,  and  children’s  lot,  to  suffer 
great  calamities. 

Peter’s,  John’s  and  andrew’s  occupation,  was  that  of  fish- 
ermen. 

This  measure  gained  the  king,  as  well  as  the  people’s  appro- 
bation. 

Not  only  the  cousel’s  and  attorney’s,  but  the  judge’s  opinion 
also,  favoured  his  cause. 

% And  he  cast  himself  down  at  Jesus  feet. 


60 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  10. 


Moses  rod  was  turned  into  a serpent. 

For  Herodias  sake,  his  brother  Philips  wife. 

If  ye  suffer  for  righteousness’s  sake,  happy  are  ye. 

Ye  should  be  subject  for  conscience’s  sake. 

3.  They  very  justly  condemned  the  prodigal’s,  as  he  was 
called,  senseless  and  extravagant  conduct. 

They  implicitly  obeyed  the  protector’s,  as  they  called  him, 
imperious  mandates. 

4.  I bought  the  knives  at  Johnson’s,  the  cutler’s. 

The  silk  was  purchased  at  Brown’s  the  mercer’s  and  haber- 
dasher’s. 

Lord  Feversham  the  general’s  tent. 

This  palace  had  been  the  grand  sultan’s  Mahomet’s. 

I will  not  for  David’s  thy  father’s  sake. 

He  took  refuge  at  the  governor,  the  king’s  representative’s. 

Whose  works  are  these  ? They  are  Cicero,  the  most  eloquent 
of  men’s. 

5.  The  world’s  government  is  not  left  to  chance. 

She  married  my  son’s  wife’s  brother. 

This  is  my  wife’s  brother’s  partner’s  house. 

It  was  necessary  to  have  both  the  physician’s  and  the  sur- 
geon’s advice. 

The  extent  of  the  prerogative  of  the  King  of  England,  is 
sufficiently  ascertained. 

6.  This  picture  of  the  king’s  does  not  much  resemble  him. 

These  pictures  of  the  king  were  sent  to  him  from  Italy. 

This  estate  of  the  corporation’s  is  much  encumbered. 

That  is  the  eldest  son  of  the  king  of  England’s. 

7.  What  can  be  the  cause  of  the  parliament  neglecting  so 
important  a business  ? 

Much  depends  on  this  rule  being  observed. 

The  time  of  William  making  the  experiment,  at  length 
arrived. 

It  is  very  probable  that  this  assembly  w’as  called,  to  clear 
some  doubt  which  the  king  had,  about  the  lawfulness  of  the 
Hollanders  their  throwing  off  the  monarchy  of  Spain,  and  their 
withdrawing  entirely  their  allegiance  to  that  crown. 

If  w^e  alter  the  situation  of  any  of  the  words,  we  shall  pre- 
sently be  sensible  of  the  melody  suffering. 

Such  will  ever  be  the  effect  of  youth  associating  with  vicious 
companions. 


Rule  11. 


SYNTAX. 


61 


RULE  XL 

Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case : as,  ‘‘  Truth  ennobles 
her “ She  comforts  me “ They  support  us  ‘‘  Virtue  re- 
wards her  followers 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  179,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  lU 

They  who  opulence  has  made  proud,  and  who  luxury  has 
corrupted,  cannot  relish  the  simple  pleasures  of  nature. 

You  have  reason  to  dread  his  wrath  which  one  day  will  de- 
stroy ye  both. 

Who  have  I reason  to  love  so  much  as  this  friend  of  my 
youth. 

Ye,  who  were  dead,  hath  he  quickened. 

Who  did  they  entertain  so  freely  ? 

The  man  who  he  raised  from  obscurity,  is  dead. 

Ye  only  have  I known  of  all  the  families  of  the  earth. 

He  and  they  w^e  know,  but  who  are  you  ? 

She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

Who  did  they  send  to  him  on  so  important  an  errand  ? 

That  is  the  friend  who  you  must  receive  cordially,  and  who 
you  cannot  esteem  too  highly. 

He  invited  my  brother  and  I to  see  and  examine  his  library. 

He  who  committed  the  offence,  you  should  correct,  not  I 
who  am  innocent. 

We  should  fear  and  obey  the  Author  of  our  being,  even  He 
who  has  power  to  reward  or  punish  us  for  ever. 

They  who  he  had  most  injured,  he  had  the  greatest  reason  to 
love. 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xi. 

See  Vol.  1.  p 175.  Vol.  2.  p.  196. 

1.  Though  he  now  takes  pleasure  in  them,  he  will  one  day 
repent  him  of  indulgences  so  unwarrantable. 

The  nearer  his  virtues  approached  him  to  the  great  example 
before  him,  the  humbler  he  grew. 

It  will  be  very  difficult  to  agree  his  conduct  with  the  princi- 
ples he  professes. 

2.  To  ingratiate  with  some,  by  traducing  others,  marks  a 
base  and  despicable  mind. 

I shall  premise  with  two  or  three  general  observations. 


62 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  12. 


3.  If  such  maxims,  and  such  practices  prevail,  what  has  be- 
come of  decency  and  virtue  ? 

I have  come  according  to  the  time  proposed ; but  I have 
fallen  upon  an  evil  hour. 

The  mighty  rivals  are  now  at  length  agreed. 

The  influence  of  his  corrupt  example  was  then  entirely 
ceased. 

He  was  entered  into  the  connexion,  before  the  consequences 
were  considered. 

4.  Well  may  you  be  afraid ; it  is  him  indeed. 

I would  act  the  same  part  if  I were  him,  or  in  his  situation. 

Search  the  Scriptures  ; for  in  them  ye  think  ye  have  eternal 
life  : and  they  are  them  which  testify  of  me. 

Be  composed  ; it  is  me  : you  have  no  cause  for  fear. 

I cannot  tell  who  has  befriended  me,  unless  it  is  him  from 
whom  I have  received  many  benefits. 

I know  not  whether  it  were  them  who  conducted  the  busi- 
ness ; but  I am  certain  it  was.  not  him. 

He  so  much  resembled  my  brother,  that  at  first  sight,  I took 
it  to  be  he. 

After  all  their  professions,  is  it  possible  to  be  them  ? 

It  could  not  have  been  her,  for  she  always  behaves  dis- 
creetly. 

If  it  was  not  him,  who  do  you  imagine  it  to  have  been  ? 

Who  do  you  think  him  to  be  ? 

Whom  do  the  people  say  that  we  are  ? 

5.  Whatever  others  do,  let  thou  and  I act  wisely. 

Let  them  and  we  unite  to  oppose  this  growing  evil. 


RULE  XII. 

One  verb  governs  another  that  follows  it,  or  depends  upon  it, 
in  the  infinitive  mood : as,  ‘‘  Cease  to  do  evil : learn  to  do  well 
“ We  should  he  prepared  to  render  an  account  of  our  actions ^ 

The  preposition  to,  though  generally  used  before  the  latter 
verb,  is  sometimes  properly  omitted : as,  “ I heard  him  say  it 
instead  of,  “ to  say  itP 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  183,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  12. 

It  is  better  to  live  on  a little,  than  outlive  a great  deal. 

You  ought  not  walk  too  hastily. 


Rule  13. 


SYNTAX. 


63 


I wish  him  not  wrestle  with  his  happiness. 

I need  not  to  solicit  him  to  do  a kind  action. 

I dare  not  to  proceed  so  hastily,  lest  I should  give  offence. 

I have  seen  some  young  persons  to  conduct  themselves  very 
discreetly. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  ohsermtions 
under  rule  xii. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  183,  Vol.  2.  p.  197. 

1.  It  is  a great  support  to  virtue,  when  we  see  a good  mind 
to  maintain  its  patience  and  tranquillity,  under  injuries  and  afflic- 
tion, and  to  cordially  forgive  its  oppressors. 

It  is  the  difference  of  their  conduct,  which  makes  us  to  ap- 
prove the  one,  and  to  reject  the  other. 

We  should  not  be  like  many  persons,  to  depreciate  the  virtues 
we  do  not  possess. 

To  see  young  persons  who  are  courted  by  health  and  plea- 
sure, to  resist  all  the  allurements  of  vice,  and  to  steadily  pursue 
virtue  and  knowledge,  is  cheering  and  delightful  to  every  good 
mind. 

They  acted  with  so  much  reserve,  that  some  persons  doubted 
them  to  be  sincere.. 

And  the  multitude  wondered,  when  they  saw  the  lame  to 
walk,  and  the  blind  to  see. 


RULE  XIII. 

In  the  use  of  words  and  phrases  which,  in  point  of  time,  relate 
to  each  other,  a due  regard  to  that  relation  should  he  observed. 
Instead  of  saying,  “ The  Lord  hath  given,  and  the  Lord  hath 
taken  away  f we  should  say,  ‘‘The  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord  hath 
taken  awayJ^  Instead  of,  “ I remember  the  family  more  than 
twenty  years  f it  should  be,  “I  have  remembered  the  family  more 
than  twenty  years^ 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  185,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  13. 

The  next  new  year\s  day,  I shall  be  at  school  three  years. 

And  he  that  was  dead,  sat  up  and  began  to  speak. 

I should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  will  gratify  me  in  that  par- 
ticular. 

And  the  multitude  wondered,  when  they  saw  the  dumb  to 
speak,  the  maimed  to  be  whole,  the  lame  to  walk,  and  the  blind 
seeing. 


EXERCISES. 


64 


Rule  13. 


I have  compassion  on  the  multitude,  because  they  continue 
with  me  now  three  days. 

In  the  treasury  belonging  to  the  Cathedral  in  this  city,  is  pre- 
served with  the  greatest  veneration,  for  upwards  of  six  hundred 
years,  a dish  which  they  pretend  to  be  made  of  emerald. 

The  court  of  Rome  gladly  laid  hold  on  all  the  opportunities, 
which  the  imprudence,  weakness,  or  necessities  of  princes,  af- 
ford it,  to  extend  its  authority. 


Fierce  as  he  mov’d  his  silver  shafts  resound. 

They  maintained  that  Scripture  conclusion,  that  all  mankind 
rise  from  one  head. 

John  will  earn  his  wages,  when  his  service  is  completed. 

Ye  will  not  come  unto  me,  that  ye  might  have  life. 

Be  that  as  it  will,  he  cannot  justify  his  conduct. 

I have  been  at  London  a year,  and  seen  the  king  last 
summer. 

After  we  visited  London,  we  returned,  content  and  thankful, 
to  our  retired  and  peaceful  habitation. 


The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xiii. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  187,  Vol.  2.  p.  199. 

1.  I purpose  to  go  to  London  in  a few  months,  and  after  I 
shall  finish  my  business  there,  to  proceed  to  America. 

These  prosecutions  of  William  seem  to  be  the  most  iniquitous 
measures  pursued  by  the  court,  during  the  time  that  the  use  of 
parliaments  was  suspended. 

From  the  little  conversation  I had  with  him,  he  appeared  to 
have  been  a man  of  letters. 

I always  intended  to*haye  rewarded  my  son  according  to  his 
merit. 

It  would,  on  reflection,  have  given  me  great  satisfaction,  to 
relieve  him  from  that  distressed  situation. 

It  required  so  much  care,  that  I thought  I should  have  lost  it 
before  I reached  home. 

We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have  done. 

He  would  have  assisted  one  of  his  friends,  if  he  could  do 
it  without  injuring  the  other ; but  as  that  could  not  have  been 
done,  he  avoided  all  interference. 

Must  it  not  be  expected,  that  he  would  have  defended  an  au- 
thority which  had  been  so  long  exercised  without  controversy  ? 


Rule  14, 


SYNTAX. 


65 


These  enemies  of  Christianity  were  confounded,  whilst  they 
were  expecting  to  have  found  an  opportunity  to  have  betrayed 
its  author. 

His  sea  sickness  was  so  great,  that  I often  feared  he  would 
have  died  before  our  arrival. 

If  these  persons  had  intended  to  deceive,  they  would  have 
taken  care  to  have  avoided,  what  would  expose  them  to  the 
objections  of  their  opponents. 

It  was  a pleasure  to  have  received  his  approbation  of  my 
labours  ; for  which  I cordially  thanked  him. 

It  would  have  afforded  me  still  greater  pleasure,  to  receive 
his  approbation  at  an  earlier  period : but  to  receive  it  all, 
reflected  credit  upon  me. 

To  be  censured  by  him,  would  soon  have  proved  an  insuper- 
able discouragement. 


Him  portion’d  maids,  apprentic’d  orphans  blest, 

The  young  who  labour,  and  the  old  who  rest. 

The  doctor,  in  his  lecture,  said,  that  fever  always  produced 
thirst. 

RULE  XIV. 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs  from  which 
they  are  derived : as,  “ I am  weary  with  hearing  him  “ She  is 
instructing  us  f “ The  tutor  is  admonishing  Charles^ 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  192,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  14. 

Esteeming  theirselves  wise,  they  became  fools. 

Suspecting  not  only  ye,  but  they  also,  I was  studious  to 
avoid  all  intercourse. 

I could  not  avoid  considering,  in  some  degree,  they  as  ene- 
mies to  me : and  he  as  a suspicious  friend. 

From  having  exposed  hisself  too  freely  in  different  climates, 
he  entirely  lost  his  health. 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  ohserva- 
vations  under  rule  xiv. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  192.  Vol  2.  p.  200. 

I.  By  observing  of  truth,  you  will  command  esteem,  as  well 
as  secure  peace. 

He  prepared  them  for  this  event,  by  the  sending  to  them 
proper  information. 

Vol.  II. 


9 


1 


66  EXERCISES.  Rule  14. 

A person  may  be  great  or  rich  by  chance ; but  cannot  be 
wise  or  good,  without  the  taking  pains  for  it. 

Nothing  could  have  made  her  so  unhappy,  as  the  marrying  a 
man  who  possessed  such  principles. 

The  changing  times  and  seasons,  the  removing  and  setting  up 
kings,  belong  to  Providence  alone. 

The  middle  station  of  life  seems  to  be  the  most  advanta- 
geously situated  for  gaining  of  wisdom.  Poverty  turns  our 
thoughts  too  much  upon  the  supplying  our  wants  ; and  riches 
upon  the  enjoying  our  superfluities. 

Pliny,  speaking  of  Cato  the  Censor’s  disapproving  the  Gre- 
cian orators,  expressed  himself  thus. 

Propriety  and  pronunciation  is  the  giving  to  every  w^ord  that 
sound,  which  the  most  polite  usage  of  the  language  appropriates 
to  it. 

The  not  attending  to  this  rule,  is  the  cause  of  a very  com- 
mon error.  ^ 

This  was  in  fact  a converting  the  deposit  to  his  own  use. 

2.  There  will  be  no  danger  of  their  spoiling  their  faces,  or  of 
their  gaining  convertsv 

For  his  avoiding  that  precipice,  he  is  indebted  to  his  friend’s 
care. 

It  was  from  our  misunderstanding  the  directions,  that  we 
lost  our  way. 

In  tracing  of  his  history,  W’e  discover  little  that  is  worthy  of 
imitation. 

By  reading  of  books  written  by  the  best  authors,  his  mind 
became  highly  improved. 

3.  By  too  eager  pursuit,  he  run  a great  risk  of  being  dis- 
appointed. 

He  had  not  long  enjoyed  repose,  before  he  begun  to  be 
weary  of  having  nothing  to  do. 

He  was  greatly  heated  and  drunk  with  avidity. 

Though  his  conduct  was,  in  some  respects,  exceptionable, 
yet  he  dared  not  commit  so  great  an  offence,  as  that  which 
W’^as  proposed  to  him. 

A second  deluge  learning  thus  o’er-run  : 

And  the  monks  finish’d  what  the  Goths  begun. 

If  some  events  had  not  fell  out  very  unexpectedly,  I should 
have  been  present. 

He  would  have  went  with  us,  had  he  been  invited. 

He  returned  the  goods  which  he  had  stole,  and  made  all  the 
reparation  in  his  power. 


Rule  15. 


SYNTAX. 


67 


They  have  chose  the  part  of  honour  and  virtue. 

His  vices  have  weakened  his  mind,  and  broke  his  health. 

He  had  mistook  his  true  interest,  and  found  himself  forsook 
by  his  former  adherents. 

The  bread  that  has  been  eat  is  soon  forgot. 

No  contentions  have  arose  amongst  them  since  their  recon- 
ciliation. 

The  cloth  had  no  seam,  but  was  wove  throughout. 

The  French  language  is  spoke  in  every  state  in  Europe. 

His  resolution  was  too  strong  to  be  shook  by  slight  oppo- 
sition. 

He  was  not  much  restrained  afterwards,  having  taken  im- 
proper liberties  at  first. 

He  has  not  yet  wore  off  the  rough  manners  which  he  brought 
with  him. 

You  who  have  forsook  your  friends,  are  entitled  to^no  con- 
fidence. 

They  who  bore  a part  in  the  labour,  shall  share  the 
rewards. 

When  the  rules  have  been  wantonly  broke,  there  can  be  no 
plea  for  favour. 

He  whites  as  the  best  authors  w^ould  have  wrote,  had  they 
writ  on  the  same  subject. 

He  heapt  up  great  riches,  but  past  his  time  miserably. 

He  talkt  and  stampt  with  such  vehemence  that  he  was  sus- 
pected to  be  insane. 

RULE  XV. 

Adverbs^  though  they  have  no  government  of  case^  tense, 
require  an  appropriate  situation  in  the  sentence,  viz.  for  the  most 
part,  hef ore  adjectives,  after  verbs  active  or  neuter,  and  frequently, 
between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb,  as,  ‘‘  He  made  a very  sensible 
discourse : he  spoke  unaffectedly  and  forcibly,  and  was  attentively 
heard  by  the  whole  assembly 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  196,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  15. 

He  was  pleasing  not  often,  because  he  was  vain. 

William  nobly  acted,  though  he  was  unsuccessful. 

We  may  happily  live,  though  our  possessions  are  small. 

From  wdience  w^e  may  date  likewise  the  period  of  this 
event. 

It  cannot  be  impertinent  or  ridiculous  therefore  to  remon- 
strate. 

He  offered  an  apology,  which  being  not  admitted,  he  be- 
came submissive. 


68 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  15. 


These  things  should  be  never  separated. 

Unless  he  have  more  government  of  himself,  he  will  be 
always  discontented. 

Never  sovereign  was  so  much  beloved  by  the  people. 

He  was  determined  to  invite  back  the  king,  and  to  call  to- 
gether his  friends. 

So  well  educated  a boy  gives  great  hopes  to  his  friends. 

Not  only  he  found  her  employed,  but  pleased  and  tranquil 
also. 

We  always  should  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 

The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

Having  not  known,  or  having  not  considered,  the  measures 
proposed,  he  failed  of  success. 

My  opinion  was  given  on  rather  a cursory  perusal  of  the 
book. 

It  is  too  common  with  mankind,  to  ^ be  engrossed,  and  over- 
come totally,  by  present  events. 

When  the  Romans  were  pressed  with  a foreign  enemy,  the 
women  contributed  all  their  rings  and  jewels  voluntarily,  to 
assist  the  government. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xv. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  197.  Vol.  2.  p.  203. 

I.  They  could  not  persuade  him,  though  they  were  never  so 
eloquent. 

If  some  persons’  opportunities  were  never  so  favourable,  they 
would  be  too  indolent  to  improve  them. 


2.  He  drew  up  a petition,  where  he  too  freely  represented  his 
own  merits. 

His  follies  had  reduced  him  to  a situation  where  he  had  much 
to  fear,  and  nothing  to  hope. 

It  is  reported  that  the  prince  will  come  here  to-morrow. 

George  is  active  ; he  walked  there  in  less  than  an  hour. 

Where  are  you  all  going  in  such  haste  ? 

Whither  have  they  been  since  they  left  the  city  ? 

3.  Charles  left  the  seminary  too  early,  since  when  he  has 
made  very  little  improvement. 

Nothing  is  better  w^orth  the  while  of  young  persons,  than  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  and  virtue. 


Rule  16. 


SYNTAX. 


69 


RULE  XVI, 

Two  negatives^  in  English,  destroy  one  another,  or  are  equim- 
lent  to  an  affirmative  : as,  “ Nor  did  they  not  perceive  him that 
is,  “ They  did  perceive  him^  ‘‘His  language,  though  inelegant, 
is  not  ungrammatical that  is,  “It  is  grammatical,^^ 


See  Vol.  1.  p.  198,  and  the  Key,  Part  3,  Chap.  1.  Rule  16, 


Neither  riches  nor  honours,  nor  no  such  perishing  goods,  can 
satisfy  the  desires  of  an  immortal  spirit. 

Be  honest,  nor  take  no  shape  nor  semblance  of  disguise. 

We  need  not,  nor  do  not,  confine  his  operations  to  narrow 
limits, 

I am  resolved  not  to  comply  with  the  proposal,  neither  at  pre- 
sent, nor  at  any  other  time. 

There  cannot  be  nothing  more  insignificant  than  vanity. 

Nothing  never  affected  her  so  much  as  this  misconduct  of  her 
child. 

Do  not  interrupt  me  yourselves,  nor  let  no  one  disturb  my 
retirement. 

These  people  do  not  judge  wisely,  nor  take  no  proper  measures 
to  affect  their  purpose. 

The  measure  is  so  exceptionable,  that  we  cannot  by  no  means 
permit  it. 

I have  received  no  information  on  the  subject,  neither  from 
him  nor  from  his  friend. 

Precept  nor  discipline  is  not  so  forcible  as  example. 

The  king  nor  the  queen  was  not  at  all  deceived  in  the  business. 

RULE  XVII. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case : as,  “I  have  heard  a good, 
character  of  her  f “ From  him  that  is  needy,  turn  not  away  f 
“ A word  to  the  wise  is  sufficient  for  them “ We  may  he  good 
and  happy  without  riches. 

See  Vol,  1.  p.  199.  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  17. 

We  are  all  accountable  creatures,  each  for  hisself. 

They  willingly,  and  of  theirselves,  endeavoured  to  make  up 
the  difference. 

He  laid  the  suspicion  upon  somebody,  I know  not  who,  in  the 
company. 


70 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  a. 


I hope  it  is  not  I who  he  is  displeased  with. 

To  poor  we  there  is  not  much  hope  remaining. 

Does  that  boy  know  who  he  speaks  to  ? Who  does  he  offer 
such  language  to  ? 

It  was  not  he  that  that  they  were  so  angry  w’ith. 

What  concord  can  subsist  between  those  who  commit  crimes, 
and  they  who  abhor  them  ? 

The  person  who  I travelled  with,  has  sold  the  horse  which  he 
rode  on  during  our  journey. 

It  is  not  I he  is  engaged  with. 

Who  did  he  receive  that  intelligence  from  ? 

The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xvii. 


See  Vol.  1.  p.  199.  Vol.  2.  p.  204. 


1.  To  have  no  one  whom  we  heartily  wish  well  to,  and  whom 
we  are  warmly  concerned  for,  is  a deplorable  state. 

He  is  a friend  whom  I am  highly  indebted  to. 

2.  On  these  occasions,  the  pronoun  is  governed  by,  and  con- 
sequently agrees  with,  the  preceding  word. 

They  were  refused  entrance  into,  and  forcibly  driven  from 
the  house. 

3.  We  are  often  disappointed  of  things,  which  before  posses- 
sion, promised  much  enjoyment. 

I have  frequently  desired  their  company,  but  have  always 
hitherto  been  disappointed  in  that  pleasure. 

4.  She  finds  a difficulty  of  fixing  her  mind. 

Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation  to  her  understanding.  ' y 

There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  for  thirst. 

We  can  fully  confide  on  none  but  the  truly  good. 

I have  no  occasion  of  his  services. 

Many  have  profited  from  good  advice. 

Many  ridiculous  practices  have  been  brought  in  vogue. 

The  error  was  occasioned  by  compliance  to  earnest  entreaty. 

This  is  a principle  in  unison  to  our  nature. 

We  should  entertain  no  prejudices  to  simple  and  rustic  per- 
sons. 

They  are  at  present  resolved  of  doing  their  duty. 

That  boy  is  known  under  the  name  of  the  Idler. 


Rule  18, 


SYNTAX. 


71 


Though  conformable  with  custom,  it  is  not  warrantable. 

This  remark  is  founded  in  truth. 

His  parents  think  on  him,  and  his  improvements,  with  pleasure 
and  hope. 

His  excuse  was  admitted  of  by  his  master. 

What  went  ye  out  for  to  see  ? 

There  appears  to  have  been  a million  men  brought  into  the 
field. 

His  present  was  accepted  of  by  his  friends. 

More  than  a thousand  of  men  were  destroyed. 

It  is  my  request  that  he  will  be  particular  in  speaking  to  the 
following  points. 

The  Saxons  reduced  the  greater  part  of  Britain  to  their  own 
power. 

He  lives  opposite  the  Royal  Exchange. 

Their  house  is  situated  to  the  north-east  side  of  the  road. 

The  performance  was  approved  of  by  all  who  understood  it. 

He  was  accused  with  having  acted  unfairly. 

She  has  an  abhorrence  to  all  deceitful  conduct. 

They  were  some  distance  from  home,  when  the  accident  hap- 
pened. 

His  deportment  was  adapted  for  conciliating  regard. 

My  father  writes  me  very  frequently. 

Their  conduct  was  agreeable  with  their  profession. 

We  went  leisurely  above  stairs,  and  came  hastily  below. 

We  shall  write  up  stairs  this  forenoon,  and  down  stairs  in  the 
afternoon. 

The  politeness  of  the  world  has  the  same  resemblance  with 
benevolence,  that  the  shadow  has  with  the  substance. 

He  had  a taste  of  such  studies,  and  pursued  them  earnestly. 

When  we  have  had  a true  taste  for  the  pleasures  of  virtue, 
we  can  have  no  relish  of  those  of  vice. 

How  happy  is  it  to  know  how  to  live  at  times  by  one’s  self, 
to  leave  one’s  self  in  regret,  to  find  one’s  self  again  with  plea- 
sure ! The  world  is  then  less  necessary  for  us. 

Civility  makes  its  way  among  every  kind  of  persons. 

5.  1 have  been  to  London,  after  having  resided  a year  at 
France  ; and  I now  live  in  Islington. 

They  have  just  landed  in  Hull,  and  are  going  for  Liverpool. 

They  intend  to  reside  some  time  at  Ireland. 


RULE  XVIH. 

Conjunctions  connect  the  same  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs,  and 
cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns : as,  ‘‘  Candour  is  to  he  approved 


72 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  18. 


and  practised “ If  thou  sincerely  desire^  and  earnestly  pursue 
virtue,  she  will  assuredly  he  found  hy  thee,  and  prove  a rich  re- 
ward “ The  master  taught  both  her  and  me  to  write “ He 
and  she  were  schoolfellows.^^ 


See  Vol.  I.  p.  204,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  18. 

Professing  regard,  and  to  act  differently,  discover  a base 
mind. 

Did  he  not  tell  me  his  fault,  and  entreated  me  to  forgive 
him. 

My  brother  and  him  are  tolerable  grammarians. 

If  he  understand  the  subject,  and  attends  to  it  industriously, 
he  can  scarcely  fail  of  success. 

You  and  us  enjoy  many  privileges. 

This  excellent  person  appeared  to  be  fully  resigned,  either  to 
live  or  to  have  died. 

She  and  him  are  very  unhappily  connected. 

To  be  moderate  in  our  views,  and  proceeding  temperately 
in  the  pursuit  of  them,  is  the  best  way  to  ensure  success. 

On  that  occasion,  he  could  not  have  done  more,  nor  offer  to 
do  less. 

Between  him  and  I there  is  some  disparity  of  years ; but 
none  between  him  and  she. 

By  forming  themselves  on  fantastic  models,  and  ready  to  vie 
with  one  another  in  the  reigning  follies,  the  young  begin  with  be- 
ing ridiculous,  and  ending  with  being  vicious  and  immoral. 

In  early  life,  they  were  headstrong  and  rash,  though  now  are 
compliant  and  gentle. 

Can  these  persons  consent  to  such  a proposal,  and  will  consent 
to  it  ? 

How  affluent,  and  distinguished  for  talents,  he  is,  and  how  ex- 
tensively useful  might  be ! 

We  have  met  with  many  disappointments : and,  if  life  con- 
tinue, shall  probably  meet  with  many  more. 

He  might  have  been  happy,  and  is  now  fully  convinced  of  it. 

Virtue  is  praised  by  many,  and  doubtless  would  be  desired 
also,  if  her  worth  were  really  known. 

Though  Charles  was  sometimes  hasty,  yet  was  not  often  un- 
generous. 

He  could  command  his  temper,  though  certainly  would  not. 

They  may  visit  that  country,  but  unquestionably  should  not 
long  remain  there. 


Rule  19. 


SYNTAX. 


73 


RULE  XIX. 

Some  conjunctions  require  the  indicative^  some  the  subjunctive 
mood  after  them.  It  is  a general  rule,  that  when  something  con- 
tingent or  doubtful  is  implied,  the  subjunctive  ought  to  be  used : 
as,  If  I were  to  write,  he  would  not  regard  itf  He  will  not 
be  pardoned  unless  he  repent.^’ 

Conjunctions  that  (ire  of  a positive  and  absolute  nature,  require 
tlie  indicative  mood.  “ As  virtue  advances  so  vice  recedes ; 

He  is  healthy,  because  he  is  temperate. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  205,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  19. 

If  he  acquires  riches,  they  will  corrupt  his  mind,  and  be  use- 
less to  others. 

Though  he  urges  me  yet  more  earnestly,  I shall  not  comply, 
unless  he  advances  more  forcible  reasons. 

I shall  walk  in  the  fields  to-day,  unless  it  rains. 

As  the  governors  were  present,  the  children  behaved  prop- 
erly. 

She  disapproved  the  measure,  because  it  were  very  im- 
proper. 

Though  he  be  high,  he  hath  respect  to  the  lowly. 

Though  he  were  her  friend,  he  did  not  attempt  to  justify  her 
conduct. 

Whether  he  improve  or  not,  I cannot  determine. 

Though  the  fact  be  extraordinary,  it  certainly  did  happen. 

Remember  w^hat  thou  wert,  and  be  humble. 

O ! that  his  heart  was  tender,  and  susceptible  of  the  woes  of 
others, 

Shall  then  this  verse  to  future  age  pretend. 

Thou  wert  my  guide,  philosopher,  and  friend  ? 

The  examples  which  follow,  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observa- 
tions under  rule  xix. 

See  Vol.  I.  p.  206.  Vol.  2.  p.  207, 

1.  Despise  not  any  condition,  lest  it  happens  to  be  your 
own. 

Let  him  that  is  sanguine,  take  heed  lest  he  miscarries. 

Take  care  that  thou  breakest  not  any  of  the  established 
rules. 

If  he  does  but  intimate  his  desire,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce disobedience. 

Vol.  II. 


10 


74  EXERCISES.  Rule  19, 

At  the  time  of  his  return,  if  he  is  but  expert  in  the  busines, 
he  will  find  employment. 

If  he  do  but  speak  to  display  his  abilities,  he  is  unworthy  of 
attention. 

If  he  but  in  health,  I am  content. 

If  he  does  promise,  he  will  certainly  perform. 

Though  he  do  praise  her,  it  is  only  for  her  beauty. 

If  thou  dost  not  forgive,  perhaps  thou  wilt  not  be  forgiven. 

If  thou  do  sincerely  beheve  the  truths  of  religion,  act  accord- 
ingly. 

2.  His  confused  behaviour  made  *it  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  he  were  guilty. 

He  is  so  conscious  of  deserving  the  rebuke,  that  he  dare  not 
make  any  reply.  ' 

His  apology  was  so  plausible,  that  many  befriended  him,  and 
thought  he  were  innocent. 

3.  If  one  man  prefer  a life  of  industry,  it  is  because  he  has 
an  idea  of  comfort  in  wealth  ; if  another  prefers  a life  of  gaiety, 
it  is  from  a like  idea  concerning  pleasure. 

No  one  engages  in  that  business,  unless  he  aim  at  reputation, 
or  hopes  for  some  singular  advantage. 

Though  the  design  be  laudable,  and  is  favourable  to  our 
interest,  it  will  involve  much  anxiety  and  labour. 

4.  Unless  he  learns  faster,  he  will  be  no  scholar. 

Though  he  falls,  he  shall  pot  be  utterly  cast  down. 

On  condition  that  he  comes,  I will  consent  to  stay. 

However  that  affair  terminates,  my  conduct  will  be  unim- 
peachable. 

If  virtue  rewards  us  not  so  soon  as  we  desire,  the  payment 
will  be  made  with  interest. 

Till  repentance  composes  his  mind,  he  will  be  a stranger  to 
peace. 

Whether  he  confesses,  or  not,  the  truth  will  certainly  be  dis- 
covered. 

If  thou  censurest  uncharitably,  thou  wilt  be  entitled  to  no 
favour. 

Though,  at  times,  the  ascent  to  the.  temple  of  virtue, 
appears  steep  and  craggy,  be  not  discouraged.  Persevere 
until  thou  gainest  the  summit : there,  all  is  order,  beauty,  and 
pleasure. 

If  Charlotte  desire  to  gain  esteem  and  love,  she  does  not 
employ  the  proper  means. 

Unless  the  accountant  deceive  me,  my  estate  is  considerably 
improved. 


Rule  19. 


SYNTAX. 


75 


Though  self-government  produce  some  uneasines,  it  is  light, 
when  compared  with  the  pain  of  vicious  indulgence. 

Whether  he  think  as  he  speaks,  time  will  discover. 

If  thou  censure  uncharitably,  thou  deservest  no  favour. 

Though  virtue  appear  severe,  she  is  truly  amiable. 

Though  success  be  very  doubtful^  it  is  proper  that  he  endea- 
vours to  succeed. 

5.  If  thou  have  promised,  be  faithful  to  thy  engagement. 

Though  he  have  proved'  his  right  to  submission,  he  is  too 

generous  to  exact  it. 

Unless  he  have  improved,  he  is  unfit  for  office. 

6.  If  thou  hadst  succeeded,  perhaps  thou  wouldst  not  be  the 
happier  for  it. 

Unless  thou  shall  see  the  propriety  of  the  measure,  we  shall 
not  desire  thy  support. 

Though  thou  will  not  acknowledge,  thou  canst  not  deny  the 
fact. 

7.  If  thou  gave  liberally,  thou  wilt  receive  a liberal  reward. 

Though  thou  did  injure  him,  he  harbours  no  resentment. 

It  would  be  well,  if  the  report  was  only  the  misrepresenta- 
tion of  her  enemies. 

Was  he  ever  so  great  and  opulent,  this  conduct  would  debase 
him. 

Was  I to  enumerate  all  her  virtues,  it  w^ould  look  like  flat- 
tery. 

Though  I was  perfect,  yet  w^ould  I not  presume. 

8.  If  Thou  may  share  in  his  labours,  be  thankful,  and  do  it 
cheerfully. 

Unless  thou  can  fairly  support  the  cause,  give  it  up  honour- 
ably. 

Though  thou  might  have  foreseen  the  danger  thou  couldst  not 
have  avoided  it. 

If  thou  could  convince  him,  he  would  not  act  accordingly. 

If  thou  would  improve  in  knowledge,  be  diligent. 

Unless  thou  should  make  a timely  retreat,  the  danger  will  be 
unavoidable. 

I have  laboured  and  wearied  myself,  that  thou  may  be  at 
ease. 

He  enlarged  on  those  dangers,  that  thou  should  avoid  them. 

9.  Neither  the  cold  or  the  feiwid,  but  characters  uniformly 
warm,  are  formed  for  friendship. 


76 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  19. 


They  are  both  praise-worthy,  and  one  is  equally  deserving  as 
the  other. 

He  is  not  as  diligent  ^nd  learned  as  his  brother. 

I will  present  it  to  him  myself,  or  direct  it  to  be  given  to 
him. 

Neither  despise,  or  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

The  house  is  not  as  commodious  as  we  expected  it  would  be. 

I must,  however,  be  so  candid  as  to  own  I have  been  mistaken. 

There  was  something  so  amiable^  and  yet  so  piercing  in  his 
look,  as  affected  me  at  once  with  love  and  terror. 

“ I gain’d  a son  ; 

And  such  a son,  as  all  men  hail’d  me  happy.” 

The  dog  in  the  manger  would  not  eat  the  hay  himself,  nor 
suffer  the  ox  to  eat  it. 

As  far  as  I am  able  to  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

We  should  faithfully  perform  the  trust  committed  to  us,  or 
ingenuously  relinquish  the  charge. 

He  is  not  as  eminent,  and  as  much  esteemed,  as  he  thinks 
himself  to  be. 

The  work  is  a dull  performance  ; and  is  neither  capable  of 
pleasing  the  understanding,  or  the  imagination. 

There  is  no  condition  so  secure,  as  cannot  admit  of  change. 

This  is  an  event,  which  nobody  presumes  upon,  or  is  so  san- 
guine to  hope  for.  v 

We  are  generally  pleased  with  any  little  accomplishments  of 
body  or  mind.  / 

10.  Be  ready  to  succour  such  persons  who  need  your  assist- 
ance. 

The  matter  was  no  sooner  proposed,  but  he  privately  with- 
drew to  consider  it. 

He  has  too  much  sense  and  prudence  than  to  become  a dupe 
to  such  artifices.  ^ 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  our  conduct,  as  far  as  it  respects 
others,  appears  to  be  unexceptionable. 

The  resolution  was  not  the  less  fixed,  that  the  secret  was  yet 
communicated  to  very  few. 

He  opposed  the  most  remarkable  corruptions  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  so  as  that  his  doctrines  were  embraced  by  great 
numbers. 

He  gained  nothing  further  by  his  speech,  but  only  to  be  com- 
mended for  his  eloquence. 

He  has  little  more  of  the  scholar  besides  the  name. 

He  has  little  of  the  scholar  than  the  name. 


Rule  20, 


SYNTAX. 


77 


They  had  no  sooner  risen,  but  they  applied  themselves  to  their 
studies. 

From  no  other  institution,  besides  the  admirable  one  of  juries, 
could  so  great  a benefit  be  expected. 

Those  savage  people  seemed  to  have  no  other  element  but 
war. 

Such  men  that  act  treacherously  ought  to  be  avoided. 

Germany  ran  the  same  risk  as  Italy  had  done. 

No  errors  are  so  trivial,  but  they  deserve  to  be  corrected. 


RULE  XX. 


When  the  qualities  of  different  things  are  compared,  the  latter 
noun  or  pronoun  is  not  governed  hy  the  conjunction  than  or  as, 
hut  agrees  with  the  verb,  or  is  governed  by  the  verb  or  the  prepo- 
sition expressed  or  understood : as,  ‘‘Thou  art  wiser  than  I;”  that 
is,  “ than  I amP  “ They  loved  him  more  than  me that  is,  “more 
than  they  loved  meP  “ The  sentiment  is  well  expressed  by  Plato, 
but  much  better  by  Solomon  than  himf  that  is,  “than  by  him^ 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  214,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  1.  Rule  20. 

In  some  respects  we  have  had  as  many  advantages  as  them  : 
but  in  the  article  of  a good  library,  they  have  had  a greater 
privilege  than  us. 

The  undertaking  was  much  better  executed  by  his  brother 
than  he.  ' 

They  are  much  greater  gainers  than  me  by  this  unexpected 
event. 

They  know  how  to  write  as  well  as  him  ; but  he  is  a much 
better  grammarian  than  them. 

Though  she  is  not  so  learned  as  him,  she  is  as  much  beloved 
and  respected. 

These  people,  though  they  possess  more  shining  qualities,  are 
not  so  proud  as  him,  nor  so  vain  as  her. 

The following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xx. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  214.  Vol.  2.  p.  21 1. ' 

I.  Who  betrayed  her  companion  ? Not  me. 

Who  revealed  the  secrets  he  ought  to  have  concealed?  Not  him. 

Who  related  falsehoods  to  screen  herself,  and  to  bring  an 
odium  upon  others  ? Not  me : it  was  her. 


78 


EXERCISES, 


Rule21. 


There  is  but  one  in  fault,  and  that  is  me. 

Whether  he  will  be  learned  or  no,  must  depend  on  his  appli- 
cation. 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  than  who  a more  courageous  person 
never  lived,  appears  to  have  been  destitute  of  the  tender  sensi- 
bilities of  nature. 

Salmasius  (a  more  learned  man  than  him  has  seldom  appear- 
ed) was  not  happy  at  the  close  of  life. 


RULE  XXL 

To  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions^  and  to  express  our  idea^  in 
few  words,  an  ellipsis,  orjomission  of  some  words,  is  frequently 
admitted.  Instead  of  saying,  “ He  was  a learned  man,  he  was  a 
wise  man,  and  he  was  a- good  man  we  make  use  of  the  ellipsis, 
and  say,  He  was  a learned,  wise,  and.  good  manP 

When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure  the  sentence,  weaken 
its  force,  or  he  attended  with  an  impropriety,  they  mu^t  he  express- 
ed, In  the  sentence,  We  are  apt  to  loVewho  love  us,’’  the 'word 
them  should  he  supplied.  “ A beautif  ul  field  and  trees f is  rwt 
proper  language.  It  should  he,  Beautiful  fields  and  trees  f or, 
A beautiful  field  and  fine  trees.” 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  217,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  U Rule  21. 

I gladly  shunned  who  gladly  fled  from  me. 

And  this  is  it  men  mean  by  distributive  justice,  and  is  proper- 
perly  termed  equity. 

His  honour,  interest,  religibn,  were  all  embarked  in  this  under- 
taking. 

When  so  good  a man  as  Socrates  fell  a victim  to  the  madness 
of  the  people,  truth,  virtue,  religion,  fell  with  him. 

The  fear  of  death,  nor  hope  of  life,  could  make  him  submit  to 
a dishonest  action.  - 

An  elegant  house  and  furniture  were  by  this  event,  irrecover- 
ably lost  to  the  owner. 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xxi. 

Bee  Vol.  1.  p.  217.  Vol.  2.  p.  212. 

I.  These  rules  are  addressed  to  none  but  the  intelligent  and 
the  attentive, 


Rule  21. 


SYNTAX. 


79 


The  gay  and  the  pleasing  are  sometimes,  the  most  insidious, 
and  the  most  dangerous  companions. 

Old  age  will  prove  a joyless  and  a dreary  season,  if  we  arrive 
at  it  with  an  unimproved,  or  with  a corrupted  mind. 

The  more  I see  of  his  conduct,  I like  him  better. 

It  is  not  only  the  duty,  but  interest  of  young  persons,  to  be 
studious  and  diligent. 

2.  These  counsels  were  the  dictates  of  virtue,  and  the  dic- 
tates of  true  honour. 

Avarice  and  cunning  may  acquire  an  estate  ; but  avarice  and 
cunning  cannot  gain  friends. 

A taste  for  useful  knowledge,  will  provide  for  us  a great  and 
noble  entertainment,  when  others  leave  us. 

Without  firmness,  nothing  that  is  great  can  be  undertaken ; 
that  is  difficult  or  hazardous,  can  be  accomplished. 

The  anxious  man  is  the  votary  of  riches ; the  negligent,  of 
pleasure. 

3.  His  crimes  had  brought  him  into  extreme  distress,  and  ex- 
treme perplexity. 

He  has  an  affectionate  brother,  and  an  affectionate  sister,  and 
they  live  in  great  harmony. 

We"  must  guard  against  too  great  severity,  and  facility  of 
manners. 

We  should  often  recollect  what  this  wisest  men  have  said  and 
written,  concerning  human  happiness  and  ’Vanity. 

That  species  of  commerce  will  produce  great  gain  or  loss. 

Many  days,  and,  even  weeks,  pass  away  unimproved. 

This  wonderful  action  struck  th^  beholders  with  exceeding 
astonishment. 

The  people  of  this  country  possess  a healthy  climate  and 
soil.  . 

They  enjoy  also  a free  constitution  and  laws. 

4.  His  reputation  and  his  estate  were  both  lost  by  gaming. 

This  intelligence  not  only  excited  our  hopes,  but  fears  too. 

His  conduct  is  not  scandalous ; and  that  is  the  best  can  be 

said  of  it. 

This  was  the  person  whom  calumny  had  greatly  abused,  and 
sustained  the  injustice  with  singular  patience. 

He  discovered  some  qualities  in  the  youth,  of  a disagreeable 
nature,  and  to  him  were  wholly  unaccountable. 

The  captain  had  several  men  died  in  his  ship,  of  the  scurvy. 

He  is  not  only  sensible  and  learned,  but  is  religious  too. 

The  Chinese  language  contains  an  immense  number  of 


80  EXERCISES.  Rule  21. 

words  ; and  who  would  learn  them  must  possess  a great 
memory. 

By  presumption  and  by  vanity,  we  provoke  enmity,  and  we 
incur  contempt. 

In  the  circumstances  I was  at  that  time,  my  troubles  pressed 
heavily  upon  me. 

He  has  destroyed  his  constitution,  by  the  very  same  errors 
that  so  many  have  been  destroyed. 

5.  He  is  temperate,  he  is  disinterested,  he  is  benevolent : he 
is  an  ornament  to  his  family,  and  a credit  to  his  pit)fession. 

Genuine  virtue  supposes  our  benevolence  to  be  strengthened, 
and  to  be  confirmed  by  principle. 

Perseverance  in  laudable  pursuits,  will  reward  all  our  toils, 
and  will  produce  effects  beyond  our  calculation. 

It  is  happy  for  us,  when  we  calmly  and  deliberately  look  back 
on  the  past,  and  can  quietly  anticipate  the  future. 

The  sacrifices  of  virtue  will  not  only  be  rewarded  hereafter, 
but  recompensed  even  in  this  life. 

All  those  possessed  of  any  office,  resigned  their  former  com- 
mission. 

If  young  persons  were  determined  to  conduct  themselves 
by  the  rules  of  virtue,  not  only  would  they  escape  innume- 
rable dangers,  but  command  respect  from  the  licentious  them- 
selves. 

Charles  was  a man  of  learning,  knowledge,  and  benevolence ; 
and,  what  is  still  more,  a true  Christian. 

6.  The  temper  of  him  who  is  always  in  the  bustle  of  the 
world,  will  ba  often  ruffled,  and  be  often  disturbed. 

We  often  commend  imprudently  as  well  as  censure  impru- 
dently. 

How  a seed  grows  up  into  a tree,  and  the  mind  acts  upon  the 
body,  are  mysteries  which  we  cannot  explain. 

Verily,  there  is  a reward  for  the  righteous  ! There  is  a God 
that  judge th  in  the  earth. 

7.  Changes  are  almost  continually  taking  place,  in  men  and 
in  manners,  in  opinions  and  in  customs,  in  private  fortunes  and 
public  conduct. 

Averse  either  to  contradict  or  blame,  the  too  complaisant 
man  goes  along  with  the  manners  that  prevail. 

By  this  habitual  indelicacy,  the  virgins  smiled  at  what  they 
blushed  before. 

They  are  now  reconciled  to  what  they  could  not  formerly  be 
prompted,  by  any  considerations. 


Rule  22. 


SYNTAX. 


81 


Censure  is  the  tax  which  a man  pays  the  public  for  being 
eminent. 

Reflect  on  the  state  of  human  life,  and  the  society  of  men, 
as  mixed  with  good  and  with  evil. 

8.  In  all  stations  and  conditions,  the  important  relations  take 
place,  of  masters  and  servants,  and  husbands  and  wives,  and 
parents  and  children,  and  brothers  and  friends,  and  citizens  and 
subjects. 

Destitute  of  principle,  he  regarded  neither  his  family,  nor  his 
friends,  nor  his  reputation. 

Religious  persons  are  often  unjustly  represented  as  persons  of 
romantic  character,  visionary  notions,  unacquainted  with  the 
wwld,  unfit  to  live  in  it. 

No  rank,  station,  dignity  of  birth,  possessions,  exempt  men 
from  contributing  their  share  to  public  utility. 

9.  Oh,  my  father ! Oh,  my  friend  ! how  great  has  been  my 
ingratitude  ! 

Oh,  piety  i virtue ! how  insensible  have  I been  to  your 
charms ! 

10.  That  is  a property  most  men  have,  or  at  least  may  attain. 

Why  do  ye  that  which  is  not  lawful  to  do  on  the  Sabbath 

days  ? 

The  showbread,  which  is  not  lawful  to  eat,  but  for  the  priests 
only. 

Most,  if  not  all  the  royal  family  had  quitted  the  place. 

By  these  happy  labours,  they  who  sow  and  reap,  will  rejoice 
together. 


RULE  XXII. 

All  the  parts  of  a sentence  should  correspond  to  each  other : a 
regular  and  dependent  construction^  throughout^  should  be  care- 
fully  preserved.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate : 
“ He  was  more  beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired,  as  Cinthior  It 
should  be,  “ He  was  more  beloved  than  Cinthio,  but  not  so  much 
admired.^' 


See  Vol.  1.  p.  222,  and  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap,  1.  Rule  22. 

Several  alterations  and  additions  have  been  made  to  the 
work. 

The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different  and  inferior  to  the 
second. 

Vol.  IL  li 


82 


EXERCISES. 


Rule  22. 


He  is  more  bold  and  active,  but  not  so  wise  and  studious  as 
his  companion. 

We  hear  the  sound  of  the  wind,  but  we  cannot  tell  w^hence 
it  cometh,  and  whither  it  goeth. 

Neither  has  he,  nor  any  other  persons,  suspected  so  much 
dissimulation. 

The  court  of  France,  or  England,  was  to  be  the  umpire. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  all  foreign  commodities,  were  plenty 
in  England. 

There  is  no  talent  so  useful  towards  success  in  business,  or 
which  puts  men  more  out  of  the  reach  of  accidents,  than  that 
quality  generally  possessed  by  persons  of  cool  temper,  and  is, 
in  common  language,  called  discretion. 

The  first  project  was  to  shorten  discourse,  by  cutting  polysyl- 
lables into  one. 

I shall  do  all  I can  to  persuade  others  to  take  the  same  mea- 
sures for  their  cure  which  I have. 

The  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ  among  one 
another. 

Micaiah  said.  If  thou  certainly  return  in  peace,  then  hath  not 
the  Lord  spoken  by  me. 

I do  not  suppose,  that  we  Britons  want  a genius,  more  than 
the  rest  of  our  neighbours. 

The  deaf  man  whose  ears  were  opened,  and  his  tongue 
loosened,  doubtless  glorified  the  great  Physician. 

Groves,  fields,  and  meadows,  are,  at  any  season  of  the  year, 
pleasant  to  look  upon ; but  never  so  much  as  in  the  opening  of 
the  spring. 

The  multitude  rebuked  thqm,  because  they  should  hold  their 
peace. 

The  intentions  of  some  of  these  philosophers,  nay,  of  many, 
might  and  probably  were  good. 

It  is  an  unanswerable  argument  of  a very  refined  age,  the 
wonderful  civilities  that  have  passed  between  the  nation  of  au- 
thors and  that  of  readers. 

It  was  an  unsuccessful  undertaking  ; which,  although  it  has 
failed,  is  no  objection  at  all  to  an  enterprise  so  well  concerted. 

The  reward  is  his  due,  and  it  has  already,  or  will  hereafter, 
be  given  to  him. 

By  intercourse  with  wise  and  experienced  persons,  who  know 
the  world,  we  may  improve  and  rub  off  the  rust  of  a private  and 
retired  education. 

Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even  more  valuable,  than 
knowledge. 

No  person  was  ever  so  perplexed,  or  sustained  the  mortifica- 
tions, as  he  has  done  to-day. 


Pi'omisciious. 


SYNTAX. 


83 


The  Romans  gave  not  only  the  freedom  of  the  city,  but 
capacity  for  employments,  to  several  towns  in  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
Germany. 

Such  writers  have  no  other  standard  on  which  to  form  them- 
selves, except  w^hat  chances  to  be  fashionable  and  popular. 

Whatever  we  do  secretly,  shall  be  displayed  and  heard  in 
the  clearest  light. 

To  the  happiness  of  possessing  a person  of  such  uncommon 
merit,  Boethius  soon  had  the  satisfaction  of  obtaining  the 
highest  honour  his  country  could  bestow. 


CHAPTER  IL 

CONTAINING  INSTANCES  OF  FALSE  SYNTAX,  PROMISCUOUSLY 
DISPOSED. 

Sec  the  Key.  Part  3.  Chap.  2.  Sect,  1. 

SECTION  I. 

Though  great  has  been  his  disobedience  and  his  folly,  yet 
if  he  sincerely  acknowledges  his  misconduct,  he  will  be  for- 
given. 

On  these  causes  depend  all  the  happiness  or  misery,  which 
exist  among  men. 

The  property  of  James,  I mean  his  books  and  furniture, 
were  wholly  destroyed. 

This  prodigy  of  learning,  this  scholar,  critic,  and  antiquarian, 
were  entirely  destitute  of  breeding  and  civility. 

That  writer  Jias  given  an  account  of  the  manner,  in  which 
Christianity  has  formerly  been  propagated  among  the  heathens. 

We  adore  the  Divine  Being,  he  who  is  from  eternity  to 
eternity. 

Thou,  Lord,  who  hath  permitted  affliction  to  come  upon  us, 
shall  deliver  us  from  it  in  due  time. 

In  this  place,  there  were  not  only  security,  but  an  abundance 
of  provisions. 

By  these  attainments  are  the  master  honoured,  and  the 
scholars  encouraged. 

The  sea  appeared  to  be  more  than  usually  agitated. 

Not  one  in  fifty  of  those  who  call  themselves  deists,  under- 
stand the  nature  of  the  religion  they  reject. 

Virtue  and  mutual  confidence  is  the  soul  of  friendship. 
Where  these  are  wanting,  disgust  or  hatred  often  follow'  little 
differences. 


84 


EXERCISES. 


Promiscuous. 


Time  and  chance  happeneth  to  all  men ; but  every  person 
do  not  consider  who  govern  those  powerful  causes. 

The  active  mind  of  man  never  or  seldom  rests  satisfied  with 
their  present  condition,  howsoever  prosperous. 

Habits  must  be  acquired  of  temperance  and  of  self-denial, 
that  we  may  be  able  to  resist  pleasure,  and  to  endure  pain, 
w^hen  either  of  them  interfere  with  our  duty. 

The  error  of  resting  wholly  on  faith,  or  on  works,  is  one  of 
those  seductions  which  most  easily  misleads  men  ; under  the 
semblance  of  piety,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  virtue  on  the 
other  hand. 

It  was  no  exaggerated  tale ; for  she  was  really  in  that  sad 
condition  that  her  friend  represented  her. 

An  army  present  a painful  sight  to  a feeling  mind. 

The  enemies  who  we  have  most  to  fear,  are  those  of  our  own 
hearts. 

Thou  art  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  who  was  to  come 
into  the  world,  and  hast  been  so  long  promised  and  desired. 

Thomas  disposition  is  better  than  his  brothers ; and  he 
appears  to  be  the  happiest  man  : but  some  degree  of  trouble  is 
all  mens  portion. 

Though  remorse  sleep  sometimes  during  prosperity,  it  will 
awake  surely  in  adversity. 

It  is  an  invariable  law  to  our  present  condition,  that  every 
pleasure  that  are  pursued  to  excess,  convert  themselves  into 
poison. 

If  a man  brings  into  the  solitary  retreat  of  age,  a vacant,  an 
unimproved  mind,  where  no  knowledge  dawns,  no  ideas  rise, 
wdiich  within  itself  has  nothing  to  feed  upon,  many  a heavy 
and  many  a comfortless  day  he  must  necessarily  pass. 

I cannot  yield  to  such  dishonourable  conduct,  neither  at  the 
present  moment  of  difficulty,  nor,  I trust,  under  no  circum- 
stances whatever. 

Themistocles  concealed  the  enterprises  of  Pausanias,  either 
thinking  it  base  to  betray  the  secrets  trusted  to  his  confidence, 
or  imagined  it  impossible  for  such  dangerous  and  ill-concerted 
schemes  to  take  effect. 

Pericles  gained  such  an  ascendant  over  the  minds  of  the 
Athenians,  that  lie  might  be  said  to  attain  a monarchical  power 
in  Athens. 

Christ  did  applaud  the  liberality  of  the  poor  widow,  who  he 
had  seen  casting  her  two  mites  in  the  treasury. 

A multiplicity  of  little  kind  offices,  in  persons  frequently 
conversant  with  each  other,  is  the  bands  of  society  and 
friendship. 

To  do  good  to  them  that  hate  us,  and,  on  no  occasion,  to 
seek  revenge,  is  the  duty  of  a Christian. 


Promiscuous,  \ syntax.  85 

If  a man  profess  a regard  for  the  duties  of  religion,  and  neglect 
that  of  morality  that  man’s  religion  is  vain. 

Affluence  might  give  us  respect,  in  the  eyes  of  the  vulgar,  but 
will  not  recommend  us  to  the  wise  and  good. 

The  polite,  accomplished  libertine,  is  but  miserable  amidst  all 
his  pleasures : the  rude  inhabitant  of  Lapland  is  happier  than 
him. 

The  cheerful  and  the  gay,  when  warmed  by  pleasure  and  by 
mirth,  lose  that  sobriety  and  that  self-denial,  which  is  essential  to 
the  support  of  virtue. 


SECTION  II. 

See  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  2.  Sect.  2. 

There  were,  in  the  metropolis,  much  to  amuse  them,  as  well 
as  many  things  to  excite  disgust. 

How  much  is  real  virtue  and  merit  exposed  to  suffer  the 
hardships  of  a stormy  life  ! 

This  is  one  of  the  duties  which  requires  peculiar  circum- 
spection. 

More  complete  happiness  than  I have  described,  seldom  falls 
to  the  lot  of  mortals. 

There  are  principles  in  man,  which  ever  have,  and  ever  will 
incline  him  to  offend. 

Whence  have  there  arose  such  a great  variety  of  opinions  and 
tenets  in  religion  ? 

Its  stature  is  less  than  that  of  a man ; but  its  strength  and 
agility  much  greater. 

They  that  honour  me,  them  will  I honour. 

He  summonses  me  to  attend,  and  I must  summons  the 
others. 

Then  did  the  officer  lay  hold  of  him,  and  executed  him  imme- 
diately. 

Who  is  that  person  whom  I saw  you  introduce,  and  present 
him  to  the  duke  ? 

I offer  observations  that  a long  and  chequered  pilgrimage 
have  enabled  me  to  make  on  man  ? 

Every  church  and  sect  of  people  have  a set  of  opinions  pecu- 
liar to  themselves. 

May  thou  as  well  as  me,  be  "meek,  patient,  and  forgiving. 

These  men  were  under  high  obligations  to  have  adhered  to 
their  friend  in  every  situation  of  life. 

After  I visited  Europe,  I returned  to  America. 

Their  example,  their  influence,  their  fortune,  every  talent 
they  possess,  dispenses  blessings  on  all  around  them. 


86  EXERCISES.  Promiscuous^ 

When  a string  of  such  sentences  succeed  one  another,  the 
effect  is  disagreeable. 

I have  lately  been  in  Gibraltar,  and  have  seen  the  comman- 
der-in-chief. 

Propriety  of  pronunciation,  is  the  giving  to  every  word  the 
sound  which  the  politest  usage  of  the  language  appropriates 
to  it. 

The  book  is  printed  very  neat,  and  on  a fine  wove  paper. 

The  fables  of  the  ancients  are  many  of  them  highly  in-- 
structive. 

He  resembles  one  of  those  solitary  animals  that  has  been 
forced  from  its  forest  to  gratify  human  curiosity. 

There  is  not,  nor  ought  not  to  be,  such  a thing  as  con- 
structive treason. 

He  is  a new  created  knight,  and  his  dignity  sits  awkward 
on  him. 

Hatred  or  revenge  are  things  deserving  of  censure,  wherever 
they  are  found  to  exist. 

If  you  please  to  employ  your  thoughts  on  that  subject,,  you 
would  easily  conceive  our  miserable  condition. 

His  speech  contains  one  of  the  grossest  and  infamousest 
calumnies  '^hich  ever  was  uttered. 

A too  great  variety  of  studies  dissipate  and  weaken  the 
mind. 

Those  two  authors  have  each  of  them  their  merit. 

James  was  resolved  to  not  indulge  himself  in  such  a cruel 
amusement. 

The  not  attending  to  this  rule,  is  the  source  of  a very  common 
error. 

Calumny  and  detraction  are  sparks,  which  if  you  do  not  blow, 
they  will  go  out  of  themselves. 

Clelia  is  a vain  woman,  whom  if  we  do  not  flatter,  she  will  be 
disgusted. 

That  celebrated  work  was  nearly  ten  years  published,  before 
its  importance  was  at  all  understood. 

Ambition  is  so  insatiable,  that  it  will  make  any  sacrifices  to 
attain  its  objects. 

A great  mass  of  rocks  thrown  together  by  the  hand  of  nature, 
with  wildness  and  confusion,  strike  the  mind  with  more  gran- 
deur, than  if  they  were  adjusted  to  one  another  with  the  accuratest 
symmetry. 


Promiscuous, 


SYNTAX. 


87 


SECTION  III. 

See  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  2.  Sect.  3. 

He  showed  a spirit  of  forgiveness,  and  a magnanimity,  that 
does  honour  to  human  nature. 

They  that  honour  me  I will  honour ; and  them  that  despise 
me  shall  be  lightly  esteemed. 

Reason’s  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense, 

Lies  in  three  words,  health,  peace,  and  competence. 

Having  thus  began  to  throw  off  the  restraints  of  reason,  he 
was  soon  hurried  into  deplorable  excesses. 

These  arts  have  enlightened,  and  will  enlighten,  every  person 
who  shall  attentively  study  them. 

When  we  succeed  in  our  plans,  its  not  to  be  attributed  always 
to  ourselves  ; the  aid  of  others  often  promote  the  end,  and  claim 
our  acknowledgment. 

Their  intentions  were  good ; but  wanting  prudence,  they  mist 
the  mark  for  which  they  aimed. 

I have  not,  nor  shall  not  consent  to  a proposal  so  unjust. 

We  have  subjected  ourselves  to  much  expense,  that  thou  may 
be  well  educated. 

This  treaty  was  made  at  earl  Moreton,  the  governor’s  castle. 

Be  especially  careful,  that  thou  givest  no  offence  to  the  aged  or 
helpless. 

The  business  was  no  sooner  opened,  but  .it  was  cordially 
acquiesced  in. 

As  to  his  general  conduct,  he  deserved  punishment  as  much, 
or  more  than  his  companion.  He  left  a son  of  a singular 
character,  and  behaved  so  ill  that  he  was  put  in  prison. 

If  he  does  but  approve  my  endeavours,  it  will  be  an  ample  ^ 
reward. 

I beg  the  favour  of  your  acceptance  of  a copy  of  a view 
of  the  manufactories  of  the  West  Riding  of  the  county  of 
York. 

I intended  to  have  written  the  letter,  before  he  urged  me  to 
it;  and  therefore,  he  has  not  all  the  merit  of  it. 

All  the  power  of  ridicule,  aided  by  the  desertion  of  friends, 
and  the  diminution  of  his  estate,  were  not  able  to  shake  his 
principles. 

In  his  conduct  was  treachery,  and  in  his  words,  faithless 
professions. 

Though  the  measure  be  mysterious,  it  is  worthy  of  atten- 
tion. 


88  EXERCISES.  Promiscuous, 

Be  solicitous  to  aid  such  deserving  persons,  who  appear  to  be 
destitute  of  friends. 

Ignorance,  or  the  want  of  light,  produce  sensuality,  covetous- 
ness, and  those  violent  contests  with  others  about  trifles,  which 
occasions  so  much  misery  and  crimes  in  the  world. 

He  will  one  day  reap  the  reward  of  his  labour,  if  he  is  diligent 
and  attentive.  Till  that  period  comes,  let  him  be  contented  and 
patient. 

To  the  resolutions  which  we  have,  upon  due  consideration, 
once  adopted  as  rules  of  conduct,  let  us  adhere  firmly. 

He  has  little  more  of  the  great  man  besides  the  title. 

Though  he  was  my  superior  in  knowledge,  he  would  not  have 
thence  a right  to  impose  his  sentiments. 

That  picture  of  the  emperor’s,  is  a very  exact  resemblance  of 
him. 

How  happy  are  the  virtuous,  who  can  rest  on  the  protection  of 
the  powerftil  arm,  who  made  the  earth  and  the  heavens  ! 

Prosperity  and  adversity  may  be  improved  equally ; both  the 
one  and  the  other  proceeds  from  the  same  author. 

He  acted  conformable  with  his  instructions,  and  cannot  be 
censured  justly. 

The  orators  did  not  forget  to  enlarge  themselves  on  so  popular 
a subject. 

The  language  of  Divine  Providence,  to  all  human  agents,  is, 
‘‘  Hitherto  shalt  thou  come,  and  no  farther.” 

Idle  persons,  imagine,  howsoever  deficient  they  be  in  point  of 
duty,  they  consult  at  least  their  own  satisfaction. 

Good  as  the  cause  is,  it  is  one  from  which  numbers  are 
deserted. 

The  man  is  prudent  which  speaks  little. 


SECTION  IV. 


See  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  2,  Sect.  4. 


He  acted  independent  of  foreign  assistance. 

Every  thing  that  we  here  enjoy,  change,  decay,  and  come  to 
an  end.  All  float  on  the  surface  of  the  river,  which  is  running 
to  a boundless  ocean,  with  a swift  current. 

The  winter  has  not  been  as  severe  as  we  expected  it  to  have 
been. 

Temperance,  more  than  medicines,  are  the  proper  means  of 
curing  many  diseases. 


Promiscuous. 


SYNTAX. 


89 


They  understand  the  practical  part  better  than  him  ; but  he 
is  much  better  acquainted  with  the  theory  than  them. 

When  we  have  once  drawn  the  line,  by  intelligence  and  pre- 
cision, between  our  duty  and  sin,  the  line  we  ought  on  no  oc- 
casion to  transgress. 

All  those  distinguished  by  extraordinary  talents,  have  extra- 
ordinary duties  to  perform. 

No  person  could  speak  stronger  on  this  subject,  nor  behave 
nobler,  than  our  young  advocate  for  the  cause  of  toleration. 

His  conduct  was  so  provoking,  that  many  will  condemn  him, 
and  a few  will  pity  him. 

The  peoples  happiness  is  the  statesmans  honour. 

We  are  in  a perilous  situation.  On  one  side,  and  the  other, 
dangers  meet  us ; and  each  extreme  shall  be  pernicious  to 
virtue. 

Several  pictures  of  the  Sardinian  king  were  transmitted  to 
France. 

When  I last  saw  him,  he  had  grown  considerably.  ' 

If  we  consult  the  improvement  of  mind,  or  the  health  of 
body,  it  is  well  known  exercise  is  the  great  instrument  for  pro- 
moting both. 

If  it  were  them  who  acted  so  ungratefully,  they  are  doubly 
in  fault. 

Whether  virtue  promotes  our  interest  or  no,  we  must  adhere 
to  her  dictates. 

We  should  be  studious  to  avoid  too  much  indulgence,  as  well 
as  restraint,  in  our  management  of  children. 

No  human  happiness  is  so  complete,  as  does  not  contain  some 
imperfection. 

His  father  cannot  hope  for  this  success,  unless  his  son  gives 
better  proofs  of  genius,  or  applies  himself  with  indefatigable 
labour. 

The  house  framed  a remonstrance,  where  they  spoke  with 
great  freedom  of  the  king’s  prerogative. 

The  conduct  which  has  been  mentioned,  is  one  of  those  arti- 
fices which  seduces  men  most  easily,  under  appearance  of  be- 
nevolence. 

This  is  the  person  who  we  are  so  much  obliged  to,  and 
who  we  expected  to  have  seen,  when  the  favour  was  con- 
ferred. 

He  is  a person  of  great  property,  but  does  not  possess  the 
esteem  of  his  neighbours. 

They  were  solicitous  to  ingratiate  with  those,  who  it  was  dis- 
honourable to  favour. 

The  great  diversity  which  takes  place  among  men,  is  not  ow- 
ing to  a distinction  that  nature  made  in  their  original  powers, 
VoL,  II.  12 


90  EXERCISES.  Promiscuous, 

as  much  as  lo  the  superior  diligence,  with  w^hich  some  have  im- 
proved those  powers  beyond  others. 

While  we  are  unoccupied  in  what  is  good,  evil  is  at  hand 
continually. 

Not  a creature  is  there  that  moves,  nor  a vegetable  that  grows, 
but  what,  when  minutely  examined,  furnished  materials  of  pious 
admiration. 

What  can  be  the  reason  of  the  committee  having  delayed  this 
business  ? * 

I know  not  whether  Charles  was  the  author,  but  I understood 
it  to  be  he. 

A good  and  well-cultivated  mind,  is  far  more  preferable  than 
rank  or  riches. 

Charity  to  the  poor,  when  it  is  governed  by  knowledge  and 
prudence,  there  are  no  persons  who  will  not  admit  it  to  be  a 
virtue. 

His  greatest  concern,  and  highest  enjoyment,  w^ere  to  be  ap- 
proved in  the  sight  of  his  Creator. 

Let  Us  not  set  our  hearts  on  such  a mutable,  such  an  unsatis- 
fying world. 


SECTION  v. 


See  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  2.  Section  5. 

Shale  you  attain  success,  without  that  preparation,  and  es- 
cape dangers  without  that  precaution,  which  is  required  of 
others  ? 

When  we  see  bad  men  to  be  honoured  and  prosperous  in  the 
world,  it  is  some  discouragement  to  virtue. 

The  furniture  was  all  purchased  at  Went^yorth’s  the  joiner’s. 

Every  member  of  the  body,  every  bone,  joint,  and  muscle, 
lie  exposed  to  many  disorders ; and  the  greatest  prudence  or 
precaution,  or  the  deepest  skill  of  the  physician,  are  not  suf- 
ficient to  prevent  them. 

It  is  right  said,  that  though  faith  justify  us,  yet  works 
must  justify  our  faith. 

If  an  academy  is  established  for  the  cultivation  of  our  lan- 
guage, let  them  stop  the  license  of  translators,  whose  idleness 
and  ignorance,  if  it  be  suffered  to  proceed,  will  reduce  us  to 
babble  a dialect  of  French. 

It  is  of  great  consequence  that  a teacher  firmly  believes,  both 
the  truth  and  importance  of  those  principles  which  he  inculcates 
upon  others ; and  that  he  not  only  speculatively  believes  them, 
but  has  a lively  and  serious  feeling  of  them. 


Promiscuous. 


SYNTAX. 


91 


It  is  not  the  uttering,  or  the  hearing  certain  words^  that  consti- 
tute the  worship  of  the  Almighty.  It  is  the  heart  that  praises  or 
prays.  If  the  heart  accompany  not  the  words  that  are  spoken, 
we  offer  a sacrifice  of  fools. 

Neither  flatter  or  contemn  the  rich  or  the  great. 

He  has  travelled  much,  and  passed  through  many  stormy  seas 
and  lands. 

You  must  be  sensible  that  there  is,  and  can  be  no  other  person 
but  me,  who  could  give  the  information  desired. 

To  be  patient,  resigned  and  thankful,  under  afflictions  and 
disappointments,  demonstrate  genuine  piety. 

Alvarez  was  a man  of  corrupt  principles,  and  of  detestable 
conduct ; and,  what  is  still  worse,  gloried  in  his  shame. 

As  soon  as  the  sense  of  a Supreme  B^ing  is  lost,  so  soon  the 
great  check  is  taken  off  which  keep  under  restraint  the  passions 
of  men.  Mean  desires,  low  pleasures,  takes  place  of  the  greater 
and  nobler  sentiments,  which  reason  and  religion  inspires. 

We  should  be  careful  not  to  follow  the  example  of  many  per- 
sons to  censure  the  opinions,  manners,  and  customs  of  others, 
merely  because  they  are  foreign  to  us. 

Steady  application,  as  well  as  genius  and  abilities,  are  neces- 
sary to  produce  eminence. 

There  is,  in  that  seminary,  several  students  considerably 
skilled  in  mathematical  knowledge. 

If  Providence  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  and  shelters  and 
adorns  the  flowers  that  every  where  grows  wild  amongst  it, 
will  he  not  clothe  and  protect  his  servants  and  children  much 
more? 

We  are  too  often  hurried  with  the  violence  of  passion,  or  with 
the  allurements  of  pleasure. 

High  hopes,  and  florid  views,  is  a great  enemy  to  tranquillity. 

Year  after  year  steals  something  from  us ; till  the  decaying 
fabric  totters  of  itself,  and  crumbles  at  length  into  dust. 

I intended  to  have  finished  the  letter  before  the  bearer  called, 
that  he  might  not  have  been  detained  ; but  I was  prevented  by 
company. 

George  is  the  most  learned  and  accomplished  of  all  the  other 
students,  that  belong  to  the  seminary. 

This  excellent  and  well  written  treatise,  with  others  that 
might  be  mentioned,  were  the  foundation  of  his  love  of  study. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  pleasures  of  the  mind 
excel  those  of  the  sense. 


92 


EXERCISES. 


Promiscuous, 


SECTION  VI. 

See  the  Key,  Part  3.  Chap.  2.  Section  6. 

The  grand  temple  consisted  of  one  great,  and  several  smaller 
edifices.  , 

Many  would  exchange  gladly  their  honours,  beauty,  and 
riches,  for  that  more  quiet  and  humbler  station,  which  you  are 
now  dissatisfied  with. 

Though  the  scene  was  a very  affecting  one,  Louis  showed  a 
little  emotion  on  the  occasion. 

The  climate  of  England  is  not  so  pleasant  as  those  of  France, 
Spain,  or  Italy. 

Much  of  the  good  and  evil  that  happens  to  us  in  this  world, 
are  owing  to  apparently  undesigned  and  fortuitous  events  ; but  it 
is  the  Supreme  Being  which  secretly  directs  and  regulates  all 
things. 

To  despise  others  on  account  of  their  poverty,  or  to  value  our- 
selves for  our  wealth,  are  dispositions  highly  culpable. 

This  task  was  the  easier  performed,  from  tfie  cheerfulness, 
with  which  he  engaged  in  it. 

She  lamented  the  unhappy  fate  of  Lucretia,  who  seemed  to 
her  another  name  for  chastity. 

He  has  not  yet  cast  off  all  the  regard  for  decency ; and  this  is 
the  most  that  can  be  advanced  in  his  favour. 

The  girls  school  was  better  conducted  formerly  than  the 
boys. 

The  disappointments  he  has  met  with,  or  the  loss  of  his  much- 
loved friend,  has  occasioned  a total  derangement  of  his  mental 
powers. 

The  concourse  of  people  were  so  gr'eat,  that  with  difficulty 
we  passed  through  them. 

All  the  women,  children,  and  treasure,  which  remained  in 
the  city,  fell  under  the  victor’s  power. 

They  have  already  made  great  progress  in  their  studies,  and, 
if  attention  and  diligence  continues,  will  soon  fulfil  the  expecta- 
tions of  their  friends. 

It  is  amazing  his  propensity  to  this  vice,  against  every  prin- 
ciple of  interest  and  honour. 

These  kind  of  vices,  though  they  inhabit  the  upper  circles  of 
life,  are  not  less  pernicious  than  those  we  meet  with  amongst 
the  lowest  of  men. 

He  acted  agreeable  to  the  dictates  of  prudence,  though  he 
were  in  a situation  exceedingly  delicate. 


Promiscuous. 


SYNTAX. 


93 


If  I had  known  the  distress  of  my  friend,  it  would  be  my 
duty  to  have  relieved  him ; and  it  would  always  have  yielded 
me  pleasure  to  grant  him  that  relief. 

They  admired  the  countryman’s,  as  they  called  him,  candour 
and  uprightness. 

The  new  set  of  curtains  did  not  correspond  to  the  old  pair  of 
blinds. 

The  tutor  commends  him  for  being  more  studious  than  any 
other  pupils  of  the  school. 

Two  principles  in  human  nature  reign  ; 

Self-love  to  urge,  and  reason  to  restrain  : 

Nor  that  a good,  nor  this  a bad  we  call ; 

Each  works  its  end,  to  move  or  govern  all. 

Temperance  and  exercise,  howsoever  little  they  may  be 
regarded,  they  are  the  best  means  of  preserving  health. 

He  has  greatly  ble;^sed  me  ; yes,  even  I,  who,  loaded  with 
kindness,  hath  not  been  sufficiently  grateful. 

No  persons  feel  the  distresses  of  others,  so  much  as  them  that 
have  experienced  distress  themselves. 


SECTION  VII. 

\ 

\ 

\ 

See  the  Key,  Part.  3.  Chap.  2.  Section  7. 

V^oNSTANTiNOPLE  was  the  point  in  which  was  concentrated  the 
leading  and  science  of  the  world. 

Hsgrace  not  your  station,  by  that  grossness  of  sensuality,  that 
levit^  of  dissipation,  or  that  insolence  of  rank,  which  bespeak  a 
little  Mind. 

A c^cle,  a square,  a triangle,  or  a hexagon,  please  the  eye  by 
their  regularity,  as  beautiful  figures. 

His  conduct  v/as  equally  unjust  as  dishonourable. 

Thoug\i,  at  first,  he  begun  to  defend  himself,  yet,  when  the 
proofs  appeared  against  him,  he  dared  not  any  longer  to  contend.. 

Many  persons  will  not  believe  but  what  they  are  free  from 
prejudices. 

The  pleasure  or  pain  of  one  passion,  differ  from  that  of  another. 
The  rise  anA  fall  of  the  tides,  in  this  place,  makes  a difference 
of  about  twelve  feet. 

Five  and  seven  make  twelve,  and  one  makes  thirteen. 

He  did  not  know  who  to  suspect. 


94  EXERCISES.  Promiscuous. 

I had  intended  yesterday  to  have  walked  out,  but  I have  been 
again  disappointed. 

The  court  of  Spain,  who  gave  the  order,  were  not  aware  of 
the  consequence. 

If  the  acquisitions  he  has  made,  and  qualified  him  to  be  a 
useful  member  of  soeiety,  should  have  been  misapplied,  he  will 
be  highly  culpable. 

There  was  much  spoke  and  wrote  on  each  side  of  the  question ; 
but  I have  chose  to  suspend  my  decision. 

Was  there  no  bad  men  in  the  world  who  vex  . and  distress  the 
good,  they  might  appear  in  the  light  of  harmless  innocence;  but 
could  have  no  opportunity  for  displaying  fidelity  and  magnan- 
imity, patience  and  fortitude. 

The  most  ignorant  and  the  most  savage  tribes  of  men,  W’hen 
they  have  looked  round  on  the  earth,  and  on  the  heavens,  could 
not  avoid  ascribing  their  origin  to  some  invisible  designing  cause, 
and  felt  a propensity  to  adore  their  Creator. 

Let  us  not  fo-rget,  that  something  more  than  gentleness  and 
modesty,  something  more  than  complacency  of  temper  and 
affability  of  manners,  are  requisite  to  form  a worthy  man,  or  a 
true  Christian. 

One  of  the  first  and  the  most  common  extreme  in  moral 
conduct,  is  placing  all  virtue  in  justice,  or  in  generosity. 

It  is  an  inflexible  regard  to  principle,  which  has  ever  marked 
the  characters  of  them  who  distinguished  themselves  eminently 
in  public  life : who  patronised  the  cause  of  justice  against 
powerful  oppressors  ; in  critical  times,  have  supported  the  falling 
rights  and  liberties  of  men  ; and  reflected  honour  on  their  nation 
and  country. 

When  it  is  with  regard  to  trifles,  that  diversity  or  contrariety 
of  opinions  show  themselves,  it  is  childish  in  the  last  degree,  if 
this  becomes  the  ground  of  estranged  affection.  When,  from 
such  a cause,  there  arise  any  breach  of  friendship,  human  weak- 
ness is  discovered  then  in  a mortifying  light.  In  matters  of 
serious  moment,  the  sentiments  of  the  best  and  worthies/  might 
vary  from  that  of  their  friends,  according  as  their  lines  of  life 
diverge,  or  as  their  temper,  and  habits  of  thought,  present 
objects  under  different  points  of  view.  But  with  candid  and 
liberal  minds,  unity  of  affection  st-ill  will  be  preserved. 

Desires  and  wishes  are  the  first  spring  of  action.  When 
they  become  exorbitant,  the  whole  of  the  character  is  like  to  be 
tainted.  If  we  should  suffer  our  fancies  to  create  to  themselves 
worlds  of  ideal  happiness ; if  we  should  feed  our  imagination 
with  plans  of  opulence  and  of  splendour ; if  we  should  fix 
to  our  wishes  certain  stages  of  a high  advancement,  or  certain 
degrees  of  an  uncommon  reputation,  as  the  sole  station  of 
our  felicity ; the  assured  consequence  shall  be,  that  we  will 


Promiscuous. 


SYNTAX. 


95 


become  unhappy  under  our  present  state  ; that  we  shall  be 
unfit  for  acting  the  part,  and  for  discharging  the  duties  that 
belong  to  it ; and  we  shall  discompose  the  peace  and  order  of 
our  minds,  and  shall  foment  many  hurtful  passions. 

Maria  always  appears  amiably.  She  never  speaks  severe 
or  contemptuous.* 


Young  persons  who  study  grammar,  find  it  difficult  to  decide,  in  particular  constructions, 
whether  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  ought  to  be  used.  A few  observations  on  this  point,  may 
serve  to  inform  their  judgment,  and  direct  their  determination. — They  should  carefully 
attend  to  the  definitions  of  the  adjective  and  the  adverb ; and  consider  whether,  in  the  case  in 
question,  quality,  or  manner,  is  indicated.  In  the  former  case,  an  adjective  is  proper  ; in  the 
latter,  an  adverb.  A number  of  examples  will  illustrate  this  direction,  and  prove  useful  on  other 
occasions. 

She  looks  cold— She  looks  coldly  on  him. 

He  feels  warm— He  feels  warmly  the  insult  offered  him. 

He  became  sincere  and  virtuous — He  became  sincerely  virtuous. 

She  lives  free  from  care— She  lives  freely  at  another’s  expense. 

Harriet  always  appears  neat— She  dresses  neatly. 

Charles  has  grown  great  by  his  wisdom— He  has  grown  greatly  in  reputation. 

They  now  appear  happy— They  now  appear  happily  in  earnest. 

The  statement  seems  exact— The  statement  seems  exactly  in  point. 

The  verb  to  be,  in  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  generally  requires  the  word  immediately  con- 
nected with  it  to  be  an  adjective,  not  an  adverb ; and,  consequently,  when  this  verb  can  be 
substituted  for  any  other,'  without  varying  the  sense  or  the  construction,  that  other  verb  must 
also  be  connected  with  an  adjective.  The  following  sentences  elucidate  these  observations; 
“ This  is  agreeable  to  our  interest ; That  behavjour  was  not  suitable  to  his  station  ; Rules 

is  is 

should  be  conformable  to  sense “ The  rose  smells  sweet  j How  sweet  the  hay  smells ! 

is  are  are 

How  delightful  the  country  appear^ ! How  pleasant  the  fields  look  ! The  clouds  look  dark; 

was  is  were  is 

How  black  the  sky  looked ! The  apple  tastes  sour ; How  bitter  the  plums  tasted  ! He  feels 
happy,”  In  all  these  sentences,  we  can  with  perfect  propriety,  substitute  some  tenses  of  the  verb 
to  be  for  the  other  verbs.  But  in  the  following  sentences,  we  cannot  do  this  : “ The  dog  smells  dis- 
agreeably ; George  feels  exquisitely  ; How  pleasantly  she  looks  at  us  !” 

The  directions  contained  in  this  note  are  offered  as  useful,  not  as  complete  and  unexceptionable. 
Anomalies  in  language  every  where  encounter  us  : but  we  must  not  reject  rules  because  they  are 
attended  with  exceptions. 


f 


i- 


f * 


* 


PART  IV. 


i • 

EXERCISES  IN  PUNCTUATION. 


CHAPTER  L 

SENTENCES  WHICH  REQUIRE  THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  COMMA, 
DISPOSED  tTNDER  THE  PARTICULAR  RULES. 


RULE  L 

See  Vol.  h p.  ^68.  and  the  Ke}^,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  1. 

THE  tear  of  repentance  brings  its  own  relief. 

Manhood  is  disgraced  by  the  consequences  of  neglected 
youth. 

Idleness  is  the  great  fomenter  of  all  corruptions  in  the  human 
heart. 

It  is  honourable  to  be  a friend  to  the  unfortunate. 

All  finery  is  a sign  of  littleness. 

Slovenliness  and  indelicacy  of  character  commonly  go  hand 
in  hand.  * , 

The  friend  of  order  has  made  half  his  way  to  virtue. 

Too  many  of  the  pretended  friendships  of  youth  are  mere 
combinations  in  pleasure. 

The  indulgence  of  harsh  dispositions  is  the  introduction  to 
future  misery. 

The  intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society  serves  to  exercise 
the  suffering  graces  and  virtues  of  the  good. 

RULE  II. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  268,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1,  Rule  2. 

Gentleness  is  in  truth  the  great  avenue  to  mutual  enjoyment. 

Charity  like  the  sun  brightens  all  its  objects. 

The  tutor  by  instruction  and  discipline  lays  the  foundation  of 
the  pupil’s  future  honour. 

Vol.  II. 


13 


98 


EXERCISES. 


Comma. 


Trials  in  this  stage  of  being  are  the  lot  of  man. 

No  assumed  behaviour  can  always  hide  the  real  character. 

The  best  men  often  experience  disappointments. 

Advice  should  be  seasonably  administered. 

RULE  III. 

See  VoJ.  1.  p.  269,  and  the  Key*,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  3.- 

Self-conceit  presumption  and  obstinacy  blast  the  prospect  of 
many  a youth. 

In  our  health  life  possessions  connexions  pleasures  there  are 
causes  of  decay  imperceptibly  working. 

Discomposed  thoughts  agitated  passions  and  a ruffled  temper 
poison  every  pleasure  of  life. 

Vicissitudes  of  good  and  evil  of  trials  and  consolations  fill  up 
the  life  of  man. 

Health  and  peace  a moderate  fortune  and -a  few  friends  sum 
up  all  the  undoubted  articles  of  temporal  felicity. 

We  have  no  reason  to  complain  of  the  lot  of  man  or  of  the 
world’s  mutability. 

RULE  IV. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  269,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  4. 

An  idle  trifling  society  is  near  akin  to  such  as  is  corrupting. 

Conscious  guilt  renders  uS  mean-spirited  timorous  and  base. 

An  upright  mind  will  never  be  at  a loss  to  discern  what  is  just 
and  true  lovely  honest  and  of  good  report. 

The  vicious  man  is  often  looking  round  him  with  anxious  and 
fearful  circumspection. 

True  friendship  will  at  all  times  avoid  a careless  or  rough 
behaviour. 

Time  brings  a gentle  and  powerful  Opiate  to  all  misfortunes. 
RULE  V. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  270,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  5. 

The  man  of  virtue  and  honour  will  be  trusted  relied  npon 
and  esteemed. 

Deliberate  slowly  execute  promptly. 

A true  friend  unbosoms  freely  advises  justly  assists  readily 
adventures  boldly  takes  all  patiently  defends  resolutely  and 
continues  a friend  unchangeably. 


Comma, 


PUNCTUATION. 


99 


Sensuality  contaminates  the  body  depresses  the  understand- 
ing deadens  the  moral  feelings  of  the  heart  and  degrades  man 
from  his  rank  in  the  creation. 

Idleness  brings  forward  and  nourishes  many  bad  passions. 

We  must  stand  or  fall  by  our  conduct  and  character. 

The  man  of  order  catches  and  arrests  the  hours  as  they  fly. 

The  great  business  of  life  is  to  be  employed  in  doing  justly 
loving  mercy  and  walking  hufnbly  with  our  Creator. 

RULE  VI. 

^ See  Vol.  l.  p.  270,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  6. 

This  unhappy  person  had  often  been  seriously  affectionately 
admonished  but  in  vain. 

To  live  soberly  righteously  and  piously  comprehends  the 
whole  of  our  duty. 

When  thy  friend  is  calumniated  openly  and  boldly  espouse 
his  cause. 

Benefits  should  be  long  and  gratefully  remembered. 

RULE  VII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  270,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  7. 

True  gentleness  is  native  feeling  heightened  and  improved 
by  principle. 

The  path  of  piety  and  virtue  pursued  with  a firm  and  con- 
stant spirit  will  assuredly  lead  to  happiness. 

Human  affaii^  are  in  continual  motion  and  fluctuation  altering 
their  appearandl  every  moment  and  passing  into  some  new 
forms. 

What  can  be  said  to  alarm  those  of  their  danger  who  in- 
toxicated with  pleasures  become  giddy  and  insolent;  who 
flattered  by  the  illusions  of  prosperity  make  light  of  every 
serious  admonition  which  their  friends  and  the  changes  of  the 
world  give  them  ? 


RULE  VIII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  271,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap  1.  Rule  8. 

If  from  any  internal  cause  a man^s  peace  of  mind  be  dis- 
turbed in  vain  we  load  him  with  riches  or  honours. 

Gentleness  delights  above  all  things  to  alleviate  distress; 
and  if  it  cannot  dry  up  the  falling  tear  to  soothe  at  least  the 
grieving  heart. 


100  EXERCISES.  Comma. 

Wherever  Christianity  prevails  it  has  discouraged  and  in 
some  degree  abolished  slavery. 

We  may  rest  assured  that  by  the  steady  pursuit  of  virtue 
we  shall  obtain  and  enjoy  it. 

RULE  IX. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  271,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  9. 

Continue  my  dear  children  to  make  virtue  your  principal 
study. 

To^  you  my  worthy  benefactors  am  I indebted  under  Prov- 
idence for  all  I enjoy. 

Canst  thou  expect  thou  betrayer  of  innocence  to  escape  the 
hand  of  vengeance  ? 

Come  then  companion  of  my  toils  let  us  take  fresh  courage 
persevere  and  hope  to  the  end. 

RULE  X. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  271,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  IQ. 

Peace  of  mind  being  secured  we  may  smile  at  misfortunes. 

Virtue  abandoned  and  conscience  reproaching  us  we  become 
terrified  with  imaginary  evils. 

Charles  having  been  deprived  of  the  help  of  tutors  his  studies 
became  totally  neglected. 

To  prevent  further  altercation  I submitted  to  the  terms  pro- 
posed. 

To  enjoy  present  pleasure  he  sacrificed  his  future  ease  and 
reputation.  ^ 

To  say  the  least  they  have  betrayed  great  ’v^nt  of  prudence. 

RULE  XI. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  271,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  11, 

Hope  the  balm  of  life  soothes  us  under  every  misfortune. 

Content  the  offspring  of  virtue  dwells  both  in  retirement 
and  in  the  active  scenes  of  life. 

Confucius  the  great  Chinese  philosopher  was  eminently  good 
as  well  as  wise. 

The  patriarch  Joseph  is  an  illustrious  example  of  chastity 
resignation  and  filial  affection. 

RULE  XII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  272.  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  12. 

Nothing  is  so  opposite  to  the  true  enjoyment  of  life  as  the 
relaxed  and  feeble  state  of  an  indolent  mind. 


Comma. 


PUNCTUATION. 


101 


The  more  a man  speaks  of  himself  the  less  he  likes  to  hear 
another  talked  of. 

Nothing  more  strongly  inculcates  resignation  than  the  expe- 
rience of  our  own  inability  to  guide  ourselves. 

The  friendships  of  the  world  can  subsist  no  longer  than  in- 
terest cements  them. 

Expect  no  more  from  the  world  than  it  is  able  to  afford 
you. 

RULE  XIII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  272,  and  the  Key,  part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  13. 

He  who  is  a stranger  to  industry  may  possess  but  he  cannot 
enjoy. 

Contrition  though  it  may  melt  ought  not  to  sink  or  overpower 
the  heart  of  a Christian. 

The  goods  of  this  world  were  given  to  man  for  his  occasional 
refreshment  not  for  his  chief  felicity. 

It  is  the  province  of  superiors  to  direct  of  inferiors  to  obey ; 
of  the  learned  to  be  instructive  of  the  ignorant  to  be  docile ; of 
the  old  to  be  communicative  of  the  young  to  be  attentive  and 
diligent.  ( 

Though  unavoidable  calamities  make  a part  yet  they  make 
not  the  chief  part  of  the  vexations  and  sorrows  that  distress  hu- 
man life. 

An  inquisitive  and  meddling  spirit  often  interrupts  the  good 
order  and  breaks  the  peace  of  society. 

RULE  XIV. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  272,  and  the  Key,  Part  4,  Chap.  1.  Rule  14. 

Vice  is  not  of  such  a nature  that  we  can  say  to  it  ‘‘  Hitherto 
shall  thou  come  and  no  further.” 

One  of  the  noblest  of  the  Christian  virtues  is  “ To  love  our 
enemies.” 

Many  too  confidently  say  to  themselves  My  mountain  stands 
strong  and  it  shall  never  be  removed.” 

We  are  strictly  enjoined  “ not  to  follow  a multitude  to  do 
evil. 

RULE  XV. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  273,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  15. 

Tlie  gentle  mind  is  like  the  smooth  stream  which  reflects 
every  object  in  its  just  proportion  and  in  its  fairest  colours. 


102  EXERCISES.  Comma. 

Beware  of  those  rash  and  dangerous  connexions  which  may 
afterwards  load  you  with  dishonour. 

Blind  must  that  man  be  who  discerns  not  the  most  striking 
marks  of  a Divine  government  exercised  over  the  world* 

It  is  labour  only  which  gives  the  relish  to  pleasure. 

In  that  unaffected  civility  which  springs  from  a gentle  mind 
there  is  an  incomparable  charm.  ■ 

They  who  raise  envy  will  easily  incur  censure. 

Many  of  the  evils  which  occasion  our  complaints  of  the 
world  are  wholly  imaginary. 

He  who  is  good  before  invisible  witnesses  is  eminently  so  be- 
fore the  visible. 

Misconduct  so  disinterested  and  generous  was  universally 
approved. 

RULE  XVI.  • 

See  Vol.  *1.  p.  273^,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  16. 

The  fumes  which  arise  from  a heart  boiling  with  violent  pas- 
sions never  faiHo  darken,  and  trouble  the  understanding. 

If  we  delay  till  to-morrow  what  ought  to  be  done  to-day 
we  overcharge  the  morrow  with  a burden  which  belongs  not 
to  it. 

By  whatever  means  we  may  at  first  attract  the  attention  we 
can  hold  the  esteem  and  secure  the  hearts  of  others  only  by 
amiable  dispositions  and  accomplishments  of  the  mind. 

If  the  mind  sow  not  corn  it  will  plant  thistles. 

One  day  is  sufficient  to  scatter  our  prosperity  and  bring  it  to 
nought. 

Graceful  in  youth  are  the  tears  of  sympathy  and  the  heart  that 
melts  at  the  tale  of  wo. 

The  ever  active  and  restless  power  of  thought  if  not  em- 
ployed about  what  is  good  will  naturally  and  unavoidably  en- 
gender evil. 

He  who  formed  the  heart  certainly  knows  what  passes 
within  it. 

To  be  humble  and  nfiodest  in  opinion  to  be  vigilant  and  atten- 
tive in  conduct  to  distrust  fair  appearances  and  to  restrain  rash 
desires  are  instructions  which  the  darkness  of  our  present  state 
should  strongly  inculcate. 

RULE  XVII. 

Sec  Vol.  l.p.  274,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  17. 

The  greatest  misery  is  to  be  condemned  by  our  own  hearts* 


Comma, 


PUNCTUATION. 


103 


The  greatest  misery  that  we  can  endure  is  to  be  condemned 
by  our  own  hearts. 

Charles’s  highest  enjoyment  was  to  relieve  the  distressed  and 
to  do  good. 

The  highest  enjoyment  that  Charles  ever  experienced  was  to 
relieve  the  distressed  and  to  do  good. 

RULE  XVIII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  274,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  18. 

If  opulence  increases  our  gratifications  it  increases  in  the  same 
proportion  our  desires  and  demands. 

He  whose  wishes  respecting  the  possessions  of  this  world  are 
the  most  reasonable  and  bounded  is  likely  to  lead  the  safest  and 
for  that  reason  the  most  desirable  life. 

By  aspiring  too  high  we  frequently  miss  the  happiness  which 
by  a less  ambitious  aim  we  might  have  gained. 

By  proper  management  we  prolong  our  time  : we  live  more  in 
a few  yea,rs  than  others  do  in  rnany. 

In  your  most  secret  actions  suppose  that  you  have  all  the 
world  for  witnesses.  " . 

In  youth  the  habits  of  industry  are  most  easily  acquired. 

What  is  the  right  path  few  take  the  trouble  of  inquiring. 

RULE  XIX. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  274,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  19. 

Providence  never  intended  that  any  state  here  should  be 
either  completely  happy  or  entirely  miserable. 

As  a companion  he  was  severe  and  satirical ; as  a friend 
captious  and  dangerous;  in  his  domestic  sphere  harsh  jealous 
and  irascible. 

If  the  Spring  put  forth  no  blossoms  in  Summer  there  will  be 
no  beauty  and  in  Autumn  no  fruit.  So  if  youth  be  trifled  away 
without  improvement  manhood  will  be  contemptible  and  old 
age  miserable. 

RULE  XX. 

See  VoL  1.  p.  275,  jind  the  Key^  Part.  4.  Chap.  1.  Rule  20. 

Be  assured  then  that  order  frugality  and  economy  are  the 
necessary  supports  of  every  personal  and  private  virtue. 

I proceed  secondly  to  point  out  the  proper  state  of  our 
temper  with  respect  to  one  another. 

Here  every  thing  is  in  stir  and  fluctuation  ; there  all  is  serene 
steady  and  orderly. 


104  exeucises.  Semicolon^  4*^, 

I shall  make  some  observations  first  on  the  external  and  next 
on  the  internal  condition  of  man. 

Sometimes  timidity  and  false  shame  prevent  our  opposing 
vicious  customs ; frequently  expectation  and  interest  impel  us 
strongly  to  comply.  — 


CHAPTER  II. 

SENTENCES  REQUIRING  THE  INSERTION  OF  THE  SEMICOLON 
ANi)  COMMA. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  275,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  2. 

That  darkness  of  character  where  we  can  see  no  heart  those 
foldings  of  art  through  which  no  native  affection  is  allowed  to 
penetrate  present  an  object  unamiable  in  every  season  of  life  but 
particularly  odious  in  youth. 

To  give  an  early  preference  to  honour  above  gain  when  they 
stand  in  competition  to  despise  every  advantage  which  cannot 
be  attained  without  dishonest  arts  to  brook  no  meanness  and  to 
stoop  to  no  dissimulation  are  the  indications  of  a great  mind  the 
presages  of  future  eminence  and  usefulness  in  life. 

As  there  is  a worldly  happiness  which  God  perceives  to  be  no 
other  than  disguised  misery  as  there  are  worldly  honours  which 
in  his  estimation  are  reproach  so  there  is  a worldly  wisdom 
which  in  his  sight  is  foolishness. 

The  passions  are  the  chief  destroyers  of  our  peace  the  storms 
and  tempests  of  the  moral  world. 

Heaven  is  the  region  of  gentleness  and  friendship  hell  of 
fierceness  and  animosity. 

The  path  of  truth  is  a plain  and  a safe  path  that  of  falsehood 
is  a perplexing  maze. 

Modesty  is  on6  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  youth  and  it  has 
ever  been  esteemed  a presage  of  rising  merit. 

Life  with  a swift  though  insensible  course  glides  away  and 
like  a river  which  undermines  its  banks  gradually  impairs  our 
state. 

The  violent  spirit  like  troubled  waters  renders  back  the  images 
of  things  distorted  and  broken  and  communicates  to  them  all 
that  disordered  motion  which  arises  sqlely  from  its  own  agitation. 

Levity  is  frequently  the  forced  production  of  folly  or  vice 
cheerfulness  is  the  natural  offspring  of  wisdom  and  virtue  only. 


Colon,  ^C,  PUNCTUATION.  105 

Persons  who  live  according  to  order  may  be  compared  to  the 
celestial  bodies  which  move  in  regular  courses  and  by  stated 
laws  whose  influence  is  beneficent  whose  operations  are  quiet 
and  tranquil. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SENTENCES  REQUIRING  THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  COLON,  &C. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  276,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  3. 

The  three  great  enemies  to  tranquillity  are  vice  superstition 
and  idleness  vice  which  poisons  and  dirturbs  the  mind  with  bad 
passions  superstition  which  fills  it  with  imaginary  terrors  idleness 
which  loads  it  with  tediousness  and  disgust. 

To  sail  on  the  tranquil  surface  of  an  unruffled  lake  and  to 
steer  a safe  course  through  a troubled  and  stormy  ocean,  require 
different  talents  and  alas  ! human  life  oftener  resembles  the 
stormy  ocean  than  the  unruffled  lake. 

When  we  look  forward  to  the  year  which  is  beginning  what 
do  we  behold  there  ? All  my  brethren  is  a blank  to  our  view^a 
dark  unknown  presents  itself. 

Happy  would  the  poor  man  think  himself  if  he  could  enter  on 
all  the  treasures  of  the  rich  and  happy  for  a short  time  he 
might  be  but  before  he  had  long  contemplated  and  admired  his 
state  his  possessions  would  seem  to  lessen  and  his  cares  would 
grow. 

By  doing  or  at  least  endeavouring  to  do  our  duty  to  God  and 
man  by  acquiring  an  humble  trust  in  the  mercy  and  favour  of 
God  through  Jesus  Christ  by  cultivating  our  minds  and  properly 
employing  our  time  and  thoughts  by  governing  our  passions  and 
our  temper  by  correcting  all  unreasonable  expectations  from 
the  world  and  from  men  in  the  midst  of  worldly  business  habit- 
uating ourselves  to  calm  retreat  and  serious  recollections  by  such 
means  as  these  it  may  be  hoped  that  through  the  Divine  blessing 
our  daj^s  shall  flow  in  a stream  as  unruffled  as  the  human  state 
admits. 

A metaphor  is  a comparison  expressed  in  an  abridged  form 
but  without  any  of  the  words  that  denote  comparison  as  “ To 
the  upright  there  ariseth  light  in  darkness.” 

All  our  conduct  towards  men  should  be  influenced  by  this 
important  precept  “ Do  unto  others  as  you  would  that  others 
should  do  unto  you.” 

Philip  III.  king  of  Spain  when  he  drew  near  the  end  of  his 
days  seriously  reflecting  on  his  past  life  and  greatly  affected  with 
the  remembrance  of  his  mispent  time  expressed  his  deep  regret 

Vol.  II.  14 


106 


EXERCISES. 


Period,  ^c. 


in  these  terms  “ Ah  ! how  happy  would  it  have  been  for  me  had 
I spent  in  retirement  these  twenty-three  years  that  I have  pos- 
sessed my  kingdom.” 

Often  is  the  smile  of  gaiety  assumed  while  the  heart  aches 
within  though  folly  may  laugh  guilt  will  sting. 

There  is  no  mortal  truly  wise  and  restless  at  once  wisdom  is 
the  repose  of  minds. 


CHAPTER  ly. 

SENTENCES  WHICH  REQUIRE  THE  INSERTION  OF  THE 
PERIOD,  &C.* 

See  Vol.  1.  p 278,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  4. 

The  absence  of  Evil  is  a real  Good  peace  Quiet  exemption 
from  pain  should  be  a continual  feast 

Worldly  happiness  ever  tends  to  destroy  itself  By  corrupting 
the  heart  it  fosters  the  loose  and  the  Violent  passions  It  engen- 
ders noxious  habits  and  taints  the  mind  with  false  Delicacy 
which  makes  it  feel  a Thousand  unreal  Evils 

Feeding  the  hungry  clothing  the  Naked  comforting  the 
afflicted  yield  more  pleasure  than  we  receive  from  those  ac- 
tions which  respect  only  Ourselves  benevolence  may  in  this 
view  be  termed  the  most  refined  self-love 

The  Resources  of  Virtue  remain  entire  When  the  Days  of 
trouble  come  they  remain  with  us  in  Sickness  as  in  Health  in 
Poverty  as  in  the  midst  of  Riches  in  our  dark  and  solitary 
Hours  no  less  than  when  surrounded  with  friends  and  cheerful 
Society  The  mind  df  a good  man  is  a kingdom  to  him  and  he 
can  always  enjoy  it 

We  ruin  the  Happiness  of  life  When  we  attempt  to  raise  it 
too  high  a tolerable  and  comfortable  State  is  all  that  we  can 
propose  to  ourselves  On  Earth  peace  and  Contentment  not  Bliss 
nor  Transport  are  the  full  portion  of  Man  Perfect  joy  is  reserved 
for  Heaven 

If  we  look  around  us  we  shall  perceive  that  the  Whole 
Universe  is  full  of  Active  Powers  action  is  indeed  the  Genius 
of  Nature  by  Motion  and  exertion  the  System  of  Being  is  pre- 
served in  Vigour  by  its  different  parts  always  acting  in  Sub- 

As  every  learner  is  supposed  to  know,  that  the  first  word  in  a sentence  must  have  a capital 
letter,  there  would  be  little  exercise  of  his  judgment,  in  applying  the  p^iod,  if  no  words 
were  distinguished  by  capital  letters,  but  such  as  propriety  i^equired.  The  compiler  lias, 
therefore,  in  this  and  the  following  chapters,  affixed  capitals  to  many  words,  which  sliould  pro- 
perly begin  with  small  letters.  This  method,  besides  the  use  chiefly  intended,  will  serve  to 
exercise  the  student  in  the  proper  application  of  capital  letters. 


PUNCTUATION. 


107 


Dash,  (^c, 

ordination  one  to  another  the  perfection  of  the  Whole  is  carried 
on  The  Heavenly  Bodies  perpetually  revolve  day  and  Night 
incessantly  repeat  Hheir  appointed  course  Continual  opera- 
tions are  going  on  in  the  Earth  and  in  the  Waters  nothing  stands 
still 

Constantine  the  Great  was  advanced  to  the  sole  dominion  of 
the  Roman  World  A D 325  and  soon  after  openly  professed  the 
Christian  Faith 

The  Letter  concludes  with  this  Remarkable  Postscript 
“PS  Though  I am  innocent  of  the  Charge  and  have  been 
bitterly  persecuted  yet  I cordially  forgive  my  Enemies  and 
Persecutors” 

The  last  Edition  of  that  valuable  Work  was  carefully  com-' 
pared  with  the  Original  M S 


CHAPTER  V. 

SENTENCES  REQUIRING  THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  DASH  ; OF  THE 
NOTES  OF  INTERROGATION  AND  EXCLAMATION*,  AND  OF  THE 
PARENTHETICAL  CHARACTERS. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  279,  and  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  5. 

Beauty  and  Strength  combined  with  Virtue  and  Piety  how 
lovely  in  the  sight  of  men  how  pleasing  to  Heaven  peculiarly 
pleasing  because  with  every  Temptation  to  deviate  they  volun- 
tarily walk  in  the  Path  of  Duty 

Something  there  is  more  needful  than  expense 
And  something  previous  e’en  to  taste  ’tis  sense 

“ I’ll  live  to-morrow”  will  a wise  man  say 
To-morrow  is  too  late  then  live  to-day 

Gripus  has  long  been  ardently  endeavouring  to  fill  his  Chest 
and  lo  it  is  now  full  Is  he  happy  and  does  he  use  it  Does  he 
gratefully  think  of  the  Giver  of  all  good  Things  Does  he  dis- 
tribute to  the  Poor  Alas  these  Interests  have  no  Place  in  his 
breast 

What  is  there  in  all  the  pomp  of  the  world  the  Enjoyments 
of  Luxury  the  Gratification  of  Passion  comparable  to  the  tran- 
quil Delight  of  a good  Conscience 

To  lie  down  on  the  Pillow  after  a Day  spent  in  Temperance 
in  beneficence  and  in  piety  how  sweet  is  it 

We  wait  till  to-morrow  to  be  Happy  alas  Why  not  To-day 


108 


EXERCISES. 


Promiscuous, 


shall  we  be  younger  Are  we  sure  we  shall  be  healthier  Will  our 
passions  become  feebler  and  our  love  of  the  world  less 

What  shadow  can  be  more  vain  than  the  life  of  a great  Part 
of  Mankind  of  all  that  .eager  and  bustling  Crowd  which  we 
behold  on  Earth  how  few  discover  the  path  of  true  Happiness 
How  few  can  we  find  whose  Activity  has  not  been  misemployed 
and  whose  Course  terminates  not  in  Confessions  of  Disappoint- 
ment 

On  the  one  Hand  are  the  Divine  Approbation  and  immortal 
Honour  on  the  other  remember  and  beware  are  the  stings  of 
Conscience  and  endless  Infamy 

As  in  riper  Years  all  unreasonable  Returns  to  the  Levity  of 
Youth  ought  to  be  avoided  an  Admonition  which  equally  belongs 
to  both  Sexes  still  more  are  we  to  guard  against  those  intem- 
perate Indulgences  of  Pleasure  to  which  the  young  are  un- 
happily prone 

The  bliss  of  man  could  pride  that  blessing  find 
Is  not  to  act  or  think  beyond  mankind 

Or  why  so  long  in  life  if  long  can  be 
Lent  Heav’n  a parent  to  the  poor  and  me 


CHAPTER  VI. 


PROMISCUOUS  EXAMPLES  OF  DEFECTIVE  PUNCTUATION. 

See  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap  6.  Section  1. 

SECTION  I. 

Examples  in  Prose. 

When  Socrates  was  asked  what  man  approached  the  nearest 
to  perfect  happiness  he  answered  That  Man  who  has  the  fewest 
Wants. 

She  who  studies  her  Glass  neglects  her  Heart 
Between  Passion  and  Lying  there  is  not  a Finger’s  breadth 
The  freer  we  feel  ourselves  in  the  Presence  of  others  the 
more  free  are  they  he  who  is  free  makes  free 

Addison  has  remarked  with  equal  Piety  and  Truth  that  tlie 
Creation  is  a perpetual  Feast  to  the  Mind  of  a good  man 
He  who  shuts  out  all  evasion  when  he  promises  loves  truth 


Promiscuous. 


PUNCTUATION. 


109 


" The  laurels  of  the  Warrior  are  dyed  in  Blood  and  bedewed 
with  the  Tears  of  the  Widow  and  the  Orphan 

Between  Fame  and  true  Honour  a Distinction  is  to  be  made 
the  former  is  a loud  and  noisy  Applause  the  latter  a more  silent 
and  internal  Homage  Fame  floats  on  the  Breath  of  the  Multitude 
Honour  rests  on  the  Judgment  of  the  Thinking  Fame  may  give 
Praise  while  it  withholds  Esteem  true  Honour  implies  Esteem 
mingled  with  respect  The  one  regards  particular  distinguished 
Talents  the  other  looks  up  to  the  whole  character 

There  is  a certain  species  of  religion  if  we  can  give  it  that 
Name  which  is  placed  wholly  in  Speculation  and  Belief  in  the 
Regularity  of  external  Homage  or  in  fiery  Zeal  about  contested 
Opinions 

Xenophanes  who  was  reproached  with  being  timorous  because 
he  would  not  venture  his  money  in  a Game  at  Dice  made  this 
manly  and  sensible  Reply  I confess  I am  exceedingly  timorous 
for  I dare  not  commit  an  evil  Action 

He  loves  nobly  I speak  of  Friendship  who  is  not  jealous 
when  he  has  Partners  of  love 

Our  happiness  consists  in  the  Pursuit  much  more  than  in  the 
Attainment  of  any  Temporal  Good 

Let  me  repeat  it  He  only  is  great  who  has  the  Habits  of 
Greatness 

Prosopopoeia  or  Personification  is  a Rhetorical  Figure  by 
which  we  attribute  Life  and  Action  to  inanimate  objects  as  the 
Ground  thirsts  for  Rain  the  Earth  smiles  with  Plenty 

The  proper  and  rational  Conduct  of  Men  with  Regard  to 
Futurity  is  regulated  by  two  Considerations  First  that  much  of 
What  it  contains  must  remain  to  us  absolutely  Unknown  Next 
that  there  are  also  Some  Events  in  it  which  may  be  certainly 
known  and  foreseen 

The  Gardens  of  the  World  produce  only  deciduous  flowers 
Perennial  ones  must  be  sought  in  the  Delightful  Regions  Above 
Roses  without  Thorns  are  the  Growth  of  Paradise  alone 

How  many  Rules  and  maxims  of  Life  might  be  spared  could 
we  fix  a principle  of  Virtue  within  and  inscribe  the  living 
Sentiment  of  the  Love  of  God  in  the  aflFections  he  w^ho  loves 
righteousness  is  Master  of  all  the  distinctions  in  Morality 

He  who  from  the  Benignity  of  his  nature  erected  this  World 
for  the  abode  of  Men  He  who  furnished  it  so  richly  for  our 
accommodation  and  stored  it  with  so  much  beauty  for  our 
entertainment  He  who  since  first  we  entered  into  Life  hath 
followed  us  with  such  a Variety  of  Mercies  this  Amiable  and 
Beneficent  Being  surely  can  have  no  pleasure  in  our  Disappoint- 
ment and  Distress  He  knows  our  Frame  he  remembers  we  are 


110  EXERCISES.  Promiscuous, 

dust  and  looks  to  frail  Man  we  are  assured  with  such  Pity  as  a 
Father  beareth  to  his  children 

One  of  the  first  Lessons  both  of  Religion  and  of  Wisdom  is 
to  moderate  our  Expectations  and  Hopes  and  not  to  set  forth 
on  the  Voyage  of  Life  like  Men  who  expect  to  be  always 
carried  forward  with  a favourable  Gale  let  us  be  satisfied  if  the 
Path  we  tread  be  easy  and  smooth  though  it  be  not  strewed 
with  Flowers 

Providence  never  intended  that  the  Art  of  living  happily  in 
this  World  should  depend  on  that  deep  Penetration  that  acute 
sagacity  and  those  Refinements  of  Thought  which  few  possess 
it  has  dealt  more  graciously  with  us  and  made  happiness  depend 
on  Uprightness-  of  Intention  much  more  than  on  Extent  of 
Capacity 

Most  of  our  Passions  flatter  us  in  their  Rise  But  their 
Beginnings  are  treacherous  their  Growth  is  imperceptible  and 
the  Evils  which  they  carry  in  their  Train  lie  concealed  until 
their  Dominion  is  established  what  Solomon  says  of  one  of 
them  holds  true  of  them  all  that  their  beginning  is  as  When  one 
letteth  out  Water  it  issues  from  a small  Chink  which  once  might 
have  been  easily  stopped  but  being  neglected  it  is  soon  widened 
by  the  Stream  till  the  Bank  is  at  last  totally  thrown  down  and 
the  Flood  is  at  Liberty  to  deluge  the  whole  plain 

Prosperity  debilitates  instead  of  strengthening  the  Mind  Its 
most  common  effect  is  to  create  an  extreme  sensibility  to  the 
slightest  Wound  It  foments  impatient  Desires  and  raises  Expec- 
tations which  no  Success  can  satisfy  It  fosters  a false  Delicacy 
which  sickens  in  the  midst  of  Indulgence  by  repeated  Gratifica- 
tion It  blunts  the  feelings  of  Men  to  what  is  pleasing  and  leaves 
them  unhappily  acute  to  whatever  is  uneasy  Hence  the  Gale 
which  another  would  scarcely  feel  is  to  the  prosperous  a rude 
Tempest  Hence  the  Rose-leaf  doubled  below  them  on  the 
Couch  as  it  is  told  of  the  effeminate  Sybarite  breaks  their  Rest 
Hence  the  Disrespect  shown  by  Mordecai  preyed  with  such 
Violence  on  the  Heart  of  Haman 

Anxiety  is  the  poison  of  Human  Life  it  is  the  Parent  of  many 
Sins  and  of  more  Miseries  in  a World  where  every  thing  is  so 
doubtful  where  we  may  succeed  in  our  Wish  and  be  miserable 
where  we  may  be  disappointed  and  be  blessed  in  the  Disap- 
pointment what  mean  this  restless  Stir  and  Commotion  of  Mind 
Can  our  Solicitude  alter  the  Course  or  unravel  the  Intricacy 
of  Human  Events  Can  our  Curiosity  pierce  through  the  Cloud 
which  the  Supreme  Being  hath  made  impenetrable  to  Mortal 
Eye 

No  situation  is  so  remote  and  no  Station  so  unfavourable  as 
to  preclude  access  to  the  happiness  of  a future  State  a Road  is 


Promiscuous. 


PUNCTUATION. 


Ill 


opened  by  the  Divine  Spirit  to  those  blissful  Habitations  from 
all  Corners  of  the  Earth  and  from  all  Conditions  of  Human 
Life  from  the  peopled  City  and  from  the  solitary  Desert  from 
the  Cottages  of  the  Poor  and  from  the  Palaces  of  Kings  from 
the  Dwellings  of  Ignorance  and  Simplicity  and  from  the  Re- 
gions of  -Science  and  Improvement 

The  Scenes  w^hich  present  themselves  at  our  entering  upon 
the  World  are  commonly  flattering  Whatever  they  be  in  them- 
selves the  lively  Spirits  of  the  Young  gild  every  opening  Pros- 
pect The  Field  of  Hope  appears  to  stretch  wide  Before  them 
Pleasure  seems  to  put  forth  its  Blossoms  On  every  Side  Im- 
pelled by  Desire  forward  they  rush  with  inconsiderate  Ardour 
prompt  to  decide  and  to  choose  averse  to  hesitate  or  to  Inquire 
credulous  because  untaught  by  Experience  rash  because  unac- 
quainted with  Danger  headstrong  because  unsubdued  by  dis- 
appointment Hence  arise  the  Perils  to  which  they  are  exposed 
and  which  too  often  from  Want  of  Attention  to  faithful  Admo- 
nition precipitate  them  into  Ruin  irretrievable 

By  the  unhappy  Excesses  of  irregular  Pleasure  in  Youth  how 
many  amiable  Dispositions  are  corrupted  or  destroyed  how 
many  rising  Capacities  and  Powers  are  suppressed  How  many 
flattering  Hopes  of  Parents  and  Friends  are  totally  extinguished 
Who  but  must  drop  a Tear  over  Human  Nature  When  he 
beholds  that  Morning  which  arose  so  bright  overcast  with  such 
untimely  Darkness  that  Sweetness  of  Temper  which  once  en- 
gaged many  Hearts  that  Modesty  which  was  so  prepossessing 
those  Abilities  which  promised  extensiye  Usefulness  all  sacrificed 
at  the  shrine  of  low  Sensuality  and  one  who  was  formed  for 
passing  through  Life  in  tpe  midst  of  Public  Esteem  cut  off  by 
his  Vices  at  the  Beginning  of  his  Course  or  sunk  for  the  whole 
of  it  into  Insignificance  and  Contempt  These  O sinful  Pleasure 
are  thy  Trophies  It  is  thus  that  co-operating  with  the  Foe  of 
God  and  Man  thou  degradest  Human  Honour  and  blastest  the 
opening  Prospects  of  Human  Felicity 


SECTION  II. 

Examples  in  Poetry. 


Sec  the  Key,  Part  4.  Chap.  6.  Section  2. 

Where  thy  true  treasure  Gold  says  not  in  me 
And  not  in  me  the  Diamond  Gold  is  poor 

The  scenes  of  business  tell  us  what  are  men 
The  scenes  of  pleasure  what  is  all  beside 


113 


EXERCISES. 


Promiscuous. 


Wo  then  apart  if  wo  apart  can  be 
From  mortal  man  and  fortune  at  our  nod 
The  gay  rich  great  triumphant  and  august 
What  are  they  The  most  happy  strange  to  say 
Convince  me  most  of  human  misery 

All  this  dread  order  break  for  whom  for  thee 
Vile  worm  0 madness  pride  impiety 

Man  like  the  generous  vine  supported  lives 

The  strength  he  gains  is  from  the  embrace  he  gives 

Know  Nature  s children  all  divide  her  care 
The  fur  that  warms  a monarch  warm  d a bear 
While  man  exclaims  see  all  things  for  my  use 
See  man  for  mine  replies  a pamper  d goose 
And  just  as  short  of  reason  he  must  fall 
Who  thinks  all  made  for  one  not  one  for  all 

The  Almighty  from  his  throne  on  earth  surveys 
Nought  greater  than  an  honest  humble  heart 
An  humble  heart  his  residence  pronounc  d 
His  second  seat 

Bliss  there  is  none  but  unprecarious  bliss 
That  is  the  gem  sell  all  and  purchase  that 
Why  go  a begging  to  contingencies 
Not  gain  d with  ease  nor  safely  lov  d if  gain  d 

There  is  a time  when  toil  must  be  preferr  d 
Or  joy  by  mistim  d fondness  is  undone 
A man  of  pleasure  is  a man  of  pains 

Thus  nature  gives  us  let  it  check  our  pride 
The  virtue  nearest  to  our  vice  allied 

See  the  sole  bliss  Heav’  n could  on  all  bestow 
Which  who  but  feels  can  taste  but  thinks  can  know 
Yet  poor  with  fortune  and  with  learning  blind 
The  bad  must  miss  the  good  untaught  will  find 

Whatever  is  is  right  This  world  tis  true 
Was  made  for  Csesar  but  for  Titus  too 
And  which  more  blest  who  chain  d his  country  say 
Or  he  whose  virtue  sigh  d to  lose  a day 

The  first  sure  symptom  of  a mind  in  health 
Is  rest  of  heart  and  pleasure  felt  at  home 


Promiscuous. 


PUNCTUATION. 


113 


True  happiness  resides  in  things  unseen 
No  smiles  of  fortune  ever  bless  the  bad 
Nor  can  her  frowns  rob  innocence  of  joy 

Oh  the  dark  days  of  vanity  while  here 
How  tasteless  and  how  terrible  when  gone 
Gone  they  ne  er  go  when  past  they  haunt  us  still 

Father  of  light  and  life  Thou  good  supreme 
O teach  me  what  is  good  Teach  me  thyself 
Save  me  from  folly  vanity  and  vice 
From  ev  ry  low  pursuit  and  feed  my  soul 
With  knowledge  conscious  peace  and  virtue  pure 
Sacred  substantial  never  fading  bliss 

If  I am  right  thy  grace  impart 
Still  in  the  right  to  stay 
If  I am  wrong  O teach  my  heart 
To  find  that  better  way 

Save  me  alike  from  foolish  pride 
Or  impious  discontent 
At  aught  thy  wisdom  has  denied 
Or  aught  thy  goodness  lent 

O lost  to  virtue  lost  to  manly  thought 
Lost  to  the  noble  sallies  of  the  soul 
Who  think  it  solitude  to  be  alone 
Communion  sweet  communion  large  and  high 
Our  reason  guardian  angel  and  our  God 
Then  nearest  these  when  others  most  remote 
And  all  ere  long  shall  be  remote  but  these 


BENEVOLENCE. 

God  loves  from  whole  to  parts  but  human  soul 
Must  rise  from  individual  to  the  whole 
Self-love  but  serves  the  virtuous  mind  to  wake 
As  the  small  pebble  stirs  the  peaceful  lake 
The  centre  mov  d a circle  straight  succeeds 
Another  still  and  still  another  spreads 
Friend  parent  neighbour  first  it  will  embrace 
His  country  next  and  next  all  human  race 
Wide  and  more  wide  th  o erflowings  of  the  mind 
Take  ev  ry  creature  in  of  ev  ry  kind 
Earth  smiles  around  with  boundless  bounty  blest 
And  heav  n beholds  its  image  in  his  breast 
VoL.  II.  15 


114 


EXERCISESr, 


Promiscuous. 


HAPPINESS. 

Know  then  this  truth  enough  for  man  to  know 

Yirtue  alone  is  happiness  below 

The  only  point  where  human  bliss  stands  still 

And  tastes  the  good  without  the  fall  to  ill 

Where  only  merit  constant  pay  receives 

Is  blest  in  what  it  takes  and  what  it  gives 

The  joy  unequall  d if  its  end  it  gain 

And  if  it  lose  attended  with  no  pain 

Without  satiety  tho  e er  so  blest 

And  but  more  relish  d as  the  more  distress  d 

The  broadest  mirth  unfeeling  folly  wears 

Less  pleasing  far  than  virtue  s very  tears 

Good  from  each  object  from  each  place  acquir  d 

For  ever  exercis  d yet  never  tir  d 

Never  elated  while  one  man  s oppress  d 

Never  dejected  while  another  s blest 

And  where  no  wants  no  wishes  can  remain 

Since  but  to  wish  more  virtue  is  to  gain 

GRATITUDE. 

When  all  thy  mercies  0 my  God 
My  rising  soul  surveys 
Transported  with  the  view  I m lost 
In  wonder  love  and  praise 

0 how  shall  words  with  equal  warmth 
The  gratitude  declare 
That  glows  within  my  ravish  d heart 
But  thou  canst  read  it  there 

Thy  providence  my  life  sustain  d 
And  all  my  wants  redress  d 
When  in  the  silent  womb  I lay 
And  hung  upon  the  breast 

To  all  my  weak  complaints  and  cries 
Thy  mercy  lent  an  ear 
Ere  yet  my  feeble  thoughts  had  learnt 
To  form  themselves  in  pray  r 

Unnumber  d comforts  to  my  soul 
Thy  tender  care  bestow  d 
Before  my  infant  heart  conceiv  d 
F rom  whom  those  comforts  flow  d 


Promiscuous. 


PUNCTUATION. 


When  in  the  slipp  ry  paths  of  youth 
With  heedless  steps  I ran 
Thine  arm  unseen  convey  d me  safe 
And  led  me  up  to  man 

Through  hidden  dangers  toils  and  death 
It  gently  clear  d my  way 
And  through  the  pleasing  snares  of  vice 
More  to  be  fear  d than  they 

When  worn  with  sickness  oft  hast  thou 
With  health  renew  d my  face 
And  when  in  sin  and  sorrow  sunk 
Reviv  d my  soul  with  grace 

Thy  bounteous  hand  with  worldly  bliss 
Has  made  my  cup  run  o er 
And  in  a kind  and  faithful  friend 
Has  doubled  all  my  store 

Ten  thousand  thousand  precious  gifts 
My  daily  thanks  employ 
Nor  is  the  least  a cheerful  heart 
That  tastes  those  gifts  with  joy 

Through  ev  ry  period  of  my  life 
Thy  goodness  1 11  pursue 
And  after  death  in  distant  worlds 
The  glorious  theme  renew 

When  nature  fails  and  day  and  night 
Divide  thy  works  no  more 
My  ever  grateful  heart  O Lord 
Thy  mercy  shall  adore 

Through  all  etefnity  to  thee 
A joyful  song  1 11  raise 
For  O eternity  s too  short 
To  utter  all  thy  praise 

THE  VOYAGE  OF  LIFE. 

Self-flatter  d unexperienc  d high  in  hope 

When  young  with  sanguine  cheer  and  streamers  gay 

We  cut  our  cable  launch  into  the  world 

And  fondly  dream  each  wind  and  star  our  friend 

All  in  some  darling  enterprise  embark  d 

But  where  is  he  can  fathom  its  event 


116 


EXERCISES. 


Promiscuous, 


Amid  a multitude  of  artless  hands 

Ruin  s sure  perquisite  her  lawful  prize 

Some  steer  aright  but  the  black  blast  blows  hard 

And  puffs  them  wide  of  hope  With  hearts  of  proof 

F ull  against  wind  and  tide  some  win  their  way 

And. when  strong  effort  has  deserv  d the  port 

And  tugg  d it  into  view  tis  won  tis  lost 

Though  strong  their  oar  still  stronger  is  their  fate 

They  strike  and  while  they  triumph  they  expire 

In  stress  of  weather  most  some  sink  outright 

O er  them  and  o er  their  names  the  billows  close 

To  morrow  knows  not  they  were  ever  born 

Others  a short  memorial  leave  behind 

Like  a flag  floating  when  the  bark  s ingulf  d 

It  floats  a moment  and  is  seen  no  more 

One  Caesar  lives  a thousand  are  forgot 

How  few  favour  d by  ev  ry  element 

With  swelling  sails  make  good  the  promis  d port 

With  all  their  wishes  freighted  Yet  ev  n these 

Freighted  with  all  their  wishes  soon  complain 

Free  from  misfortune  not  from  nature  free 

They  still  are  men  and  when  is  man  secure 

As  fatal  time  as  storm  The  rush  of  years 

Beats  down  their  strength  their  numberless  escapes 

In  ruin  end  and  now  their  proud  success 

But  plants  new  terrors  on  the  victor  s brow 

What  pain  to  quit  the  world  just  made  their  own 

Their  nests  so  deeply  down  d and  built  so  high 

Too  low  tliey  build  who  build  beneath  the  stars^. 


PART  V. 


EXERCISES  TO  PROMOTE  PERSPICUOUS  AND 
ACCURATE  WRITING. 


FIRST, 

With  respect  to  single  loords  and  phrases. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Containing  violations  of  the  Rules  of  PURITY. 


See  vol.  1.  p.  294,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  1. 

We  should  be  employed  dailily  in  doing  good. 

It  irks  me  to  see  so  perverse  a disposition. 

I wot  not  who  has  done  this  thing. 

He  is  no  way  thy  inferior ; and,  in  this  instance,  is  no  ways  to 
blame. 

The  assistance  was  welcome,  and  timelily  afforded. 

For  want  of  employment,  he  streamed  idly  about  the  fields. 

We  ought  to  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  godlily  in  the  world. 

He  was  long  indisposed,  and  at  length  died  of  the  hyp. 

That  word  follows  the  general  rule,  and  takes  the  penult  ac- 
cent. 

He  was  an  extra  genius,  and  attracted  much  attention. 

The  hauteur  of  Florio  was  very  disgracious,  and  disgusted 
both  his  friends  and  strangers. 

He  charged  me  with  want  of  resolution,  in  the  which  he  was 
greatly  mistaken. 

They  have  manifested  great  candidness  in  all  the  transaction. 

The  naturalness  of  the  thought  greatly  recommended  it. 

The  importance,  as  well  as  the  authenticalness  of  the  books, 
has  been  clearly  displayed. 


118  EXERCISES.  Purity. 

It  is  difficult  to  discover  the  spirit  and  intendment  of  some 
laws. 

The  disposition  which  he  exhibited,  was  both  unnatural  and 
incomfortable. 

His  natural  severity  render  him  a very  impopular  speaker. 

The  disquietness  of  his  mind,  made  his  station  and  wealth  far 
from  being  enviable. 

I received  the  gift  with  pleasure,  but  I shall  now  gladlier  re- 
sign it. 

These  are  the  things  highliest  important  to  the  growing  age. 

It  grieveth  me  to  look  over  so  many  blank  leaves,  in  the  book 
of  my  life. 

It  repenteth  me  that  I have  so  long  walked  in  the  paths  of 
folly. 

Methinks  I am  not  mistaken  in  an  opinion,  which  I have  so 
well  considered. 

They  thought  it  an  important  subject,  and  the  question  was 
strenuously  debated  pro  and  con. 

Thy  speech  bewrayeth  thee  ; for  thou  art  a Gallilean. 

Let  us  not  give  too  hasty  credit  to  stories  which  may  injure 
our  neighbour ; peradventure  they  are  the  offspring  of  calumny, 
or  misapprehension. 

The  gardens  were  void  of  simplicity  and  elegance ; and  ex- 
hibited much  that  was  glaring  and  bizarre. 


CHAPTER  H. 

Containing  violations  of  the  rule  of  PROPRIETY. 

See  Vol.  I.  p.  295,  and  the  Key,  Fart  5.  Chap.  2.  Sect.  1. 

SECTION  I. 

Avoid  low  expressions, 

I HAD  as  lief  do  it  myself,  as  persuade  another  to  do  it. 

Of  the  justness  of  his  measures,  he  convinced  his  opponent  by 
dint  of  argument. 

He  is  not  a whit  better  than  those  whom  he  so  liberally  con- 
demns. 

He  stands  upon  ^curity,  and  will  not  liberate  him  till  it  be 
obtained. 


Propriety.  perspicuity,  &cy  119 

The  meaning  of  the  phrase,  as  I take  it,  is  very  different 
from  the  common  acceptation. 

The  favourable  moment  should  be  embraced ; for  he  does 
not  hold  long  in  one  mind. 

He  exposed  himself  so  much  amongst  the  people,  that  be  had 
like  to  have  got  one  or  two  broken  heads. 

He  was  very  dexterous  in  smelling  out  the  views  and  designs 
of  others. 

If  his  education  was  but  a little  taken  care  of,  he  might  be 
very  useful  amongst  his  neighbours. 

He  might  have  perceived,  with  half  an  eye,  the  difficulties  to 
which  his  conduct  had  exposed  him. 

If  I happen  to  have  a little  leisure  upon  my  hands  to-morrow, 
I intend  to  pay  them  a short  visit. 

This  performance  is  much  at  one  with  the  other. 

The  scene  was  new,  and  he  was  seized  with  wonderment  at 
all  he  saw. 


SECTION  II. 

Supply  words  that  are  wanting. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  295,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  2.  Sect.  2. 

L^:t  us  consider  the  works  of  nature  and  art,  with  proper 
attehtion. 

He  is  engaged  in  a treatise  on  the  interests  of  the  soul  and 
body. 

Some  productions  of  nature  rise  in  value,  according  as  they 
more  or  less  resemble  those  of  art. 

The  Latin  tongue,  in  its  purity,  was  never  in  this  island. 

For  some  centuries,  there  was  a constant  intercourse  between 
France  and  England,  by  the  dominions  we  possessed  there,  and 
the  conquests  we  made. 

He  is  impressed  with  a true  sense  of  that  function,  when 
chosen  from  a regard  to  the  interests  of  piety  and  virtue. 

The  wise  and  foolish,  the  virtuous  and  the  vile,  the  learned  and 
ignorant,  the  temperate  and  profligate,  must  often,  like  the  wheat 
and  tares,  be  blended  together. 

section  III. 

In  the  same  sentence^  he  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word  too 
frequently  nor  in  different  senses. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  296,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  2.  Sect.  3.  ' 

An  eloquent  speaker  may  give  more,  but  cannot  give  more 
convincing  arguments,  than  this  plain  man  offered. 


120  EXERCISES,  Propriety. 

They  were  persons  of  very  moderate  intellects,  even  before 
they  were  impaired  by  their  passions. 

True  wit  is  nature  dressed  to  advantage ; and  yet  some 
works  have  more  wit  than  does  them  good. 

The  sharks,  who  play  upon  the  inadvertency  of  young 
heirs,  are  more  pardonable  than  those,  who  trespass  upon  the 
good  opinion  of  those,  who  treat  them  with  great  confidence  and 
respect. 

Honour  teaches  us  properly  to  respect  ourselves,  and  to 
violate  no  right  or  privilege  of  our  neighbour : it  leads  us  to 
support  the  feeble,  to  relieve  the  distressed,  and  to  scorn  to 
be  governed  by  degrading  and  injurious  passions : and  yet 
we  see  honour  is  the  motive  which  urges  the  destroyer  to  take 
the  life  of  his  friend. 

He  will  be  always  with  you,  to  support  and  comfort  you, 
and  in  some  measure  to  succeed  your  labours ; and  he  will 
also  be  with  all  his  faithful  ministers  who  shall  succeed  you  in 
his  service. 


SECTION  IV. 

Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  toms.^ 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  296,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  2.  Sect.  4. 

Most  of  our  hands  were  asleep  in  their  berths,  when  the  ves- 
sel shipped  a sea,  that  carried  away  our  pinnace  and  binnacle. 
Our  dead  lights  were  in,  or  we  should  have  filled.  The  main- 
mast was  so  sprung,  that  we  were  obliged  to  fish  it,  and  bear 
away  for  Lisbon. 

The  book  is  very  neatly  printed  : the  scale-boarding  is  ample 
and  regular,  and  the  register  exact. 

SECTION  V. 

Amid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  296,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  2.  Sect.  5. 

When  our  friendship  is  considered,  how  is  it  possible  that  I 
should  not  grieve  for  his  loss  ? 

The  eagle  killed  the  hen,  and  eat  her  in  her  own  nest. 

* The  examples  under  this  section,  and  perhaps  a few  others  in  different  parts  of 
book,  may  be  too  difficult  for  learners  to  correct  without  assistance  : but  as  some  illustra- 
tion of  the  rules  to  which  they  relate,  was  requisite,  they  could  not  properly  be  omitted. 
By  an  attentive  perusal  of  them,  and  a subsequent  application  to  the  teacher,  or  to  thejfey, 
the  scholar  will  perceive  the  nature  of  the  rule,  ana  the  mode  ill  which  Similar  errors  iriay  be 
rectified. 


Propriety.  perspicuity,  &c.  121 

It  may  be  justly  said,  that  no  laws  are  better  than  the  Eng- 
lish. 

The  pretenders  to  polish  and  refine  the  English  language,  have 
chiefly  multiplied  abuses  and  absurdities. 

The  English  adventurers,  instead  of  reclaiming  the  natives 
from  their  uncultivated  manners,  were  gradually  assimilated  to 
the  ancient  inhabitants,  and  degenerated  from  the  customs  of 
their  own  nation. 

It  has  been  said,  that  not  only  Jesuits  can  equivocate. 

You  will  not  think  that  these  people,  when  injured,  have  the 
least  right  to  our  protection. 

Solomon  the  son  of  David,  who  built  the  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem, was  the  richest  monarch  that  reigned  over  the  Jewish 
people. 

Solomon  the  son  of  David,  who  was  persecuted  by  Saul,  was 
the  richest  monarch  of  the  Jews. 

It  is  certain  that  all  words  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas, 
may  furnish  matter  of  mistake  and  cavil. 

Lisias  promised  to  his  father,  never  to  abandon  his  friends. 

The  Divine  Being  heapeth  favours  on  his  servants,  ever  liberal 
and  faithful. 

Every  well  instructed  scribe,  is  like  a householder,  who  bring- 
eth  out  of  his  treasure  things  new  and  old. 

He  w^as  willing  to  spend  a hundred  or  two  pounds  rather  than 
be  enslaved. 

Dryden  makes  a very  handsome  observation,  on  Ovid’s  writ- 
ing a letter  from  Dido  to  iEneas,  in  the  following  words. 

Imprudent  associations  disqualify  us  for  the  instruction  or  re- 
proof of  others. 

I 

SECTION  VI. 

Avoid  unintelligible,  and  inconsistent  words  and  phrases. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  297,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  2.  Section  6. 

I SELDOM  see  a noble  building,  or  any  great  piece  of  magnif- 
icence and  pomp,  but  I think,  how  little  is  all  this  to  satisfy  the 
ambition,  or  to  fill  the  idea,  of  an  immortal  soul. 

A poet  speaking  of  the  universal  deluge,  says  : 

Yet  when  that  flood  in  its  own  depth  was  drown’d, 

It  left  behind  it  false  and  slippery  ground. 

The  author  of  the  Spectator  says,  that  a man  is  not  qualified 
for  a bust,  who  has  not  a good  deal  of  wit  and  vivacity,  even  in 
the  ridiculous  side  of  his  character. 

Vol.  II.  16 


EXERCISES.  Propriety. 

And  Bezaleel  made  the  laver  of  brass,  and  the  foot  of  it  of 
brass,  of  the  looking-glasses  of  the  women. 

And,  in  the  lowest  deep,  a lower  deep 
Still  threat’ning  to  devour  me,  opens  wide. 

SECTION  VII. 

Avoid  all  such  words  and  phrases,  as  are  not  adapted  to  the  ideas 

you  mean  to  communicate;  or  which  are  less  significant  than 

others,  of  those  ideas. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  299,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  2.  Sec.  7. 

No  less  than  two  hundred  scholars  have  been  educated  in  that 
school. 

The  attempt,  however  laudable,  was  found  to  be  impracti- 
cable. 

He  is  our  mutual  benefactor,  and  deserves  our  respect  and 
obedience. 

Vivacity  is  often  promoted,  by  presenting  a sensible  object  to 
the  mind,  instead  of  an  intelligible  one. 

They  broke  down  the  banks,  and  the  country  was  soon  over- 
flown. 

The  garment  w^as  decently  formed,  and  sown  very  neatly. 

The  house  is  a cold  one,  for  it  has  a north  exposition. 

The  proposition,  for  each  of  us  to  relinquish  something,  was 
complied  with,  and  produced  a cordial  reconcilement. 

Though  learn’d,  well  bred  ; and  though  well  bred^  sincere  ; 

Modestly  bold,  and  humanly  severe. 

A fop  is  a risible  character,  in  every  one’s  view  but  his  own. 

An  action  that  excites  laughter,  without  any  mixture  of  con- 
tempt, may  be  called  a ridiculous  action. 

It  is  difficult  for  him  to  speak  three  sentences  together. 

By  this  expression,  I do  not  intend  what  some  persons  annex 
to  it. 

The  negligence  of  timely  precaution  was  the  cause  of  this 
great  loss. 

All  the  sophism  which  has  been  employed,  cannot  obscure  so 
plain  a truth. 

Disputing  should  always  be  so  managed,  as  to  remember  that 
the  only  end  of  it  is  truth. 

My  friend  was  so  ill  that  he  could  not  set  up  at  all,  but  was 
obliged  to  lay  continually  in  bed. 

A certain  prince,  it  is  said,  when  he  invaded  the  Egyptians, 
placed,  in  the  front  of  his  army,  a number  of  cats  and  other 


Propriety.  perspicuity,  &c. 


123 


animals,  which  were  worshipped  by  those  people.  A reverence 
for  these  phantoms,  made  the  Egyptians  he  down  their  arms, 
and  become  an  easy  conquest. 

The  presence  of  the  Deity,  and  the  interest  such  an  august 
cause  is  supposed  to  take  in  our  concerns,  is  a source  of  con- 

And  when  they  had  kindled  a fire  in  the  midst  of  the  hall,  and 
were  set  down  together,  Peter  set  down  among  them. 

By  the  slavish  disposition  of  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome, 
under  the  emperors,  the  wit  and  eloquence  of  the  age  were 
wholly  turned  into  panegyric. 

The  refreshment  came  in  seasonably,  before  they  were  laid 
down  to  rest. 

We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have  seen. 

They  shall  flee  as  the  eagle  that  hasteth  to  eat. 

The  wicked  fly  when  no  man  pursueth : but  the  righteous  are 
bold  as  a lion. 


A creature  of  a more  exalted  kind 

Was  wanting  yet,  and  then  was  man  design’d. 


He  died  with  violence  ; for  he  was  killed  by  a sword. 

He  had  scarcely  taken  the  medicine,  than  he  began  to  feel 
himself  relieved. 

No  place  and  no  object  appear  to  him  void  of  beauty. 

When  we  fall  into  a person’s  conversation,  the  first  thing  we 
should  consider,  is,  the  intention  of  it. 

Galileo  discovered  the  telescope ; Hervey  invented  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood. 

Philip  found  an  obstacle  to  the  managing  of  the  Athenians, 
from  the  nature  of  their  dispositions;  but  the  eloquence  of 
Demosthenes  was  the  greatest  difficulty  in  his  designs. 

A hermit  is  rigorous  in  his  life ; a judge  austere  in  his 
sentences. 

A candid  man  avows  his  mistake,  and  is  forgiven  ; a patriot 
acknowledges  his  opposition  to  a bad  minister,  and  is  applauded. 

We  have  enlarged  our  family  and  expenses ; and  increased 
our  garden  and  fruit  orchard. 

By  a proper  reflection,  we  may  be  taught  to  mend  what  is 
erroneous  and  defective. 

The  good  man  is  not  overcome  by  disappointment,  when 
that  which  is  mortal  passes  away  ; when  that  which  is  mutable, 
dies ; and  when  that  which  he  knew  to  be  transient,  begins  to 
change. 


(124) 


CHAPTER  III. 

Containing  violations  of  the  Rules  of  PRECISION. 

See  Vol.  L p.  301,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  3. 

This  great  politician  desisted  from,  and  renounced  his  designs, 
when  he  found  them  impracticable. 

He  was  of  so  high  and  independent  a spirit,  that  he  abhorred 
and  detested  being  in  debt. 

Though  raised  to  an  exalted  station,  she  was  a pattern  of 
piety,  virtue,  and  religion. 

The  human  body  may  be  divided  into  the  head,  trunk, 
limbs,  and  vitals. 

His  end  soon  approached ; and  he  died  with  great  courage 
and  fortitude. 

He  was  a man  of  so  much  pride  and  vanity,  that  he  despised 
the  sentiments  of  others. 

Poverty  induces  and  cherishes,  dependence ; and  dependence 
strengthens  and  increases  corruption. 

This  man,  on  all  occasions,  treated  his  inferiors  with  great 
haughtiness  and  disdain. 

There  can  be  no  regularity  or  order  in  the  life  and  conduct  of 
that  man,  who  does  not  give  and  allot  a due  share  of  his  time, 
to  retirement  and  reflection. 

Such  equivocal  and  ambiguous  expressions,  mark  a formed 
intention  to  deceive  and  abuse  us. 

His  cheerful,  happy  temper,  remote  from  discontent,  keeps 
up  a kind  of  daylight  in  his  mind,  excludes  every  gloomy  pros- 
pect, and  fills  it  with  a steady  and  perpetual  serenity. 


I 


(135) 


SECONDLY, 

Exercises  to  promote  perspicuity  and  accuracy,  with  respect  to 
the  construction  of  Sentences. 


CHAPTER  L 

Containing  sentences  in  which  the  Rules  of  CLEARNESS 
are  violated. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  305,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  1.  Clearness  Sect.  1. 

SECTION  I. 

In  the  position  of  adverbs. 

Hence  the  impossibility  appears,  that  an  undertaking  man- 
ageed  so,  should  prove  successful. 

May  we  not  here  say  with  the  poet,  that  “ virtue  is  its  own 
reward  ?” 

Had  he  died  before,  would  not  then  this  art  have  been 
wholly  unknown  ? 

Not  to  exasperate  him,  I only  spoke  a very  few  words. 

The  works  of  art  receive  a great  advantage,  from  the  resem- 
blance which  they  have  to  those  of  nature,  because  here  the 
similitude  is  not  only  pleasant,  but  the  pattern  is  perfect. 

It  may  be  proper  to  give  some  account  of  those  practices^ 
anciently  used  on  such  occasions,  and  only  discontinued  through 
the  neglect  and  degeneracy  of  later  times. 

Sixtus  the  fourth  was,  if  I mistake  not,  a great  collector  of 
books,  at  least. 

If  Louis  XIV.  was  not  the  greatest  king,  he  was  the  best 
actor  of  majesty,  at  least,  that  ever  filled  a throne. 

These  forms  of  conversation,  by  degrees  multiplied  and  grew 
troublesome. 

Nor  does  this  false  modesty  expose  us  only  to  such  actions  as 
are  indiscreet,  but  very  often  to  such  as  are  highly  criminal. 

By  greatness,  I do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  ob- 
ject, but  the  largeness  of  a whole  view. 

I was  engaged  formerly  in  that  business,  but  I never  shall  be 
again  concerned  in  it. 


126 


exeUcises. 


Clearness. 


We  do  those  things  frequently,  which  we  repent  of  after- 
wards. 

By  doing  the  same  thing  it  often  becomes  habitual. 

Most  nations,  not  even  excepting  the  Jews,  were  prone  to 
idolatry. 

Raised  to  greatness  without  merit,  he  employed  his  power 
for  the  gratification  solely  of  his  passions. 

SECTION  II. 

In  the  position  of  circumstances^  and  of  particular  members. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  307,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  1.  Clearness.  Sec.  2. 

The  embarrassments  of  the  artificers,  rendered  the  progress 
very  slow  of  the  work. 

He  found  the  place  replete  with  wonders,  of  which  he  pro- 
posed to  solace  himself  with  the  contemplation,  if  he  should 
never  be  able  to  accomplish  his  flight. 

They  are  now  engaged  in  a study,  of  which  they  have  long 
wished  to  know  the  usefulness. 

This  was  an  undertaking,  which,  in  the  execution,  proved  as 
impracticable,  as  had  turned  out  every  other  of  their  pernicious, 
yet  abortive  schemes. 

He  thought  that  the  presbyters  would  soon  become  more 
dangerous  to  the  magistrates,  than  had  ever  been  the  prelatical 
clergy. 

Frederick,  seeing  it  was  impossible  to  trust,  with  safety,  his 
life  in  their  hands,  was  obliged  to  take  the  Mahometans  for  his 
guard. 

The  emperor  refused  to  convert  at  once,  the  truce  into  a 
definitive  treaty. 

However,  the  miserable  remains  were,  in  the  night,  taken 
down. 

I have  settled  the  meaning  of  those  pleasures  of  the  imagin- 
ation, which  are  the  subject  of  my  present  undertaking  by  way 
of  introduction,  in  this  paper ; and  endeavoured  to  recommend 
the  pursuit  of  those  pleasures  to  my  readers,  by  several  con- 
siderations : I shall  examine  the  several  sources  from  whence 
these  pleasures  are  derived,  in  my  next  paper. 

Sir  Francis  Bacon,  in  his  Essay  upon  Health,  has  not  thought 
it  improper  to  prescribe  to  his  reader  a poem,  or  a prospect, 
where  he  particularly  dissuades  him  from  knotty  and  subtle  dis- 
quisitions ; and  advises  him  to  pursue  studies  that  fill  the  mind 
with  splendid  and  illustrious  objects,  as  history,  poetry,  and 
contemplations  of  nature. 


Clearness, 


PERSPICUITY,  &C. 


127 


If  the  English  reader  would  see  the  notion  explained  at 
large,  he  may  find  it  in  Locke’s  Essay  on  the  Human  Under- 
standing. 

Fields  of  corn  form  a pleasant  prospect ; and  if  the  walks 
were  a little  taken  care  of  that  lie  between  them,  they  wpuld 
display  neatness,  regularity,  and  elegance. 

Though  religion  will  indeed  bring  us  under  some  restraints, 
they  are  very  tolerable,  and  not  only  so,  but  desirable  on  the 
whole. 

I have  confined  myself  to  those  methods  for  the  advancement 
of  piety,  which  are  in  the  power  of  a prince,  limited  like  ours, 
by  a strict  execution  of  the  laws. 

This  morning  when  one  of  fhe  gay  females  was  looking  over 
some  hoods  and  ribands,  brought  by  her  tirewoman,  with  great 
care  and  diligence,  I employed  no  less  in  examining  the  box 
w^hich  contained  them. 

Since  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  a perpetual  inter- 
course of  buying  and  selling,  and  dealing  upon  credit,  where 
fraud  is  permitted  or  connived  at,  or  has  no  law  to  punish  it, 
the  honest  dealer  is  often  undone,  and  the  knave  gets  the 
advantage. 

Though  energetic  brevity  is  not  adapted  alike  to  every  sub- 
ject, we  ought  to  avoid  its  contrary,  on  every  occasion,  a languid 
redundancy  of  words.  It  is  proper  to  he  copious  sometimes,  but 
never  to  be  verbose. 

A monarchy,  limited  like  ours,  may  be  placed,  for  aught  I 
know,  as  it  has  been  often  represented,  just  in  the  middle  point, 
from  whence  a deviation  leads,  on  the  one  hand,  to  tyranny,  and, 
on  the  other,  to  anarchy. 

Having  already  shown  how  the  fancy  is  affected  by  the  works 
of  nature,  and  afterwards  considered,  in  general,  both  the  works 
of  nature,  and  of  art,  how  they  mutually  assist  and  complete 
each  other,  in  forming  such  scenes  and  prospects  as  are  most  apt 
to  delight  the  mind  of  the  beholders : I shall  in  this  paper  throw- 
together  some  reflections,  &c. 

Let  but  one  great,  brave,  disinterested,  active  man  arise,  and 
he  will  be  received,  venerated,  and  followed. 

Ambition  creates  seditions,  wars,  discords,  hatred  and 
shyness. 

The  scribes  made  it  their  profession  to  teach  and  to  study  the 
law  of  Moses. 

Sloth  pours  upon  us  a deluge  of  crimes  and  evils,  and  saps  the 
foundation  of  every  virtue. 

The  ancient  laws  of  Rome  were  so  far  from  suffering  a 
Roman  citizen  to  be  put  to  death,  that  they  would  not  allow  him 
to  be  bound,  or  even  to  be  whipped. 


128  EXERCISES.  Clearness, 

His  labours  to  acquire  knowledge  have  been  productive  of 
great  satisfaction  and  success. 

He  was  a man  of  the  greatest  prudence,  virtue,  justice,  and 
modesty. 

His  favour  or  disapprobation  was  governed  by  the  failure  or 
success  of  an  enterprize. 

He  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  serve  his  benefactor ; and 
had  a grateful  sense  of  the  benefits  received. 

Many  persons  give  evident  proof,  that  either  they  do  not  feel 
the  power  of  the  principles  of  religion,  or  that  they  do  not  be- 
lieve them. 

As  the  guilt  of  an  officer  will  be  greater  than  that  of  a com- 
mon servant,  if  he  prove  negligent ; so  the  reward  of  his  fidel- 
ity will  proportionably  be  greater. 

The  comfort  annexed  to  goodness  is  the  pious  man’s  strength. 
It  inspires  his  zeal.  It  attaches  his  . heart  to  religion.  It 
accelerates  his  progress  and  supports  his  constancy. 

SECTION  III. 

In  the  disposal  of  the  relative  pronouns,  who,  which,  what, 

whose,  and  all  of  those  particles,  which  express  the  connex- 
ion of  the  parts  of  speech. 

Bee  Vol.  1.  p.  310,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  1.  Clearness.  Sect.  3. 

These  are  the  master’s  rules  who  must  be  obeyed. 

They  attacked  Northumberland’s  house,  whom  they  put  to 
death. 

He  laboured  to  involve  his  minister  in  ruin,  who  had  been  the 
author  of  it. 

It  is  true  what  he  says  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  point. 

The  French  marched  precipitately  as  to  an  assured  victory  ; 
whereas  the  English  advanced  very  slowly and  discharged  such 
flights  of  arrows,  as  did  great  execution.  When  they  drew 
near  the  archers,  perceiving  that  they  were  out  of  breath,  they 
charged  them  with  great  vigour. 

He  was  taking  a view  from  a window,  of  the  cathedral  in 
Lichfield,  where  a party  of  the  royalists  had  fortified  them- 
selves. 

We  no  where  meet  with  a more  splendid  or  pleasing  show 
in  nature,  than  what  appears  in  the  heavens  at  the  rising  and 
setting  of  the  sun,  which  is  wholly  made  up  of  those  different 
stains  of  light,  that  show  themselves  in  clouds  of  a different 
situation. 

There  will  be  found  a round  million  of  creatures  in  human 
figure,  throughout  this  kingdom,  whose  whole  subsistence,  &c. 


Clearness. 


PERSPICUITY,  &C. 


129 


It  is  the  custom  of  the  Mahometans,  if  they  see  any  printed 
or  written  paper  upon  the  ground,  to  take  it  up,  and  lay  it 
aside  carefully,  as  not  knowing  but  it  may  contain  some  piece 
of  their  Alcoran. 

The  laws  of  nature  are,  truly,  what  lord  Bacon  styles  his 
aphorisms,  laws  of  laws.  Civil  laws  are  always  imperfect,  and 
often  false  deductions  from  them,  or  applications  of  them  ; nay, 
they  stand  in  many  instances,  in  direct  opposition  to  them. 

It  has  not  a word,  says  Pope,  but  what  the  author  religiously 
thinks  in  it. 

Many  act  so  directly  contrary  to  this  method,  that,  from  a 
habit  of  saving  time  and  paper,  which  they  acquired  at  the 
university,  they  write  in  so  diminutive  a manner,  that  they  can 
hardly  read  what  they  have  written. 

Thus  I have  fairly  given  you  my  own  opinion,  as  well  as  that 
of  a great  majority  of  both  houses  here,  relating  to  this  weighty 
affair  ; upon  which  I am  confident  you  may  securely  reckon. 

If  we  trace  a youth  from  the  earliest  period  of  life,  who  has 
been  well  educated,  we  shall  perceive  the  wisdom  of  the  maxims 
here  recommended. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Containing  sentences  in  which  the  Rules  of  UNITY  are 
violated. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  311,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  2.  Unity.  Sect.  1. 

SECTION  I. 

During  the  course  of  the  sentence,  the  scene  should  he  changed 
as  little  as  possible. 

A SHORT  time  after  this  injury,  he  came  to  himself : and  the 
next  day,  they  put  him  on  board  a ship,  which  conveyed  him 
first  to  Corinth,  and  thence  to  the  island  of  iEgina. 

The  Britons,  daily  harassed  by  cruel  inroads  from  the  Piets, 
were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence  ; who  con- 
sequently reduced  the  greater  part  of  the  island  to  their  own 
power ; drove  the  Britons  into  the  most  remote  and  mountain- 
ous parts  ; and  the  rest  of  the  country,  in  customs,  religion,  and 
language,  became  wholly  Saxons. 

By  eagerness  of  temper,  and  precipitancy  of  indulgence, 
men  forfeit  all  the  advantages  which  patience  would  have  pro- 
cured ; and,  by  this  means,  the  opposite  evils  are  incurred  to 
their  full  extent. 

Vol.  II.  17 


130 


EXERCISES. 


Unity, 

This  prostitution  of  praise  does  not  only  affect  the  gross  of 
mankind,  who  take  their  notion  of  characters  from  the  learned  ; 
but  also  the  better  sort  must,  by  this  means,  lose  some  part  at 
least  of  their  desire  of  fame,  when  they  find  it  promiscuously 
bestowed  on  the  meritorious  and  undeserving. 

All  the  precautions  of  prudence,  moderation,  and  condescen- 
sion w^hich  Eumenes  employed,  were  incapable  of  mollifying 
the  heart  of  those  barbarians,  and  of  extinguishing  their  jealousy: 
and  he  must  have  renounced  his  merit  and  virtue  which  occa- 
sioned it,  to  have  been  capable  of  appeasing  them. 

He  who  performs  every  employment  in  its  due  place  and 
season,  suffers  no  part  of  time  to  escape  without  profit ; and 
thus  his  days  become  multiplied  ; and  much  of  life  is  enjoyed  in 
little  space. 

Desires  of  pleasure  usher  in  temptation,  and  the  growth  of 
disorderly  passions  is  forwarded. 

SECTION  II. 

We  should  never  crowd  into  one  sentence,  things  ivhich  have  so 

little  connexion,  that  they  could  hear  to  he  divided  into  two  or 

three  sentences. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  312.  Vol.  2.  p,  262. 

The  notions  of  lord  Sunderland  were  always  good  ; but  he 
was  a man  of  great  expense. 

In  this  uneasy  state,  both  of  his  public  and  private  life,  Cicero 
was  oppressed  by  a new  and  deep  affliction,  the  death  of  his 
beloved  daughter  Tullia ; which  happened  soon  after  her 
divorce  from  Dolabella;  whose  manners  and  humours  were 
entirely  disagreeable  to  her. 

The  sun  approaching  melts  the  snow,  and  breaks  the  icy 
fetters  of  the  main,  where  vast  sea-monsters  pierce  through 
floating  islands,  with  arms  which  can  withstand  the  crystal 
rock  ; whilst  others,  that  of  themselves  seem  great  as  islands, 
are,  by  their  bulk  alone,  armed  against  all  b^ut  man,  whose 
superiority  over  creatures  of  a size  and  force  so  stupendous, 
should  make  him  mindful  of  his  privilege  of  reason  ; and  force 
him  humbly  to  adore  the  great  Composer  of  those  wondrous 
frames,  and  the  Author  of  his  own  superior  wisdom. 

I single  Strada  out  among  the  moderns,  because  he  had  tlie 
foolish  presumption  to  censure  Tacitus,  and  to  write  history 
himself ; and  my  friend  will  forgive  this  short  excursion  in 
honour  of  a favourite  writer. 

Boast  not  thyself  of  to-morrow,  thou  knowest  not  what  a 
day  may  bring  forth ; and  for  the  same  reason,  despair  not  ot 
to-morrow  ; for  it  may  bring  forth  good  as  well  as  evil ; which 


PERSPICUITY,  &C, 


131 


Unity. 


is  a ground  for  not  vexing  thyself  with  imaginary  fears  ; for  the 
impending  black  cloud,  which  is  regarded  with  so  much  dread, 
may  pass  by  harmless : or  though  it  should  discharge  the  storm, 
yet  before  it  breaks  thou  mayst  be  lodged  in  that  lowly  mansion 
which  no  storms  ever  touch. 


SECTION  III. 


We  sluould  keep  clear  of  all  unnecessary  parentheses. 

See  Vol.  I.  p.  315.  Vol.  2.  p.  262. 

Disappointments  will  often  happen  to  the  best  and  wisest 
men,  (not  through  any  imprudence  of  theirs,  nor  even  through 
the  malice  or  ill  design  of  others  ; but  merely  in  consequence 
of  some  of  those  cross  incidents  of  life,  which  could  not  be 
foreseen,)  and  sometimes  to  the  wisest  and  best  concerted  plans. 

Without  some  degree  of  patience  exercised  under  injuries, 
(as  offences  and  retaliations  would  succeed  to  one  another  in 
endless  train,)  human  life  would  be  rendered  a state  of  perpetual 
hostility. 

Never  delay  till  to-morrow,  (for  to-morrow  is  not  yours  ; and 
though  you  should  live  to  enjoy  it,  you  must  not  overload  it  with 
a burden  not  its  own,)  what  reason  and  conscience  tell  you  ought 
to  be  performed  to-day. 

We  must  not  imagine  that  there  is,  in  true  religion,  any  thing 
which  overcasts  the  mind  with  sullen  gloom  and  melancholy 
austerity,  (for  false  ideas  may  be  entertained  of  religion,  as  false 
and  imperfect  conceptions  of  virtue  have  often  prevailed  in  the 
world,)  or  which  derogates  from  that  esteem  which  men  are 
generally  disposed  to  yield  to  exemplary  virtues. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Containing  sentences  in  which  the  rules  for  promoting  the 
STRENGTH  of  a sentence  are  violated. 

SECTION  I. 

The  first  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a sentence,  is  toprune 
it  of  all  redundant  words  and  members. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  316.  Vol.  2.  p.  263. 

It  is  six  months  ago  since  I paid  a visit  to  my  relations. 
Suspend  your  censure  so  long,  till  your  judgment  on  the  sub- 
ject can  be  wisely  formed. 


132  EXERCISES.  Strength. 

The  reason  why  he  acted  in  the  manner  he  did,  was  not  fully 
explained. 

If  I were  to  give  a reason  for  their  looking  so  well,  it  would 
be  because  they  rise  early. 

If  I mistake  not,  I think  he  is  improved  both  in  knowledge 
and  behaviour. 

Those  two  boys  appear  to  be  both  equal  in  capacity. 

Whenever  he  sees  me,  he  always  inquires  concerning  his 
friends. 

The  reason  of  his  conduct  will  be  accounted  for  in  the  con- 
clusion of  this  narrative. 

I hope  this  is  the  last  time  that  I shall  ever  act  so  impru- 
dently. 

The  reason  of  his  sudden  departure,  was  on  account  of  the 
case  not  admitting  of  delay. 

The  people  gained  nothing  farther  by  this  step,  but  only  to 
suspend  their  misery. 

1 have  here  supposed  that  the  reader  is  acquainted  with  that 
great  modern  discovery,  which  is,  at  present,  universally  ac- 
knowledged by  all  the  inquirers  into  natural  philosophy. 

There  are  few  words  in  the  English  language,  which  are  em- 
ployed in  a more  loose  and  uncircumscribed  sense,  than  those 
of  the  fancy  and  the  imagination. 

I intend  to  make  use  of  these  words  in  the  thread  of  my  fol- 
lowing speculations,  that  the  reader  may  conceive  rightly,  what 
is  the  subject  upon  which  I proceed. 

Commend  me  to  an  argument  that,  like  a flail,  there  is  no 
fence  against  it. 

How  many  are  there,  by  whom  these  tidings  of  good  news 
were  never  heard ! 

These  points  have  been  illustrated  in  so  plain  and  evident  a 
manner,  that  the  perusal  of  the  book  has  given  me  pleasure  and 
satisfaction. 

However  clear  and  obvious  the  conduct  which  he  ought  to 
have  pursued,  he  had  not  courage  and  resolution  to  set  about  it. 

I was  much  moved  on  this  occasion,  and  left  the  place  full  of 
a great  many  serious  reflections. 

They  are  of  those  that  rebel  against  the  light:  they  know 
not  the  ways  thereof,  nor  abide  in  the  paths  thereof. 

This  measure  may  afford  some  profit,  and  furnish  some  amuse- 
ment. 

By  a multiplicity  and  variety  of  words,  the  thoughts  and  sen- 
timents are  not  set  off  and  accommodated : but,  like  David 
dressed  out  and  equipped  in  Saul’s  armour,  they  are  encumber- 
ed and  oppressed. 

Although  he  was  closely  occupied  wdth  the  affairs  of  the  na- 
tion, nevertheless  he  did  not  neglect  the  concerns  of  his  friends. 


Strength.  perspicuity,  &c.  133 

% 

Whereas,  on  the  other  hand,  supposing  that  secrecy  had  been 
enjoined,  his  conduct  was  very  culpable. 

Less  capacity  is  required  for  this  business,  but  more  time  is 
necessary. 

He  did  not  mention  Leonora,  nor  that  her  father  was  dead. 

The  combatants  encountered  each  other  with  such  rage,  that 
being  eager  only  to  assail,  and  thoughtless  of  making  any  defence, 
they  both  fell  dead  upon  the  field  together. 

I shall  in  the  first  place,  begin  with  remarking  the  defects, 
and  shall  then  proceed  afterwards  to  describe  the  excellences  of 
this  plan  of  education. 

Numberless  orders  of  beings,  which  are  to  us  unknown,  people 
the  wide  extent  of  the  universe. 

His  extraordinary  beauty  was  such,  that  it  struck  observers 
with  admiration. 

Thought  and  language  act  and  re-act  upon  each  other  mutually. 

Their  interests  were  dependent  upon,  and  inseparably  con- 
nected with  each  other. 

While  you  employ  all  the  circumspection  and  vigilance  which 
reason  can  suggest,  let  your  prayers,  at  the  same  time,  continually 
ascend  to  heaven  for  support  and  aid. 


SECTION  II. 


The  second  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a sentence,  is,  to 
attend  particularly  to  the  use  of  copulatives,  relatives,  and  all 
the  particulars  employed  for  transition  and  connexion. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  318,  Vol.  2.  p.  265. 


The  enemy  said,  I will  pursue,  and  I will  overtake,  and  I will 
divide  the  spoil. 

While  the  earth  remaineth,  seed-time  and  harvest,  cold,  heat, 
summer,  winter,  day  and  night,  shall  not  cease. 

A man  should  endeavour  to  make  the  sphere  of  his  innocent 
pleasures  as  wide  as  possible,  that  he  may  retire  into  them  with 
safety,  and  find  in  them  such  a satisfaction  as  a wise  man  would 
not  blush  to  take.  Of  this  nature  are  those  of  the  imagination. 

The  army  was  composed  of  Grecians,  Carians,  Lycians, 
Pamphylians,  and  Phrygians. 

The  body  of  this  animal  was  strong,  and  proportionable, 
and  beautiful. 

There  is  nothing  which  promotes  knowledge  more  than 
steady  application,  and  a habit  of  observation. 

Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often 
be  accompanied  by  the  advantages  of  fortune. 


134  EXERCISES.  Strength. 

The  knowledge  he  has  acquired,  and  the  habits  of  application 
he  possesses,  will  probably  render  him  very  useful. 

Their  idleness,  and  their  luxury  and  pleasures,  their  criminal 
deeds,  and  their  immoderate  passions,  and  their  timidity  and 
baseness  of  mind,  have  dejected  them  to  such  a degree,  as  to 
make  them  weary  of  life. 

I was  greatly  affected,  insomuch  that  I was  obliged  to  leave 
the  place,  notwithstanding  that  my  assistance  had  been  pressingly 
solicited. 

I strenuously  opposed  those  measures,  and  it  was  not  in  my 
power  to  prevent  them. 

I yielded  to  his  solicitation,  whilst  I perceived  the  necessity 
of  doing  so. 

For  the  wisest  purposes.  Providence  has  designed  our  state  to 
be  checkered  with  pleasure  and  pain.  In  this  manner,  let  us 
receive  it,  and  make  the  best  of  what  is  appointed  to  be  our  lot. 

In  the  time  of  prosperity  he  had  stored  his  mind  with  useful 
knowledge,  with  good  principles,  and  virtuous  dispositions. 
And  therefore  they  remain  entire,  when  the  days  of  trouble 
come. 

He  had  made  considerable  advances  in  knowledge,  but  he 
was  very  young  and  laboured  under  several  disadvantages. 


SECTION  III. 

The  third  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a sentence,  is,  to 
dispose  of  the  capital  word,  or  words,  so  that  they  may  make 
the  greatest  impression. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  321.  Vol.  2.  p.  266. 

I HAVE  considered  the  subject  with  a good  deal  of  attention, 
upon  which  I was  desired  to  communicate  my  thoughts. 

Whether  a choice  altogether  unexceptionable,  has,  in  any 
country,  been  made,  seems  doubtful. 

Let  us  endeavour  to  establish  to  ourselves  an  interest  in  Him, 
who  holds  the  reins  of  the  whole  creation  in  his  hands. 

Virgil,  who  has  cast  the  whole  system  of  Platonic  philosophy, 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  soul  of  man,  into  beautiful  allegories, 
in  the  sixth  book  of  his  iEneid,  gives  us  the  punishment,  &c. 

And  Philip  the  fourth  was  obliged,  at  last,  to  conclude  a 
peace,  on  terms  repugnant  to  his  inclination,  to  that  of  his 
people,  to  the  interest  of  Spain,  and  to  that  of  all  Europe,  in 
the  Pyrenean  treaty. 

It  appears  that  there  are,  by  a late  calculation,  upwards  of 
fifteen  millions  of  inhabitants,  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


PERSPICUITY. 


135 


Strength. 

And  although  persons  of  a virtuous  and  learned  education 
may  be,  and  too  often  are,  drawn  by  the  temptations  of  youth, 
and  the  opportunities  of  a large  fortune,  into  some  irregularities, 
when  they  come  forward  into  the  great  world,  it  is  ever  with 
reluctance  and  compunction  of  mind,  because  their  bias  to  vir- 
tue still  continues. 

Were  instruction  an  essential  circumstance  in  epic  poetry,  I 
doubt  whether  a single  instance  could  be  given  of  this  species 
of  composition  in  any  language. 

Some  of  our  most  eminent  writers  have  made  use  of  this 
Platonic  notion,  so  far  as  it  regards  the  subsistence  of  our  affec- 
tions after  death,  with  great  beauty  and  strength  of  reason. 

Men  of  the  best  sense  have  been*  touched,  more  or  less,  with 
these  groundless  horrors  and  presages  of  futurity,  upon  survey- 
ing the  most  indifferent  works  of  nature. 

He  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  is  blessed. 

Every  one  that  puts  on  the  appearance  of  goodness,  is  not 
good. 

And  Elias  with  Moses  appeared  to  them. 

Where  are  your  fathers  ? and  do  the  prophets  live  for  ever  ? 

We  came  to  our  journey’s  end  at  last  with  no  small  difficulty, 
after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  w^eather. 

Virgil  has  justly  contested  with  Homer,  the  praise  of  judg- 
ment, but  his  invention  remains  yet  unrivalled. 

Let  us  employ  our  criticism  on  ourselves,  instead  of  being 
critics  on  others. 

Let  us  implore  superior  assistance,  for  enabling  us  to  act  well 
our  own  part,  leaving  others  to  be  judged  by  Him  wffio  search- 
eth  the  heart. 

The  vehemence  of  passion,  after  it  has  exercised  its  tyranni- 
cal sway  for  awhile,  may  subside  by  degrees. 

This  fallacious  art  debars  us  from  enjoying  life,  instead  of 
lengthening  it. 

Indulging  ourselves  in  imaginary  enjoyments,  often  deprives 
us  of  real  ones. 

How  will  that  nobleman  be  able  to  conduct  himself,  when 
reduced  to  poverty,  who  w^as  educated  only  to  magnificence 
and  pleasure  ? 

It  is  highly  proper  that  a man  should  be  acquainted  with  a 
variety  of  things,  of  which  the  utility  is  above  a child’s  compre- 
hension : but  is  it  necessary  a child  should  learn  every  thing  it 
behoves  a man  to  know  ; or  is  it  even  possible  ? 

When  they  fall  into  sudden  difficulties,  they  are  less  perplexed 
than  others  in  the  like  circumstances;  and  when  they  encounter 
dangers,  they  are  less  alarmed. 

For  all  your  actions  you  must  hereafter  give  an  account,  and 
particularly  for  the  employments  of  youth. 


136 


EXERCISES. 


Strength. 


SECTION  IV. 

The  fourth  rale  for  promoting  the  strength  of  sentences^  is,  that 
a weaker  assertion  or  proposition  should  never  come  after  a 
stronger  one ; and  that,  when  our  sentence  consists  of  two  mem- 
hers,  the  longer  should,  generally,  he  the  concluding  one. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  323.  Vol.  2.  p.  267. 

Charity  breathes  long  suffering  to  enemies,  courtesy  to 
strangers,  habitual  kindness  towards  friends. 

Gentleness  ought  to  diffuse  itself  over  our  whole  behaviour, 
to  form  our  address,  and  regulate  our  speech. 

The  propensity  to  look  forward  into  life,  is  too  often  grossly 
abused,  and  immoderately  indulged. 

The  regular  tenor  of  a virtuous  and  pious  life,  will  prove  the 
best  preparation  for  immortality,  for  old  age,  and  death. 

These  rules  are  intended  to  teach  young  persons  to  write 
with  propriety,  elegance,  and  perspicuity. 

Sinful  pleasures  blast  the  opening  prospects  of  human  felicity, 
and  degrade  human  honour. 

In  this  state  of  mind,  every  employment  of  life  becomes  an 
oppressive  burden,  and  every  object  appears  gloomy. 

They  will  acquire  different  views  by  applying  to  the  honour- 
able discharge  of  the  functions  of  their  station,  and  entering  on 
a virtuous  course  of  action. 

By  the  perpetual  course  of  dissipation,  in  which  sensualists 
are  engaged  ; by  the  riotous  revel,  and  the  midnight,  or  rather 
morning  hours,  to  which  they  prolong  their  festivity;  by  the 
excesses  which  they  indulge ; they  debilitate  their  bodies,  cut 
themselves  off  from  the  comforts  and  duties  of  life,  and  wear 
out  their  spirits. 


SECTION  V. 

A fifth  rule  for  the  strength  of  sentences,  is,  to  avoid  concluding 
them  with  an  adverh,  a preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable  word. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  323.  Vol.  2.  p.  268. 

By  what  I have  already  expressed,  the  reader  will  perceive 
the  business  which  I am  to  proceed  upon. 

May  the  happy  message  be  applied  to  us,  in  all  the  virtue, 
strength  and  comfort  of  it ! 


Strength.  perspicuity,  &c.  137 

Generosity  is  a showy  virtue,  which  many  persons  are  very 
fond  of. 

These  arguments  were  without  hesitation,  and  with  great 
eagerness,  laid  hold  of. 

It  is  proper  to  be  long  in  deliberating,  but  w^e  should  speedily 
execute. 

Form  your  measures  with  prudence : but  all  anxiety  about 
the  issue  divest  yourselves  of. 

We  are  struck,  we  know  not  how,  with  the  symmetry  of 
any  thing  we  see;  and  immediately  acknowledge  the  beauty  of 
an  object,  without  inquiring  into  the  particular  causes  and 
occasions  of  it. 

With  Cicero’s  writings,  these  persons  are  more  conversant, 
than  with  those  of  Demosthenes,  who,  by  many  degrees  excelled 
the  other ; at  least,  as  an  orator. 


SECTION  VI. 


A sixth  rule  relating  to  the  strength  of  a sentence,  is,  that  in  the 
members  of  a sentence,  where  two  things  are  compared  or  con- 
trasted with  one  another ; where  either  a resemblance,  or  an 
opposition  is  intended  to  he  expressed,  some  resemblance  in  the 
language  and  construction  should  be  preserved.  For  when 
the  things  themselves  correspond  to  each  other,  we  naturally 
expect  to  find  a similar  correspondence  in  the  words. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  324.  Vol.  2.  p.  268.  , 

Our  British  gardeners,  instead  of  humouring  nature,  love  to 
deviate  from  it  as  much  as  possible. 

I have  observed  of  late  the  style  of  some  great  ministers, 
very  much  to  exceed  that  of  any  other  productions. 

The  old  may  inform  the  young ; and  the  young  may  animate 
those  who  are  advanced  in  life. 

The  account  is  generally  balanced ; for  what  we  are  losers 
on  the  one  hand,  we  gain  on  the  other. 

The  laughers  will  be  for  those  who  have  most  wit ; the  seri- 
ous part  of  mankind,  for  those  who  have  most  reason  on  their 
side. 

If  men  of  eminence  are  exposed  t(x  censure  on  the  one  hand, 
they  are  as  much  liable  to  flattery  on  the  other.  If  they  receive 
reproaches  which  are  not  due  to  them,  they  likewise  receive 
praises  which  they  do  not  deserve. 

VoL.  11.  18 


exercises.  Strength. 

He  can  bribe,  but  he  is  not  able  to  seduce.  He  can  buy, 
but  he  has  not  the  power  of  gaining.  He  can  lie,  but  no  one  is 
deceived  by  him. 

He  embraced  the  cause  of  liberty  faintly,  and  pursued  it  with- 
out resolution  ; he  grew  tired  of  it  when  he  had  much  to  hope  ; 
and  gave  it  up,  when  there  was  no  ground  for  apprehension. 

There  may  remain  a suspicion  that  we  over  rate  the  great- 
ness of  his  genius,  in  the  same  manner  as  bodies  appear  more 
gigantic,  on  account  of  their  being  disproportioned  and  mis- 
shapen. 


SECTION  VII. 


The  seventh  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  and  effect  of  sen- 
tences, is,  to  attend  to  the  sound,  the  harmony,  and  easy  flow,  of 
the  words  and  members. 


See  Vol.  1.  p.  325.  Vol.  2.  p.  269. 

Sobermindedness  suits  the  present  state  of  man. 

As  conventiclers,  these  people  were  seized  and  punished. 

To  use  the  Divine  name  customarily,  and  without  serious 
consideration,  is  highly  irreverent. 

From  the  favourableness  with  which  he  was  at  first  received, 
great  hopes  of  success  were  entertained. 

They  conducted  themselves  wilily,  and  ensnared  us  before 
we  had  time  to  escape. 

It  belongs  not  to  our  humble  and  confined  station,  to  censure, 
but  to  adore,  submit,  and  trust. 

Under  all  its  labours,  hope  is  the  mind’s  solace  ; and  the  sit- 
uations which  exclude  it  entirely  are  few. 

The  humbling  of  those  that  are  mighty,  and  the  precipitation 
of  persons  who  are  ambitious,  from  the  towering  height  that 
they  had  gained,  concern  but  little  the  bulk  of  men. 

Tranquillity,  regularity,  and  magnanimity,  reside  with  the 
religious  and  resigned  man. 

Sloth,  ease,  success,  naturally  tend  to  beget  vices  and  follies. 

By  a cheerful,  even,  and  open  temper,  he  reconciliated  general 
favour. 

We  reached  the  mansion  before  noon.  It  was  a strong, 
grand.  Gothic  house. 

I had  a long  and  perilous  journey,  but  a comfortable  compan- 
ion, who  relieved  the  fatigue  of  it. 

The  speech  was  introduced  by  a sensible  preamble,  which 
made  a favourable  impression. 


Strength.  perspicuity,  &c.  139 

The  commons  made  an  angry  remonstrance  against  such  an 
I arbitrary  requisition. 

The  truly  illustrious  are  they  who  do  not  court  the  praise  of 
the  world,  but  who  perform  such  actions  as  make  them  indis- 
putably deserve  it. 

By  the  means  of  society,  our  wants  come  to  be  supplied,  and 
our  lives  are  rendered  comfortable,  as  well  as  our  capacities 
enlarged,  and  our  virtuous  affections  called  forth  into  their  prop- 
er exercise. 

Life  cannot  but  prove  vain  to  such  persons  as  affect  a dis- 
relish of  every  pleasure,  which  is  not  both  new  and  exquisite, 
measuring  their  enjoyments  by  fashion’s  standard,  and  not  by 
v/hat  they  feel  themselves ; and  thinking  that  if  others  do  not 
admire  their  state,  they  are  miserable. 

By  experiencing  distress,  an  arrogant  insensibility  of  temper 
is  most  effectually  corrected,  from  the  remembrance  of  our 
own  sufferings  naturally  prompting  us  to  feel  for  others  in  their 
sufferings:  and  if  Providence  has  favoured  us,  so  as  not  to 
make  us  subject  in  our  own  lot  to  much  of  this  kind  of  dis- 
cipline, we  should  extract  improvement  from  the  lot  of  others 
that  is  harder ; and  step  aside  sometimes  from  the  flowery  and 
smooth  paths  which  it  is  permitted  us  to  walk  in,  in  order  to 
view  the  toilsome  march  of  our  fellow-creatures  through  the 
thorny  desert. 

As  no  one  is  without  his  failings,  so  few  want  good  qualities. 

Providence  delivered  them  up  to  themselves,  and  they  tor- 
mented themselves. 

From  disappointments  and  trials,  we  learn  the  insufficiency 
of  temporal  things  to  happiness,  and  the  necessity  of  goodness. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Instances  of  an  irregular  use  of  FIGURES  of  speech. 


See  Vol.  1.  p.  335,  and  the  Key,  Part  5.  Chap.  4.  Figures. 


No  human  happiness  is  so  serene  as  not  to  contain  any  alloy. 

There  is  a time  when  factions,  by  the  vehemence  of  their 
own  fermentations,  stun  and  disable  one  another. 

I intend  to  make  use  of  these  words  in  the  thread  of  my 
speculations. 

Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a ray  of  light  through  the  thick- 
est gloom. 

The  scheme  was  highly  expensive  to  him,  and  proved  the 
Charybdis  of  his  esate. 


EXERCISES.  Figures. 

He  was  so  much  skilled  in  the  empire  of  the  oar,  that  few 
could  equal  him. 

Tlie  death  of  Cato  has  rendered  the  senate  an  orphan. 

Let  us  be  attentive  to  keep  our  mouths  as  with  a bridle ; and 
to  steer  our  vessel  aright,  that  we  may  avoid  the  rocks  and 
shoals,  which  lie  every  where  around  us. 

At  length  Erasmus,  that  great  injur’d  name, 

(The  glory  of  the  priesthood  and  the  shame,) 

Curb’d  the  wild  torrent  of  a barb’rous  age, 

And  drove  those  holy  Vandals  off  the  stage. 

In  this  our  day  of  proof,  our  land  of  hope. 

The  good  man  has  his  clouds  that  intervene ; 

Clouds  that  may  dim  his  sublunary  day. 

But  cannot  conquer  : even  the  best  must  own, 

Patience  and  resignation  are  the  columns 
Of  human  peace  on  earth. 

On  the  wide  sea  of  letters,  ’twas  thy  boast 
To  crowd  each  sail,  and  touch  at  every  coast : 

From  that  rich  mine  how  often  hast  thou  brought 
The  pure  and  precious  pearls  of  splendid  thought  I 
How  didst  thou  triumph  on  that  subject  tide, 

Till  vanity’s  wild  gust,  and  stormy  pride, 

Drove  thy  strong  mind,  in  evil  hour  to  split 
Upon  the  fatal  rock  of  impious  wit ! 

Since  the  time  that  reason  began  to  bud,  and  put  forth  her 
shoots,  thought,  during  our  waking  hours,  has  been  active  in 
every  breast,  without  a moment’s  suspension  or  pause.  The 
current  of  ideas  has  been  always  moving.  The  wheels  of  the 
spiritual  engine  have  exerted  themselves  with  perpetual  mo- 
tion. 

The  man  who  has  no  rule  over  his  own  spirit,  possesses  no 
antidotes  against  poisons  of  any  sort.  He  lies  open  to  every 
insurrection  of  ill  humour,  and  every  gale  of  distress.  Whereas 
he  who  is  employed  in  regulating  his  mind,  is  making  provision 
against  all  the  accidents  of  life.  He  is  erecting  a fortress, 
into  which,  in  the  day  of  sorrow,  he  can  retreat  with  satis- 
faction. 

Tamerlane  the  Great  writes  to  Bajazet,  emperor  of  the  Otto- 
mans, in  the  following  terms. — “ Where  is  the  monarch  who 
dares  resist  us  ? Where  is  the  potentate  who  does  not  glory  in 
being  numbered  among  our  attendants  ? As  for  thee,  descended 
from  a Turcoman  sailor,  since  the  vessel  of  thy  unbounded 
ambition  has  been  wrecked  in  the  gulf  of  thy  self-love,  it 
would  be  proper  that  thou  shouldst  take  in  the  sails  of  thy 


Promiscuous. 


PERSPICUITY,  &C. 


141 


temerity,  and  cast  the  anchor  of  repentance  in  the  port  of  sin- 
cerity and  justice,  which  is  the  port  of  safety ; lest  the  tempest 
of  our  vengeance  make  thee  perish  in  the  sea  of  the  punishment 
thou  deservest.” 

It  is  pleasant  to  be  virtuous  and  good ; because  that  is  to 
excel  many  others  : it  is  pleasant  to  grow  better ; beause  that 
is  to  excel  ourselves : it  is  pleasant  to  command  our  appetites 
and  passions,  and  to  keep  them  in  due  order,  within  the  bounds 
of  reason  and  religion ; because  this  is  empire  ; nay,  it  is 
pleasant  even  to  mortify  and  subdue  our  lusts  ; because  that  is 
victory. 


CHAPTER  V. 

VIOLATIONS  OP  THE  RULES  RESPECTING  PERSPICUOUS  AND 
ACCURATE  WRITING,  PROMISCUOUSLY  DISPOSED. 

“ . 

See  the  Key.  Part  5.  Chap.  5. 

SECTION  I. 

What  is  hun^an  life  to  all,  but  a mixture,  with  various  cares 
and  troubles,  of  some  scatterred  joys  and  pleasures  ? 

When  favours  of  every  kind  are  conferred  speedily,  they  are 
doubled. 

He  will  soon  weary  the  company  who  is  himself  wearied. 

He  miist  endure  the  follies  of  others,  who  will  have  their 
kindness. 

For  the  last  years  of  man  the  first  must  make  provision. 

Perpetual  kindness  must  terminate  in  ignorance. 

In  these,  and  in  such  like  cases,  we  should  in  our  alms,  gen- 
erally suffer  none  to  be  witnesses,  but  him  who  must  see  every 
thing. 

The  reason  why  he  is  so  badly  qualified  for  the  business,  is 
because  he  neglected  his  studies,  and  opportunities  of  improve- 
ment. 

That  Plutarch  wrote  lives  of  Demosthenes  and  Cicero  at 
Cha3ronea,  it  is  clear  from  his  own  account. 

I wish  to  cultivate  your  further  acquaintance. 

He  may  probably  make  the  attempt,  but  he  cannot  possibly 
succeed. 

No  pains  were  spared  by  his  tutor,  in  order  to  his  being  im- 
proved in  all  useful  knowledge. 

In  no  scene  of  her  life  was  ever  Mary^s  address  more  re- 
markably displayed. 


142 


EXERCISES. 


Promiscuous, 


This  was  the  cause  which  first  gave  rise  to  such  a barbarous 
practice. 

He  craftily  endeavoured,  by  a variety  of  false  insinuations 
which  he  made  use  of,  to  turn  the  emperor  to  his  purpose. 

The  beauty  in  the  earth  equals  the  grandeur  in  the  heavens. 

In  health  and  vigour  of  body,  and  in  the  state  of  worldly  for- 
tune, all  rejoice. 

What  passes  in  the  hearts  of  men  is  generally  unknown  to 
the  public  eye. 

Many  associations  are  united  by  laws  the  most  arbitrary. 

These  instances  may,  it  is  hoped,  be  sufficient  to  satisfy  every 
reasonable  mind. 

By  such  general  and  comprehensive  rules  as  this,  the  clearest 
ideas  are  conveyed. 

He  determined  not  to  comply  with  the  proposal,  except  he 
should  receive  a more  ample  compensation. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  health  is  preferable  to 
riches. 

They  declared  to  their  friends,  that  they  believed  the  perusal 
of  such  books  had  ruined  their  principles. 

John’s  temper  greatly  indisposed  him  for  instruction. 

Vegetation  is  advancing  constantly,  though  no  eye  can  trace 
the  steps  of  its  gradation. 

The  reason  of  my  consenting  to  the  measure,  was  owing  to 
his  importunity. 

I conceived  a great  regard  for  him,  and  could  not  but  mourn 
for  his  loss. 

The  officer  apprehended  him,  and  confined  him  in  his  own 
house. 

Charlotte,  the  friend  of  Amelia,  to  whom  no  one  imputed 
blame,  was  too  prompt  in  her  vindication. 

Men  who  are  rich  and  avaricious,  lose  themselves  in  a spring 
which  might  have  cherished  all  around  them. 

I should  prefer  him  to  be  rather  of  slow  parts,  than  with  a 
bad  disposition. 

As . soon  as  Eugenius  undertook  the  care  of  a parish,  it  im- 
mediately engrossed  the  whole  of  his  attention. 

The  plan  will  at  once  contribute  to  general  convenience,  and 
add  to  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  the  town. 

Together  with  the  national  debt,  the  greatest  national  advan- 
tages are  also  transmitted  to  succeeding  generations. 

Their  intimacy  had  commenced  in  the  happier  period,  per- 
haps of  their  youth  and  obscurity. 

His  subject  is  precisely  of  that  kind,  wffiich  a daring  imagina- 
tion could  alone  have  adopted. 


Promiscuous. 


PEKSPICUITYj  <fec. 


143 


This  emperor  conjured  the  senate,  that  the  purity  of  his  reign 
might  not  be  stained  or  contaminated,  by  the  blood  even  of  a 
guilty  senator. 

It  is  a happy  constitution  of  mind,  to  be  able  to  view  success- 
sive  objects  so  steadily,  as  that  the  more  may  never  prevent  us 
from  doing  justice  to  the  less  important. 

This  activity  drew  great  numbers  of  enterprising  men  over 
to  A^irginia,  who  came  either  in  search  of  fortune,  or  of  liberty, 
which  w^as  the  only  compensation  for  the  want  of  it. 

The  erroneous  judgment  of  parents,  concerning  the  conduct 
of  schoolmasters,  has  crushed  the  peace  of  many  an  ingenious 
man,  who  engaged  in  the  care  of  youth ; and  paved  the  way  to 
the  ruin  of  hopeful  boys. 


SECTION  II. 

See  the  Key,  p.  274. 

The  Greek  doubtless  is  a language  which  is  much  superior 
in  riches,  harmony,  and  variety,  to  Latin. 

Those  three  great  genius’s  flourished  in  the  same  period. 

He  has  made  a judicious  adaption  of  the  examples  to  the  rule. 

This  part  of  knowledge  has  been  always  growing,  and  will 
do  so,  till  the  subject  be  exhausted. 

A boy  of  twelve  years  old  may  study  these  lessons. 

The  servant  produced  from  his  late  master  an  undeniable 
character. 

I am  surprised  that  so  great  a philosoper  as  you  are,  should 
spend  your  time  in  the  pursuit  of  such  chimeras. 

The  ends  of  a divine  and  human  legislator,  are  vastly  dif- 
ferent. 

Scarce  had  the  “ Spirit  of  Laws”  made  its  appearance,  than 
it  was  attacked. 

His  donation  was  the  more  acceptable,  that  it  was  given 
without  solicitation. 

This  subject  is  an  unwelcome  intruder,  affording  but  an  un- 
uneasy  sensation,  and  brings  with  it  always  a mixture  of  con- 
cern and  compassion. 

He  accordingly  draws  out  his  forces,  and  offers  battle  to 
Hiero,  who  immediately  accepted  it. 

James  laid  late  in  bed  yesterday  and  this  morning  he  lays  still 
later. 

The  reason  of  this  strange  proceeding  will  be  accounted  for 
when  I make  my  defence. 

I have  observed  him  often,  and  his  manner  of  proceeding  is 
thus ; he  enjoins  first  silence  ; and  then,  &c. 


144  EXERCISES.  Promiscuous, 

y ' 

Having  not  known,  or  not  considered  the  subject,  he  made  a 
Very  crude  decision. 

They  all  were  deceived  by  his  fair  pretences,  and  they  all  (5f 
them  lost  their  properly. 

It  is  above  a year  since  the  time  I left  school. 

He  was  guilty  of  such  atrocious  conduct,  that  he  was  deserted 
by  his  friends  for  good  and  all. 

No  other  employment  beside  a bookseller  suited  his  inclina- 
tion. 

Hereby  I am  instructed,  and  thereby  I am  honoured. 

I pleaded  my  good  intention ; and  after  some  time  he  assented 
thereto;  whereby  I entirely  escaped  all  punishment. 

This  I am  disposed  to  the  rather,  that  it  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  principles  advanced  above. 

From  what  I have  said,  you  will  percieve  readily  the  subject 
I am  to  proceed  upon. 

These  are  points  too  trivial  to  take  notice  of.  They  are  ob- 
jects I am  totally  unacquainted  with. 

The  nearer  that  men  approach  each  other,  the  more  numer- 
ous the  points  of  contact  in  which  they  touch,  and  the  greater 
their  pleasures  or  pains. 

Thus  I have  endeavoured  to  make  the  subject  be  better  un- 
derstood. 

This  is  the  most  useful  art  of  which  men  are  possessed. 

The  French  writers  of  sermons  study  neatness  in  laying  down 
their  heads. 

There  is  not  any  beauty  more  in  one  of  them  than  in  another. 


SECTION  III. 


- See  the  Key,  p.  275. 

Study  to  unite  with  firmness  of  principle  gentleness  of  man- 
ners, and  affable  behaYiour  with  untainted  integrity. 

In  that  work  we  are  every  now  and  then  interrupted  with 
unnatural  thoughts. 

Bating  one  or  two  expressions,  the  composition  is  not  subject 
to  censure. 

To  answer  his  purpose  effectually  he  pitched  upon  a very 
moving  story.  / 

I am  not  able  to  discover  whether  these  points  are  any  how 
connected. 

These  are  arguments  which  cannot  be  got  over  by  all  the 
cavils  of  infidelity. 


Promiscuous. 


PERSPICUITY,  &C. 


145 


This  matter  I had  a great  mind  to  reply  to. 

I hope  that  I may  not  be  troubled  in  future,  on  this  or  any  the 
like  occasions. 

It  is  difficult  to  unite  together  copiousness  and  precision. 

Let  us  consider  of  the  proper  means  to  effect  our  purpose. 

We  must  pay  attention  to  what  goes  before  and  immediately 
follows  after. 

The  more  that  this  track  is  pursued,  the  niore  that  eloquence 
is  studied,  the  more  shall  we  be  guarded  against  a false  taste. 

True  believers  of  Overy  class  and  denomination  on  earth, 
mak^  up  the  church  and  people  of  God. 

This  is  the  sum  and  substance  of  that  which  has  been  said 
on  the  subject. 

A perfect  union  of  wit  and  judgment,  is  one  of  the  rarest 
things  in  the  world. 

Praise,  like  gold  and  diamonds,  owes  to  its  scarcity  only  its 
value.  "" 

Intemperance  will  make  life  shbrt  and  sad,  though  it  may  fire 
the  spirits  for  an- hour^ 

From  their  errors  of  education,  all  their  miseries  have  pro- 
ceeded. / 

Their  disinterestedness  of  conduct  produced  general  admira- 
tion. , 

I viewed  the  habitation  of  my  departed  friend. — Venerable 
shade  ! I then  gave  thee  a tear  : accept  now  of  one  cordial  drop 
that  falls  to  thy  memory. 

To-day  we  are  here  ; to-morrow  we  are  gone. 

This  author  is  more  remarkable  for  strength  of  sentiment, 
than  harmonious  language. 

Many  persons  are  more  delighted  with  correct  and  elegant 
language,  than  with  the  importance  of  sentiment  and  accuracy 
of  reasoning. 

I feel  myself  grateful  to  my  friend,  for  all  the  instance  of  his 
kindness,  which  he  has  often  manifested  to  me. 

It  is  not  from  this  world  that  any  source  of  comfort  can  arise, 
to  cheer  the  gloom  of  the  last  hour. 


SECTION  IV. 

See  the  Key,  p.  277. 

It  is  dangerous  for  beauty  that  is  mortal,  or  for  terrestrial 
virtue,  to  be  examined  by  a light  that  is  too  strong  for  it. 

Beautiful  women  possess  seldom  any  great  accomplishments, 

VoL.  II.  19 


146  EXERCISES.  Promiscuous^ 

because  they  study  behaviour  rather  than  solid  excellence,  for 
the  most  part. 

It  is  to  discover  the  temper  of  froward  children,  not  that  of 
men,  far  less  that  of  Christians,  to  fret  and  repine  at  every  disap- 
pointment of  our  wishes. 

It  is  ordained  and  decreed  by  Providence,  that  nothing  shall 
be  obtained  in  our  present  state,  that  is  truly  valuable,  except  it 
be  with  difficulty  and  danger. 

Pauses  of  ease  and  relaxation,  labour  necessarily  requires  ; 
and  the  deliciousness  of  ease  makes  us  commonly  unwilling  to 
return  to  labour. 

Nothing  which  is  not  right  can  be  great:  nothing  can  be 
suitable  to  the  dignity  of  the  human  mind  which  reason  con- 
demns. 

We  have  warm  hopes  in  youth,  which  are  blasted  soon  by 
negligence  and  rashness  ; and  great  designs  which  are  defeated 
by  inexperience  and  ignorance  of  the  world. 

The  haunts  of  dissipation,  by  night  and  day,  open  many  a 
wide  and  inviting  gate  to  the  children  of  idleness  and  sloth. 

True  virtue  (as  all  its  parts  are  connected,  piety  with  morality, 
charity  with  justice,  benevolence  with  temperance  and  fortitude,) 
must  form  one  complete  and  entire  system. 

Dissimulation  obscures  parts  and  learning;  degrades  the 
lu^re  of  every  accomplishment ; and  plunges  us  into  universal 
contempt. 

Confident  as  you  now  are  m your  assertions,  and  positive  as 
you  are  in  your  opinions,  be  assured  the  time  approaches,  when 
things  and  men  will  appear  in  a different  light  to  you. 

In  this  age  of  dissipation  and  luxury  in  which  w^e  live,  how 
many  avenues  are  constantly  open  that  carry  us  to  the  gates  of 
folly ! 

Through  extravagance  and  idleness,  and  vain  inclination  of 
emulating  others  in  the  splendid  show  of  life,  many  run  into 
charges  exceeding  their  property. 

Objects  are  separated  from  each  other  by  their  qualities  : 
they  are  distinguished  by  the  distance  of  time  or  place. 

Clarendon  being  a man  of  extensive  abilities,  stored  his  mind 
with  a variety  of  ideas  ; which  circumstance  contributed  to  the 
successful  exertion  of  his  vigorous  capacity. 

SECTION  V. 

See  the  Key,  p.  278. 

The  most  high  degree  of  reverence  and  attention  should  be 
paid  to  youth  : and  nothing  that  is  indecent  or  indelicate  should 
be  suffered  to  approach  their  eyes  or  their  ears. 


Promiscuous. 


PERSPICUITY,  &C. 


147 


He  who  is  blessed  with  a clear  conscience,  in  the  worst  con- 
junctures of  human  life,  enjoys  an  elevation  of  mind  peculiar  to 
virtue,  as  well  as  dignity  and  peace. 

The  hand  of  industry  may  change,  in  a few  years,  the  face  of 
a country  ; but  to  alter  the  sentiments  and  manners  of  a people, 
requires  often  as  many  generations. 

When  the  human  mind  dwells  attentively  and  long  upon  any 
subject,  the  passions  are  apt  to  grow  enthusiastic,  interested,  and 
warm;  and  the  understanding  which  they  ought  to  obey,  they 
often  force  into  their  service. 

Some  years  after,  being  released  from  prison,  by  reason  of  his 
consummate  knowledge  of  civil  law,  and  of  military  affairs,  he 
was  exalted  to  the  supreme  power. 

The  discontented  man,  (as  his  spleen  irritates  and  sours  his 
temper,  and  leads  hioi  to  discharge  its  venom  on  all  with  whom 
he  stands  connected,)  is  never  found  without  a great  share  of 
malignity. 

We  cannot  doubt  but  all  the  proceedings  of  Providence  will 
appear  as  equitable,  when  fully  understood  and  completely  intel- 
ligible, as  now  they  seem  irregular. 

All  that  great  wealth  gives  more  than  a moderate  fortune, 
generally  is,  more  room  for  the  freaks  of  caprice,  and  privilege 
for  ignorance  and  vice ; of  flatteries  a quicker  succession  and  a 
larger  circle  of  voluptuousness. 

The  miscarriages  of  the  great  designs  of  princes  are  recorded 
in  the  histories  of  the  world,  but  are  of  little  use  to  the  bulk  of 
mankind,  who  seem  very  little  interested  in  records  of  miscar- 
riages which  cannot  happen  to  them. 

Were  there  any  man  who  could  say,  in  the  course  of  his  life, 
that  he  had  never  suflerd  himself  to  be  transported  by  passion, 
or  had  ever  given  just  ground  of  offence  to  any  one,  such  a man 
might,  when  he  received  from  others  unreasonable  treatment, 
have  some  plea  for  impatience. 

Christianity  will,  at  some  future  period,  influence  the  conduct 
of  nations  as  well  as  individuals.  But  this  will  be,  though  its 
greatest,  probably  its  latest  triumph  ; for  this  can  be  only  brought 
about  through  the  medium  of  private  character  ; and  therefore 
will  not  be  rapid  in  its  progress,  and  visible  at  every  step  ; but 
gradual,  and  visible  when  considerable  effects  only  have  been 
produced. 

The  British  constitution  stands,  like  an  ancient  oak  in  the 
wood,  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  ; which,  after  having  over- 
come many  a blast,  overtops  the  other  trees  of  the  forest,  and 
commands  respect  and  veneration. 


148 


EXERCISES. 


Promiscuous, 


SECTION  VI. 


See  the  Key,  p.  279. 

What  an  anchor  is  to  a vessel  amidst  a boisterous  ocean,  on 
a coast  unknown,  and  in  a dark  night,  that  is  the  hope  of  future 
happiness  to  the  soul,  when  beset  by  the  confusions  of  the  world  ; 
for  in  danger,  it  affords  one  fixed  point  of  rest ; amidst  general 
fluctuation,  it  gives  security. 

Our  pride  and  self-conceit,  (by  nourishing  a weak  and  childish 
sensibility  to  every  fancied  point  of  our  own  honour  and  inter- 
est, while  they  shut  up  all  regard  to  the  honour  and  interests  of 
our  brethren,)  render  us  quarrelsome  and  contentious. 

If  there  be  any  first  principle  of  wisdom,  it  undoubtedly  is 
this : the  distresses  that  are  removable,  endeavour  to  remove ; 
bear,  with  as  little  disquiet  as  you  can,  the  distresses  which  can- 
not be  removed  : comforts  are  to  be  found  in  every  situation  and 
condition  of  life  ; having  found  them,  enjoy  them. 

Instead  of  aspiring  farther  than  your  proper  level,  bring  your 
mind  down  to  your  state;  lest  you  spend  your  life  in  a train  of 
fruitless  pursuits,  by  aiming  too  high,  and  at  last  bring  yourself 
to  an  entire  state  of  insignificance  and  contempt. 

Often  have  we  seen,  that  what  we  considered  as  a sore  disap- 
pointment at  the  time,  has  proved  to  be  a merciful  providence 
in  the  issue  ; and  that  it  would  have  been  so  far  from  making  us 
happy,  if  what  we  once  eagerly  wished  for  had  been  obtained, 
that  it  would  have  produced  our  ruin. 

Can  the  stream  continue  to  advance,  when  it  is  deprived  of 
the  fountain  ? Can  the  branch  improve,  when  taken  from  the 
stock  which  gave  it  nourishment  ? Dependent  spirits  can  no 
more  be  happy,  when  parted  from  all  union  with  the  Father  of 
spirits,  and  the  fountain  of  happiness. 

Prosperity  is  redoubled  to  a good  man,  by  means  of  the  gen- 
erous use  which  he  makes  of  it ; and  it  is  reflected  back  upon 
him  by  every  one  whom  he.  makes  happy;  for,  in  the  esteem 
and  good-will  of  all  who  know  him,  in  the  gratitude  of  de- 
pendents, in  the  attachment  of  friends,  and  the  intercourse  of 
domestic  affection,  he  sees  blessings  multiplied  round  him  on 
every  side. 

Whoever  would  pass,  with  honour  and  decency,  the  latter 
part  of  life,  must  consider  when  he  is  young,  that  one  day  he 
shall  be  old : and  remember  that  when  he  is  old,  he  has 
once  been  young;  he  must  lay  up  knowledge  in  youth  for  his 


Promiscuous, 


PERSPICUITY,  &C. 


149 


support,  when  his  powers  of  acting  shall  forsake  him  ; and  for- 
bear to  adimadvert  in  age,  with  rigour,  on  faults  which  expe- 
rience can  alone  correct. 

Let  us  consider  that  youth  is  of  no  long  duration  ; and  that 
when  the  enchantments  of  fancy  in  maturer  age  shall  cease,  and 
phantoms  no  more  dance  about  us,  we  shall  have  no  comforts 
but  wise  men’s  esteem,  the  approbation  of  our  hearts,  and  the 
means  of  doing  good ; and  let  us  live  as  men  that  are  to  grow 
old  sometime,  and  to  whom  of  all  evils  it  will  be  the  most 
dreadful,  to  count  their  years  past  only  by  follies,  and  to  be  re- 
minded of  their  former  luxuriance  of  health,  by  the  maladies 
only  which  riot  has  produced. 


* '■  ' ' f 

. ■■  ]:^mmi^-.  . 


<* 


-, ..  fj^' 


APPENDIX 


TO  THE 


EXERCISES; 

CONTAINING 


EXAMPLES  TO  ASSIST  THE  STUDENT 


IN 


TRANSPOSING  THE  PARTS  OF  A SENTENCE, 

AND 

IN  VARYING  THE  FORM 

OF 

/ 

expressi'ng  a sentiment. 


y[- 

y 


APPENDIX, 


CHAPTER  1. 

ON  TRANSPOSING  THE  MEMBERS  OF  A SENTENCE, 

THE  practice  of  transposing  the  members  of  sentences^ 
is  an  exercise  so  useful  to  young  persons,  that  it  requires  a 
more  particular  explanation  than  could  have  been  properly 
given  in  the  preceding  work.  A few  of  the  various  modes  in 
which  the  parts  of  a sentence  may  be  arranged,  have,  there- 
fore, been  collected ; and  they  are,  with  other  matter,  produ- 
ced in  the  form  of  an  Appendix  to  the  general  Exercises.  By 
examining  them  attentively,  the  student  will  perceive,  in  some 
degree,  the  nature  and  effect  of  transposition : and,  by  being 
frequently  exercised  in  showing  its  variety  in  other  sentences, 
he  will  obtain  a facility  in  the  operation  ; and  a dexterity  in 
discovering  and  applying,  on  all  occasions,  the  clearest  and  most 
forcible  arrangement.  By  this  practice,  he  will  also  be  able 
more  readily  to  penetrate  the  meaning  of  such  sentences,  as  are 
rendered  obscure  and  perplexing  to  most  readers,  by  the  irreg- 
ular disposition  of  their  parts. 

The  first  and  last  forms  of  each  class  of  examples,  are  to  be 
considered  as  the  least  exceptionable. 

The  Roman  state  evidently  declined,  in  proportion  to  the 
increase  of  luxury. 

The  Roman  state,  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury, 
evidently  declined. 

In  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury,  the  Roman  state 
evidently  declined. 

I am  willing  to  remit  all  that  is  past,  provided  it  may  be  done 
with  safety, 

I am  willing,  provided  it  may  be  done  with  safety,  to  remit  all 
that  is  past. 

Provided  it  may  be  done  with  safety,  I am  willing  to  remit 
all  that  is  past. 

That  greatness  of  mind  which  shows  itself  in  dangers  and 
labours,  if  it  wants  justice,  is  blamable. 

VoL.  IL  20 


154 


APPENDIX. 


If  that  greatness  of  mind,  which  shows  itself  in  dangers  and 
labours,  is  void  of  justice,  it  is  blamable. 

That  greatness  of  mind  is  blamable,  which  shows  itself  in 
dangers  and  labours,  if  it  wants  justice. 

If  that  greatness  of  mind  is  void  of  justice,  which  shows  itself 
in  dangers  and  labours,  it  is  blamable. 

That  greatness  of  mind  is  blamable,  if  it  is  void  of  justice, 
w^hich  shows  itself  in  dangers  and  labours. 

If  it  wants  justice,  that  greatness  of  mind,  which  shows  itself 
in  dangers  and  labours,  is  blamable. 

He  who  made  light  to  spring  from  primeval  darkness,  will 
make  order,  at  last,  to  arise  from  the  seeming  confusion  of  the 
world. 

From  the  seeming  confusion  of  the  world.  He  who  made 
light  to  spring  from  primeval  darkness,  will  make  order,  at  last, 
to  arise. 

He  who  made  light  to  spring  from  primeval  darkness,  will, 
from  the  seeming  confusion  of  the  world,  make  order,  at  last,  to 
arise. 

He  who  made  light  to  spring  from  primeval  darkness,  will, 
at  last,  from  the  seeming  confusion  of  the  world,  make  order  to 
arise. 

He  will  make  order,  at  last,  to  arise  from  the  seeming  con- 
fusion of  the  world,  who  made  light  to  spring  from  primeval 
darkness. 

From  the  seeming  confusion  of  the  world.  He  will  make 
order,  at  last,  to  arise,  who  made  light  to  spring  from  primeval 
darkness. 

He  who  made  light  to  spring  from  primeval  darkness,  will,  at 
last,  make  order  to  arise,  from  the  seeming  confusion  of  the 
world. 

Whoever  considers  the  uncertainty  of  human  affairs,  and 
how  frequently  the  greatest  hopes  are  frustrated  ; will  see  just 
reason  to  be  always  on  his  guard,  and  not  to  place  too  much 
dependance  on  things  so  precarious. 

He  who  considers  how  frequently  the  greatest  hopes  are 
frustrated,  and  the  uncertainty  of  human  affairs  ; will  not  place 
too  much  dependence  on  things  so  precarious  and  will  see  just 
reason  to  be  always  on  his  guard. 

He  will  see  just  reason  to  be  always  on  his  guard,  and  not  to 
place  too  much  dependence  on  the  precarious  things  of  time  ; 
who  considers  the  uncertainty  of  human  affairs,  and  how  often 
the  greatest  hopes  are  frustrated. 

Let  us  not  conclude,  while  dangevs,  are  at  a distance,  and  do 


TO  THE  EXERCISES. 


155 


not  immediately  approach  us,  that  we  are  secure,  unless  we  use 
the  necessary  precautions  to  prevent  them. 

Unless  we  use  the  necessary  precautions  to  prevent  dangers, 
let  us  not  conclude,  while  they  are  at  a distance,  and  do  not  im- 
mediately approach  us,  that  we  are  secure. 

Unless  we  use  the  necessary  precautions  to  prevent  dangers, 
let  us  not  conclude  that  we  are  secure,  while  they  are  at  a dis- 
tance, and  do  not  immediately  approach  us. 

Let  us  not  conclude  that  we  are  secure,  while  dangers  are  at 
a distance,  and  do  not  immediately  approach  us,  unless  we  use 
the  necessary  precautions  to  prevent  them. 

While  dangers  are  at  a distance,  and  do  not  immediately  ap- 
proach us,  let  us  not  conclude,  that  we  are  secure,  unless  we 
use  the  necessary  precautions  to  prevent  them. 

Those  things  which  appear  great  to  one  who  knows  nothing 
greater,  will  sink  into  a diminutive  size,  when  he  becomes  ac- 
quainted with  objects  of  a higher  nature. 

When  one  becomes  acquainted  with  objects  of  a higher  na- 
ture, those  things  which  appeared  great  to  him  whilst  he  knew 
nothing  greater,  will  sink  into  a diminutive  size. 

To  one  who  knows  nothing  greater,  those  things  which  then 
appear  great,  will  sink  into  a diminutive  size,  when  he  becomes 
acquainted  with  objects  of  a higher  nature. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON  VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 

Besides  the  practice  of  transposing  the  parts  of  sentences, 
the  Compiler  recommends  to  tutors,  frequently  to  exercise  their 
pupils,  in  exhibiting  some  of  the  various  modes,  in  which  the 
same  sentiment  may  be  properly  expressed.  This  practice  will 
extend  their  knowledge  of  the  language,  afford  a variety  of  ex- 
pression, and  habituate  them  to  deliver  their  sentiments  with 
clearness,  ease,  and  propriety.  It  will  likewise  enable  those 
who  may  be  engaged  in  studying  other  languages,  not  only  to 
construe  them,  with  more  facility,  into  English ; but  also  to  ob- 
serve and  apply  more  readily,  many  of  the  turns  and  phrases, 
which  are  best  adapted  to  the  genius  of  those  languages.  A few 
examples  of  this  kind  of  exercise,  will  be  sufficient  to  explain 
the  nature  of  it,  and  to  show  its  utility. 

The  brother  deserved  censure  more  than  his  sister. 

The  sister  was  less  reprehensible  than  her  brother. 

The  sister  did  not  deserve  reprehension,  so  much  as  her 
brother. 


156 


APPENDIX 


The  reproof  was  more  due  to  the  brother  than  to  the  sister. 

I will  attend  the  conference,  if  I can  do  it  conveniently. 

I intend  to  be  at  the  conference,  unless  it  should  be  inconve- 
nient. 

If  I can  do  it  with  convenience,  I purpose  to  be  present  at 
the  conference. 

If  it  can  be  done  without  inconvenience,  I shall  not  fail  to  at- 
tend the  conference. 

I shall  not  absent  myself  from  the  conference,  unless  circum- 
stances render  it  necessary. 

He  who  lives  always  in  the  bustle  of  the  world,  lives  in  a per- 
petual warfare. 

To  live  continually  in  the  bustle  of  the  world,  is  to  live  in  per- 
petual warfare. 

By  living  constantly  in  the  bu*stle  of  the  wwld,  our  life  be- 
comes a scene  of  contention. 

It  is  a continual  warfare  to  live  perpetually  in  the  bustle  of 
the  world. 

The  hurry  of  the  world,  to  him  who  always  lives  in  it,  is  a 
perpetual  conflict. 

They  who  are  constantly  engaged  in  the  tumults  of  the  world, 
-are  strangers  to  the  blessings  of  peace. 

The  spirit  of  true  religion  breathes  gentleness  and  affability. 

Gentleness  and  affability  are  the  genuine  effects  of  true  re- 
ligion. 

True  religion  teaches  us  to  be  gentle  and  affable. 

Genuine  religion  will  never  produce  an  austere  temper,  or  a 
rough  demeanour. 

Harshness  of  manners  and  w^ant  of  condescension,  are  oppo- 
site to  the  spirit  of  true  religion. 

Industry  is  not  only  the  instrument  of  improvement,  but  the 
foundation  of  pleasure. 

Industry  produces  both  improvement  and  pleasure. 

Improvement  and  pleasure  are  the  products  of  industry. 

The  common  attendants  on  idleness  are  ignorance  and  misery. 

Valerius  passed  several  laws,  abridging  the  power  of  the 
senate  and  extending  that  of  the  people. 

Several  laws  were  passed  by  Valerius,  which  abridged  the 
power  of  the  senate,  and  extended  that  of  the  people. 

The  power  of  the  senate  w^as  abridged,  and  that  of  the  peo- 
ple extended,  by  several  laws  passed  during  the  consulship  of 
Valerius. 


TO  THE  EXERCISES.  157 

The  advantages  of  this  world,  even  when  innocently  gained, 
are  uncertain  blessings. 

If  the  advantages  of  this  world  were  innocently  gained,  they 
are  still  uncertain  blessings. 

We  may  indeed  innocently  gain  the  advantages  of  this  world ; 
but  even  then  they  are  uncertain  blessings. 

Uncertainty  attends  all  the  advantages  of  this  w^orld,  not  ex- 
cepting those  which  are  innocently  acquired. 

The  blessings  which  we  derive  from  the  advantages  of  this 
world,  are  not  secure,  even  when  they  are  innocently  gained. 

When  you  behold  wicked  men  multiplying  in  number,  and 
increasing  in  power,  imagine  not  that  Providence  particularly 
favours  them. 

When  wicked  men  are  observed  to  multiply  in  number,  and 
increase  in  power,  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  they  are  particu- 
larly favoured  by  Providence. 

From  the  increase  and  prosperity  of  the  wicked,  we  must  not 
infer  that  they  are  the  favourites  of  Providence. 

Charity  consists  not  in  speculative  ideas  of  general  benev- 
olence, floating  in  the  head,  and  leaving  the  heart,  as  specula- 
tions too  often  do,  untouched  and  cold. 

Speculative  ideas  of  general  benevolence,  do  not  form  the 
virtue  of  charity,  for  these  often  float  in  the  head,  and  leave  the 
heart  untouched  and  cold. 

Speculations  which  leave  the  heart  unaffected  and  cold, 
though  they  may  consist  of  general  benevolence  floating  in  the 
head,  do  not  form  the  great  virtue  of  charity. 

Universal  benevolence  to  mankind,  when  it  rests  in  the  ab- 
stract, does  not  constitute  the  noble  virtue  of  charity.  It  is  then 
a loose  indeterminate  idea,  rather  than  a principle  of  real  effect : 
and  floats  as  a useless  speculation  in  the  head,  instead  of  affect- 
ing the  temper  and  the  heart. 

A wolf  let  into  the  sheepfold,  will  devour  the  sheep. 

If  we  let  a wolf  into  the  fold,  the  sheep  will  be  devoured. 

The  wolf  will  devour  the  sheep,  if  the  sheepfold  be  left 
open. 

A wolf  being  let  into  the  sheepfold,  the  sheep  will  be  de- 
voured. 

If  the  fold  be  not  left  carefully  shut,  the  wolf  will  devour  the 
sheep. 

There  is  no  defence  of  the  sheep  from  the  wolf,  unless  it  be 
kept  out  of  the  fold. 

A slaughter  will  be  made  amongst  the  sheep,  if  the  wolf  can 
get  into  the  fold. 


158 


APPPENDIX  TO  THE  EXERCISES. 


The  preceding  examples  show  that  the  form  of  expressing 
a sentiment  may  be  properly  varied,  by  turning  the  active 
voice  of  verbs  into  the  passive,  and  the  nominative  case  of 
nouns  into  the  objective ; by  altering  the  connexion  of  short 
sentences,  by  different  adverbs  and  conjunctions,  and  by  the 
use  of  prepositions ; by  applying  adjectives  and  adverbs  instead 
of  substances,  and  vice  versa ; by  using  the  case  absolute  in 
place  of  the  nominative  and  verb,  and  the  particle  instead  of 
the  verb ; by  reserving  the  correspondent  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence ; and  by  the  negation  of  the  contrary,  instead  of  the  as- 
sertion of  the  thing  first  proposed.  By  these  and  other  modes 
of  expression,  a great  variety  of  forms  of  speech,  exactly  or 
nearly  of  the  same  import,  may  be  produced ; and  the  young 
student  furnished  with  a considerable  store  for  his  selection 
and  use. 

When  the  business  of  transposing  the  parts  of  sentences,  and 
of  varying  the  forms  of  expression,  becomes  familiar  to  the 
student,  he  may  be  employed  in  reducing  the  particulars  of  a 
few  pages,  to  general  heads  ; and  in  expanding  sentiments  gen- 
erally expressed,  into  their  correspondent  particulars ; and  by 
making  these  operations  more  or  less  general,  and  more  or  less 
particular,  a considerable  variety  will  be  introduced  into  this 
part  of  the  Exercises. 

An  employment  of  the  kind  here  proposed,  will  not  only 
make  the  learner  skilful  in  the  meaning  and  application.of  terms, 
and  in  the  nature  of  a concise  and  of  a copious  style ; but  it 
will  also  teach  him  to  think  with  order  and  attention  ; to  con- 
tract or  expand  his  views  at  pleasure ; and  to  digest  the  senti- 
ments of  other  persons,  or  his  own,  in  the  manner  best  adapted 
to  assist  his  judgment  and  memory. 


KEY 

TO  THE 


EXERCISES, 

CALCULATED 


TO  ENABLE  PRIVATE  LEARNERS 

TO  BECOME 

THEIR  OWN  INSTRUCTERS, 

IS 


GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


As  many  of  the  examples  in  the  book  of  Exercises, 
contain  several  errors  in  the  same  sentence,  and  some 
of  them  admit  of  various  constructions  in  amending 
them;  a Key  for  ascertaining  all  the  corrections,  and 
giving  them  the  neatest  form,  appears  to  be  indis- 
pensable : and  this  is  the  more  expedient,  from  the 
work’s  being  designed  for  the  benefit  of  private 
learners,  as  well  as  for  the  use  of  schools. 

The  key  now  produced  Mull,  it  is  presumed,  answer 
the  ends  in  view.  It  not  only  shows  the  corrected 
words  and  phrases  of  each  sentence,  distinguished 
by  Italic  letters,  but  exhibits  the  sentence  at  large, 
in  all  its  parts.  This  method  of  pointing  out  the  cor- 
rections, will  produce  a better  effect,  than  if  the 
alterations  had  been  denoted  only  by  detached,  mu- 
tilated parts  of  the  sentence  in  question.  By  the 
plan  we  have  adopted,  the  work  has  a more  regular 
and  uniform  appearance;  the  correspondent  parts 
may  be  more  readily  examined ; and  the  propriety 
of  the  corrections  will  be  more  apparent  and  striking. 

The  best  mode  of  correcting  the  errors  in  the  book 
of  Exercises,  appears  to  be  the  following.  Let  the 
student  examine,  with  attention,  the  erroneous  con- 
struction ; compare  it  with  the  rule  of  grammar  to 
which  it  relates;  and  then  express  the  whole  sen- 
tence precisely  as  he  conceives  it  ought  to  be.  After 
he  has  proceeded  in  this  manner,  he  should  compare 
his  amendments  with  those  which  are  contained  in 
the  Key ; and  make  such  further  improvements  as 
VoL.  II.  21 


162 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


the  comparison  may  suggest.  This  process  would  be 
a pleasing  and  encouraging  exercise  of  the  student’s 
ingenuity ; and  would  strongly  impress  on  his  mind 
the  principles  on  which  the  corrections  are  made. 

The  sentences,  besides  their  grammatical  use,  are 
of  an  interesting  and  instructive  nature;  and  most  of 
them  contain  principles  of  piety  and  virtue.  The 
language  too,  as  it  is  exhibited  in  the  Key,  has  been 
studiously  regarded.  They  may  therefore  be  con- 
sidered as  doubly  useful  to  the  student;  serving  at 
once  to  inculcate  importaht  sentiments,  and  to  fix  in 
his  memory  the  rules  of  grammatical  construction. 


CONTENTS  OF  THE  KEY. 


PART  II. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Page 

Chap.  1.  Corrections  of  the  false  Orthography,  arranged 

under  the  respective  rules,  165 

2.  Corrections  of  the  false  Orthography,  promis- 
cuously disposed,  168 

PART  III. 

SYNTAX. 

Chap.  1.  Corrections  of  the  false  Syntax,  arranged  under 

the  rules,  179 

2.*  Corrections  of  the  false  Syntax,  promiscuously 

disposed,  217 

PART  IV. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Chap.  1.  Applications  of  the  Comma,  disposed  under  the 

particular  rules,  229 

2.  Insertions  of  the  Semicolon  and  Comma,  236 

3.  Applications  of  the  Colon,  &c.  237 

4.  Insertions  of  the  Period,  &c.  238 

5.  Applications  of  the  Dash ; of  the  Notes  of  In- 

terrogation and  Exclamation  and  of  the 
Parenthetical  characters,  239 

6.  Corrections  of  the  promiscuous  instances  of  de- 

fective punctuation,  240 


164 


CONTENTS. 


PART  V. 

PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY. 

First,  with  respect  to  single  words  and  phrases. 

Pgae 

Chap.  1.  Corrections  of  the  errors  that  relate  to  Purity,  249 

2.  Corrections  of  the  errors  that  relate  to  Pro- 

priety, 250 

3.  Corrections  of  the  errors  which  respect  Pre- 

cision, 256 

Secondly,  with  respect  to  the  Construction  of  sentences. 

Chap.  1.  Corrections  of  the  errors  which  relate  to  the 

Clearness  of  a sentence,  256 

2.  Corrections  of  the  errors  relating  to  the  Unity 

of  a sentence,  261 

3.  Corrections  of  the  errors  which  respect  the 

Strength  of  a sentence,  263 

4.  Corrections  of  the  errors  that  relate  to  Figures 

of  speech,  270 

5.  Corrections  of  the  errors  in  the  chapter  of  Pro- 

miscuous Exercises,  272 


Alphabetical  Index  to  both  the  Volumes, 


283 


KEY  TO  THE  EXERCISES. 


PART  IL* 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  1. 


Containing  corrections  of  the  false  ORTHOGRAPHY,  arranged 
under  the  respective  Rulse. 


RULE  I. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  23.  Vol.  2.  p.  27. 

It  is  no  great  merit  to  spell  properly ; but  a great  defect  to 
do  it  incorrectly. 

Jacob  worshipped  his  Creator,  leaning  on  the  top  of  his  staff. 

We  may  place  too  little,  as  well  as  too  much,  stress  upon 
dreams. 

Our  manners  should  be  neither  gross  nor  excessively  refined. 
RULE  II. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  23.  Vol.  2.  p.  27. 

A car  signifies  a chariot  of  war,  or  a small  carriage  of  burden. 

In  the  names  of  drugs  and  plants,  the  mistake  in  a word  may 
endanger  life. 

Nor  undelightful  is  the  ceaseless  hum 
To  him  who  muses  through  the  woods  at  noon. 

The^n  of  a fish  is  the  limb,  by  which  he  balances  his  body, 
and  moves  in  the  water. 

Many  a trap  is  laid  to  ensnare  the  feet  of  youth. 

* A regular  explanation  of  the  Exercises  in  Parsing,  would  occupy  a great  portion  of  this  voP 
ume ; and,  after  all,  would  be  of  little  use  to  the  reader : a Key  to  Part  I.  is  therefore  omitted. 
General  directions,  respecting  the  mode  of  Parsing,  may  be  seen  at  pages  225 — 234,  of  the  First 
Volume.  The  reader  may  also  peruse,  the  corrections  of  sentences,  contained  in  pages  18 — 25^ 
of  this  Volume. 


166 


KEY. 


Many  thousand  families  are  supported  by  the  simple  business 
of  making  mats.  ^ 

RULE  III. 

See  Yol.  1.  p.  23.  Vol.  2.  p.  28. 

We  should  subject  our  fancies  to  the  government  of  reason. 

If  thou  art  seeking  for  the  living  amongst  the  dead,  thou 
weariest  thyself  in  vain. 

If  we  have  denied  ourselves  sinful  pleasures,  we  shall  be  great 
gainers  in  the  end. 

We  shall  not  be  the  happier  for  possessing  talents  and  afflu- 
ence, unless  we  make  a right  use  of  them. 

The  truly  good  mind  is  not  dismayed  by  poverty,  afflictions, 
or  death. 

RULE  VI. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  24.  Vol.  2.  p.  28. 

It  is  a great  blessing  to  have  a sound  mind,  uninfluenced  by 
fanciful  humours. 

Common  calamities,  and  common  blessings,  fall  heavily  upon 
the  envious. 

The  comeliness  of  youth  are  modesty  and  frankness  ; of  age, 
condescension  and  dignity. 

When  we  act  against  conscience,  we  become  the  destroyers 
of  our  own  peace. 

We  may  be  playful  and  yet  innocent ; grave,  and  yet  cor- 
rupt. It  is  only  from  general  conduct,  that  our  true  character 
can  he  portrayed. 

RULE  V. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  24.  Vol.  2.  p.  29. 

When  we  bring  the  lawmaker  into  contempt,  we  have  in 
effect  annulled  his  laws. 

By  deferring  our  repentance,  we  accumulate  our  sorrows. 

The  pupils  of  a certain  ancient  philosopher,  were  not,  during 
their  first  years  of  study,  permitted  to  ask  any  questions. 

We  all  have  failngs  and  lapses  to  lament  and  recover. 

There  is  no  affliction  with  which  we  are  visited,  that  may  not 
be  improved  to  our  advantage. 

The  Christian  Lawgiver  has  prohibited  many  things,  which 
the  heathen  philosophers  allowed. 

RULE  VI. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  24.  Vol.  2.  p.  29. 

Restlessness  of  mind  disqualifies  us,  both  for  the  enjoyment  of 
peace,  and  the  performance  of  our  duty. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


167 


The  arrows  of  cafumny  fall  harmlessly  at  the  feet  of  virtue. 

The  road  to  the  blissful  regions,  is  as  open  to  the  peasant  as 
to  the  king. 

A chilness,  or  shivering  of  the  body,  generally  precedes  a 
fever. 

To  recommend  virtue  to  others,  our  lights  must  shine  brightly, 
not  dully. 

The  silent  stranger  stood  amaz’d  to  see 
Contempt  of  wealth,  and  wilful  poverty. 

RULE  VII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  24.  Vol.  2.  p.  30. 

The  warmth  of  disputation,  destroys  that  sedateness  of  mind 

which  is  necessary  to  discover  truth. 

* 

All  these  with  ceaseless  praise  his  works  behold, 

Both  day  and  night. 

In  all  our  reasonings,  our  mind  should  be  sincerely  employed 
in  the  pursuit  of  truth. 

Rude  behaviour,  and  indecent  language,  are  peculiarly  dis-^ 
graceful  to  youth  of  education. 

The  true  worship  of  God  is  an  important  and  awful  service. 

Wisdom  alone  is  truly  fair : folly  only  appears  so. 

RULE  VIII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  24.  Vol.  2.  p.  30. 

The  study  of  the  English  language  is  making  daily  advance^ 
ment. 

A Judicious  arrangement  of  studies  facilitates  improvement. 

To  shun  allurements  is  not  hard, 

To  minds  resolv’d,  forewarn’d,  and  well  prepar’d. 

RULE  IX. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  25.  Vol.  2.  p.  30. 

Every  person  and  thing  connected  with  self,  is  apt  to  appear 
good  and  desirable  in  our  eyes. 

Errors  and  misconduct  are  more  excusable  in  ignorant,  than 
in  well-instructed  persons. 

The  divine  laws  are  not  reversible  by  those  of  men. 

Gratitude  is  a forcible  and  active  principle  in  good  and  gen- 
erous minds. 

Our  natural  and  involuntary  defects  of  body,  are  not 
chargeable  upon  us. 

We  are  made  to  be  serviceable  to  others,  as  well  as  to 
ourselves. 


168 


KEY. 


RULE  X. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  25.  Vol.  2.  p.  31, 

An  obliging  and  humble  disposition,  is  totally  unconnected 
with  a servile  and  cringing  humour. 

By  solacing  the  sorrows  of  others,  the  heart  is  improved,  at 
the  same  time  that  our  duty  is  performed. 

Labour  and  expense  are  lost  upon  a dronish  spirit. 

The  inadvertences  of  youth  may  be  excused,  but  knavish 
tricks  should  meet  with  severe  reproof. 

RULE  XI. 

Vol.  1.  p.  25.  Vol.  2.  p.  32. 

The  passover  was  a celebrated  feast  among  the  Jews. 

A virtuous  ^woman  looketh  well  to  the  ways  of  her  household. 

These  people  salute  one  another,  by  touching  the  top  of  their 
foreheads. 

That  which  is  sometimes  expedient  is  not  always  so. 

We  may  be  hurtful  to  others,  by  our  example,  as  well  as  by 
personal  injuries. 

In  candid  minds,  truth  finds  an  entrance,  and  a welcome  too. 

Om  pastimes  should  be  innocent ; and  they  should  not  occur 
too  freque^ntly. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Containing  corrections  of  the  false  ORTHOGRAPHY, 
promiscuously  disposed. 

SECTION  I. 

See  the  Exercises,  p.  33. 

Neglect  no  opportunity  of  doing  good. 

No  man  can  steadily  build  upon  accidents. 

How  shall  we  keep,  what  sleeping  or  awake,  ' 

A weaker  may  surprise^  a stronger  take  ? 

Neither  time  nor  misfortunes  should  erase  the  remembrance 
of  a friend. 

Moderation  should  preside,  both  in  the  kitchen  and  the 
parlour. 


Promiscuous. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


169 


Shall  we  receive  good  at  the  Divine  hand  and  shall  we  not 
receive  evil ! 

In  many  designs,  we  may  succeed  and  be  miserable. 

We  should  have  sense  and  virtue  enough  to  recede  from  our 
demands,  when  they  appear  to  be  unreasonable. 

All  our  comioYi^  proceed  from  the  Father  of  Goodness. 

The  ruin  of  a state  is  generally  preceded  by  a universal  de- 
generacy of  manners,  and  a contempt  of  religion. 

His  father  omitted  nothing  in  his  education,  that  might  render 
him  virtuous  and  usefxd. 

The  daw  in  the  fable  was  dressed  in  pilfered  ornaments. 

A favour  conferred  with  delicacy,  doubles  the  obligation. 

They  tempted  their  Creator,  and  limited  the  Holy  One  of 
Israel. 

The  precepts  of  a good  education  have  often  recurred  in  the 
time  of  need. 

We  are  frequently  benefited  by  what  we  have  dreaded. 

It  is  no  great  virtue  to  live  lovingly  with  good-natured  and 
meek  persons. 

The  Christian  religion  gives  a more  lovely  character  of  God, 
than  any  religion  ever  did. 

Without  sinistrous  views,  they  are  dexterous  managers  of 
their  own  interest. 

Any  thing  committed  to  the  trust  and  care  of  another,  is  a 
deposite. 

Here  finished  he,  and  all  that  he  had  made, 

Vieiv'^d  and  beheld  ! All  was  entirely  good. 

It  deserves  our  best  skill  to  inquire  into  those  rules,  by  which 
we  may  guide  our  judgment. 

Food,  clothing,  and  habitations,  are  the  rewards  of  industry. 

If  we  lay  no  restraint  upon  our  lusts,  no  control  upon  our 
appetites  and  passions,  they  will  hurry  us  into  guilt  and 
misery. 

An  Independent  is  one  who,  in  religious  affairs,  holds  that 
every  congregation  is  a complete  Church. 

Receive  his  counsel  and  securely  move : 

Intrust  thy  fortune  to  the  Power  above. 

Following  life  in  creatures  we  dissect, 

We  lose  it  in  the  moment  we  detect. 

The  acknowledgment  of  our  transgressions  must  precede  the 
forgiveness  of  them. 

VoL.  II.  32 


^ ^ KEY.  Promiscuous, 

Judicious  abridgments  often  aid  the  studies  of  youth. 

Examine  how  thy  humour  is  inclined, 

And  which  the  riding  passion  of  thy  mind. 

falters  at  the  question  : 

His  fears,  his  words,  his  looks,  declare  him  guilty. 

Calico  is  a thin  cloth  made  of  cotton  ; sometimes  stained  with 
lively  colours. 

To  promote  iniquity  in  others,  is  nearly  the  same  as  being  the 
actors  of  it  ourselves.  • 

The  glazier  s business  was  unknown  to  the  amients. 

The  antecedent,  in  grammar,  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which 
the  relative  refers. 

SECTION  II. 

See  the  Exercises,  p.  34. 

Be  not  afraid  of  the  wicked : they  are  under  the  control  of 
Providence.  Consciousness  of  guilt  may  justly  affright  us. 

Convey  to  others  no  intetligence  which  you  would  be  asham- 
ed to  avow. 

Many  are  v/eighed  in  the  balance,  and  found  wanting. 

How  many  disappointments  have,  in  their  consequences,  saved 
a man  from  ruin  ! , 

A well-poized  mind  makes  a cheerful  countenance. 

A certain  householder  planted  a vineyard,  but  the  men  employ- 
ed in  it  made  ungrateful  returns. 

Let  us  show  diligence  in  every  laudable  undertaking. 

Cinnamon  is  the  fragrant  bark  of  a low  tree  in  the  island  Q^ 
Ceylon. 

A ram  will  butt  with  his  head,  though  he  be  brought  up  tame, 
and  never  saw  the  action. 

We  perceive  a piece  of  silver  in  a when  water  is  poured 
on  it,  though  we  could  not  discover  it  before. 

Virtue  embalms  the  memory  of  the  good. 

The  king  of  Great  Britain  is  a limited  monarch ; and  the 
British  nation  a free  people. 

The  physician  may  dispense  the  medicine,  but  Providence  alone 
can  bless  it. 

In  pursuits,  ^e  embark  with  pleasure,  and  land  sorrow- 
fully. 

Rocks,  mountains,  and  caverns,  are  of  indispensable  use,  both 
to  the  earth  and  to  man. 


Promiscuous. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


171 


The  hive  of  a city,  or  kingdom,  is  in  the  best  condition 
when  there  is  the  least  noise  or  buzz  in  it. 

The  roughness  found  on  om  entrance  into  the  paths  of  virtue 
and  learning,  grow  smoother  as  we  advance. 

That  which  Was  once  the  most  beautif  ul  spot  of  Italy,  covered 
with  palaces^  embellished  by  princes,  and  celebrated  by  poets, 
has  now  nothing  to  show  but  ruins. 

Batteidn^  rams  were  anciently  used  to  beat  down  the  walls 
of  a city. 

Jockey  signifies  a man-who  rides  horses  in  a race  ; or  who  deals 
in  horses. 

The  harmlessness  of  many  animals,  and  the  enjoyment  which 
they  have  of  life,  should  plead  for  them  against  cruel  usage. 

We  may  be  very  busy  to  no  useful  purpose. 

We  cannot  plead  in  abatement  oi  our  guilt  that  we  are  ignorant 
of  our  duty. 

Genuine  charity^  how  liberal  soever  it  may  be,  will  never 
impoverish  ourselves.  If  we  ^ow  sparingly^  we  shall  reap 
accordingly. 

However  disagreeable,  we  must  resolutely  perform  our  duty. 

A fit  of  sickness  is  often  a kind  chastisement  and  discipline,  to 
moderate  our  affection  for  the  things  of  this  life. 

It  is  a happiness  to  young  persons  when  they  are  preserved 
from  the  snares  of  the  world,  as  in  a garden  enclosed. 

Health  and  peace,  the  most  valuable  possessions,  are  obtained 
at  small  expense. 

Incense  signifies  perfumes  exhaled  by  fire,  and  made  use  of  in 
religious  ceremonies. 

True  happiness  is  an  enemy  to  pomp  and  noise. 

Few'  reflections  are  more  distressing  than  those  which  we 
make  on  our  own  ingratitude. 

There  is  an  inseparable  connexion  between  piety  and  virtue. 

Many  actions  have  a fair  complexion,  which  have  not  sprung 
from  virtue. 

Which  way  soever  we  turn  ourselves,^o  are  encountered  with 
sensible  demonstrations  of  a Deity. 

If  we  forsake  the  ways  of  virtue,  we  cannot  allege  any  colour 
of  ignorance,  or  want  of  instruction. 

SECTION  III. 

See  the  Exercises,  p.  36. 

There  are  more  cultivators  of  the  earth,  than  their  own 
hearts. 

Man  is  encompassed  with  dangers  innumerable. 


172 


KEY. 


Promiscuous. 


War  is  attended  with  distressful  and  desolating  effects.  It  is 
confessedly  the  scourge  of  our  angry  passions. 

The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the/w/ne^5  thereof. 

The  harvest  truly  is  plenteous,  but  the  labourers  are  few. 

The  greater  our  to  evil,  the  greater  will  be  our 

victory  and  reward. 

We  should  not  encourage  persons  to  do  what  they  believe  to 
be  wrong. 

Virtue  is  placed  between  two  extremes^  which  are  both 
equally  hlamable. 

We  should  continually  have  the  goal  in  our  view,  which 
would  direct  us  in  the  race. 

gaols  {or  jails)  were  forc'ed  open,  and  the  prisoner^  set 

free. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  we  are  charitable  donors^  when  our  gifts 
proceed  from  selfish  motives. 

Strait  is  the  gate,  and  narrow  the  way,;  that  leads  to  life 
eternal. 

Integrity  leads  us  straight  forward,  disdaining  all  doublings^ 
and  crooked  paths. 

Licentiousness  and  crimes  pave  the  way  to  ruin. 

Words  are  the  counters  of  v/ise  men,  but  the  money  of  fools. 

Recompense  to  no  man  evil  for  evil. 

He  was  an  excellent  person  ; a mirror  of  ancient  faith  in  early 
youth. 

Meekness  controls  our  angry  passions ; candour,  our  severe 
judgments. 

He  is  not  only  a descendant  from  pious  ancestors,  but  an 
inheritor  too  of  their  virtues. 

A dispensary  is  the  place  where  medicines  are  dispensed : 
a dispensatory  is  a book  in  which  the  composition  of  them  is 
described. 

Faithfulness  and  judgment  are  peculiarly  requisite  in  testa- 
mentary executors. 

To  he  faithful  among  the  faithless,  argues  great  strength  of 
principle. 

Mountains  appear  to  belike  so  many  wens  or  unnatural  pro- 
tuberances on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

In  some  places  the  sea  encroaches  upon  the  land  ; in.  others, 
the  land  upon  the  sea. 

Philosophers  agreed  in  despising  riches,  as  the  encumbrances 
of  life. 

Wars  are  regulated  robberies  and  piracies. 

Fishes  increase  more  than  beasts  or  birds,  as  appears  from 
their  numerous  spawn. 

The  pyramids  of  Egypt  have  stood  more  than  three  thousand 
years. 


Promiscuous, 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


173 


Precepts  have  small  influence,  when  not  enforced  by  example. 

How  has  kind  Heav’n  adorn’d  the  happy  land, 

And  scatter’d  blessings  with  a ivasteful  hand  ! 

A friend  exaggerates  a man’s  virtues,  an  enemy  inflames  his 
crimes. 

A witty  and  humourous  vein  has  often  produced  enemies. 

Neither  pleasure  nor  business  should  engross  our  time  and 
affections  : proper  seasons  should  be  allotted  for  retirement. 

It  is  laudable  to  inquire  before  we  determine. 

Many  have  been  visited  with  afflictions  who  have  not  profited 
by  them. 

We  may  be  successful,  and  yet  disappointed. 

SECTION  IV. 

See  the  Exercises,  p.  37. 

The  experience  of  want  enhances  the  value  of  plenty. 

To  maintain  opinions  stiffly,  is  no  evidence  of  their  truth,  or 
of  our  moderation. 

Hoarhound  has  been  famous  for  its  medicinal  qualities : but 
it  is  now  little  used. 

The  wicked  are  often  insnared  in  the  trap  which  they  lay  for 
others. 

It  is  hard  to  say  what  diseases  are  curable  : they  are  all  under 
the  guidance  of  Heaven. 

Instructef's  should  not  only  be  skilful  in  those  sciences  which 
they  teach ; ^ but  have  skill  in  the  method  of  teaching,  and 
patience  in  the  practice. 

Science  strengthens  and  enlarges  the  minds  of  men. 

A steady  mind  may  receive  counsel ; but  there  is  no  hold  on 
a changeable  humour. 

We  may  inure  ourselves  by  custom,  to  bear  the  extremities  of 
rveather  without  injury. 

Excessive  merriment  the  parent  of  grief. 

Air  is  sensible  to  the  touch  by  its  motion,  and  by  its  resistance 
to  bodies  moved  in  it. 

A polite  address  is  sometimes  the  clodk  of  malice. 

To  practise  virtue  is  the  sure  way  to  love  it. 

Many  things  are  plausible  in  theory,  which  fail  in  practice. 

Learning  and  knowledge  must  be  attained  by  slow  degrees, 
and  are  the  reward  only  of  diligence  and  patience. 

We  should  study  to  Wwq  peaceably  with  all  men. 

A soul  that  can  securely  death  defy, 

And  count  it  nature’s  privilege  to  die. 


174  KEY.  Promiscuous. 

Whatever  promotes  the  interest  of  the  soul,  is  also  conducive 
to  our  present  felicity.  / 

Let  not  the  sternness  of  virtue  affright  us;  she  will  soon 
become  amiable. 

The  spacious  firmament  on  high, 

With  all  the  blue  ethereal  syk, 

And  spangled  heav’ns,  a shining  frame, 

Their  great  Original  proclaim. 

Passion  is  the  drunkenness  of  the  mind : it  supersedes  the 
workings  of  reason. 

If  we  are  sincere,  we  may  be  assured  of  an  advocate  to 
intercede  for  us. 

We  ought  not  to  consider  the  increase  oi  another’s  reputation, 
as  a diminution  of  our  own. 

The  rheumatism  is  a painful  distemper,  supposed  to  proceed 
from  acrid  humours. 

The  beautiful  and  accomplished  are  too  apt  to  study  behaviour 
rather  than  virtue. 

The  peasant's  cabin  contains  as  much  content  as  the  sove- 
reign's palace. 

True  valour  protects  the  feeble,  and  humbles  the  oppressor. 

David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  was  a wise  and  valiant  man. 

Prophecies  and  miracles  proclaimed  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the 
Saviour  of  the  world. 

Esau  sold  his  birthright  for  a savoury  mess  of  pottage. 

A regular  and  virtuous  education,  is  mi  inestimable  blessing. 

Honour  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise  : 

Act  well  your  part ; there,  all  the  honour  lies. 

The  rigour  of  monkish  discipline  often  conceals  great  de- 
pravity of  heart. 

We  should  recollect  that,  favourable  we  may  be  to 

ourselves,  we  are  rigourously  examined  by  others. 

SECTION  V. 

See  the  Exercises,  p.  39. 

Virtue  can  render  youth  as  well  as  old  age,  honqurable. 

Rumour  often  tells  false  tales. 

Weak  minds  are  ruffled  by  trifling  things. 

The  cabbage-tree  is  very  common  in  the  Caribbee  islands, 
where  it  grows  to  a prodigious  height. 

Visit  the  sick,  feed  the  hungry,  clothe  the  naked.  ^ 

His  smiles  and  tears  are  too  artijicial  to  be  relied  on. 


Promiscuous. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


175 


The  most  essential  virtues  of  a Christian,  are  love  to  God, 
and  benevolence  to  man. 

We  should  be  cheerful  without  levity. 

A calendar  signifies  a register  of  the  year ; and  a calender^  a 
press  in  which  clothiers  smooth  their  cloth. 

Integrity  and  hope  are  the  sure  palliatives  of  sorrow. 

Chamomile  is  an  odoriferous  plant,  and  possesses  considerable 
medicinal  virtues. 

The  gaiety  of  youth  should  be  tempered  by  the  precepts  of 
age. 

Certainty,  even  on  distressful  occasions,  is  sometimes  more 
eligible  than  suspense. 

Still  green  with  bays  each  ancient  altar  stands, 

Above  the  reach  ©f  sacrilegious  hands. 

The  most  acceptable  sacrifice,  is  that  of  a contrite  and  hum- 
ble heart. 

We  are  accountable  for  whatever  'we  patronise  in  others. 

It  marks  a savage  disposition  to  torture  animals,  to  make 
them  smart  and  agonize  for  our  diversion. 

The  edge  of  cloth,  where  it  is  closed  by  complicating  the 
threads,  is  called  the  selvage. 

Souchong  tea  and  Turkey  coffee  were  h\^  favourite  beverage; 
he  seldom  drank. 

The  guilty  mind  eannot  avoid  rhany  melancholy  apprehen- 
sions. 

If  we  injure  others,  we  must  expect  retaliation. 

Let  every  man  be  fully  persuaded  in  his  own  mind. 

Peace  and  honour  are  the  sheaves  of  virtue’s  harvest. 

The  black  earth,  every  where  obvious  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  we  call  mould. 

The  Roman  pontiff  claims  to  be  the  supreme  head  of  the 
church  on  earth. 

High-seasoned  food  vitiates  the  palate,  and  occasions  a dis- 
relish for  plain  fare. 

The  conscious  receiver  is  as  bad  as  the  thief. 

Alexander  the  conqueror  of  the  world,  was  in  fact,  a robber 
and  a murderer. 

The  Divine  Being  is  not  only  the  Creator,  but  the  Ruler  and 
Preserver  of  the  world. 

Honest  endeavours,  if  persevered  in,  will  finally  be  success^ 

ful. 

He  who  dies  for  religion,  is  a martyr ; he  who  suffers  for  it, 
is  a confessor. 

In  the  paroxysm  of  passion  we  sometimes  give  occasion  for 
a life  of  repentance. 


176  KEY.  Promiscuous. 

The  mist  which  envelopes  many  studies,  is  dissipated  when  we 
approach  them. 

The  voice  is  sometimes  obstructed  by  a hoarseness,  or  by 
viscous  phlegm. 

The  desert  shall  rejoice,  and  blossom  as  the  rose. 

The  fruit  and  sweetmeats  set  on  table  after  the  meat,  are 
called  the  dessert. 

We  traversed  the  flowery  fields,  till  the  falling  dews  admon- 
ished us  to  return. 

SECTION-  IV. 

See  the  Exercises,  p.  40. 

There  is  frequently  a worm  at  the  rpbt  of  our  most  flourish- 
ing condition. 

The  stalk  of  ivy  is  tough,  and  not  fragile. 

The  roof  is  vaulted,  and  distils  fresh  water  from  every  part 
of  it. 

Our  imperfections  are  discernible  by  others,  when  we  think 
they  are  concealed. 

They  think  they  shall  be  heard  for  their  much  speaking. 

True  criticism  is  not  a captious,  but  a liberal  art. 

Integrity  is  our  best  defence  against  the  evils  of  life. 

No  circumstance  can  license  evil,  or  dispense  with  the  rules 
of  virtue. 

We  may  be  ciphers  in  the  world’s  estimation,  whilst  we  are 
advancing  our  own  and  other’s  value. 

The  path  of  virtue  is  the  path  of  peace. 

A dipthong  is  the  coalition  of  two  vowels  to  form  one  sound. 

However/orczWe  our  temptations ; they  may  be  resisted. 

I acknowledge  my  transgression ; and  my  sin  is  ever  before 
me. 

The  college  of  cardinals  are  the  electors  of  the  pope. 

He  had  no  colourable  excuse  to  palliate  his  conduct. 

Thy  humorous  vein,  thy  pleasing  folly. 

Lie  all  neglected,  all  forgot. 

If  we  are  so  conceited  as  obstinately  to  reject  all  advice,  we 
must  expect  a dereliction  of  friends. 

Chronology  is  the  science  of  computing  and  adjusting  the 
periods  of  time. 

In  groves  we  live,  and  lie  on  mossy  beds 
By  crystal  streams,  that  murmur  through  the  meads. 


Promiscuous. 


ORTHOGRArilY. 


177 


It  is  a secret  cowardice  which  induces  us  to  compliment  the 
vices  of  our  superiors,  to  applaud  the  libertine,  and  laugh  with 
the  profane. 

The  lark  each  morning  waked  me  with  her  sprightly  lay. 

There  are  no  fewer  than  thirty-two  species  of  the  lily. 

We  owe  it  to  our  visiters  as  well  as  to  ourselves  to  entertain 
them  with  useful  and  sensible  conversation. 

Sponsors  are  those  who  become  sureties  for  the  children’s 
education  in  the  Christian  faith. 

The  warrior’s  fame  is  often  purchased  by  the  blood  of  thou- 
sands. 

Hope  exhilarates  the  mind,  and  is  the  grand  elixir,  under  all 
the  evils  of  life. 

The  incense  of  gratitude,  whilst  it  expresses  our  duty,  and 
honours  our  benefactor,  perfumes  and  regales  ourselves. 


I 


VOL.  II. 


23 


; > Pj 


JA  i 


PART  III. 


SYNTAX. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CONTAINING  CORRECTIONS  OF  THE  FALSE  SYNTAX,  ARRANGED 
UNDER  THE  RULES. 


RULE  I. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  143.  Vol.  2.  p.  43. 

Disappointments  sink  the  heart  of  man  ; but  the  renewal  of 
hope  gives  consolation. 

The  smiles  that  encourage  severity  of  judgment,  hide  malice 
and  insincerity. 

He  dares  not  act  contrary  to  his  instructions. 

Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  contain  forty  pounds  of  flour. 

The  mechanism  of  clocks  and  watches,  was  totally  unknown 
a few  centuries  ago. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  does 
not  exceed  sixteen  millions'. 

Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delights  some  persons. 

A variety  of  pleasing  objects  charms  the  eye. 

So  much  both  of  ability  and  merit  is  seldom  found. 

In  the  conduct  of  Parmenio,  a mixture  of  wisdom  and  folly 
was  very  conspicuous. 

He  is  an  author  of  more  credit  than  Plutarch,  or  any  other 
that  writes  lives  too  hastily. 

The  inquisitive  and  curious  are  generally  talkative. 

Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  reconcile  the  parties. 

I am  sorry  to  say  it,  but  there  were  more  equivocators  than 
one. 

The  sincere  are  always  esteemed. 


180  KEY.  Rule  I. 

Have  the  goods  been  sold  to  advantage  ? and  didst  thou  em- 
brace the  proper  season  ? 

There  are  many  occasions  in  life,  in  which  silence  and  sim- 
plicity are  true  wisdom. 

The  generous  never  recount  minutely  the  actions  they  have 
done  ; nor  the  prudent,  those  they  will  do. 

He  needs  not  proceed  in  such  haste. 

The  business  that  related  to  ecclesiastical  meetings,  matters, 
and  persons,  was  to  be  ordered  according  to  the  king’s  direction. 

In  him  was  happily  blended  true  dignity  with  softness  of^ 
manners. 

The  support  of  so  many  of  his  relations,  was  a heavy  tax  upon 
his  industry : but  thou  knowest  he  paid  it  cheerfully. 

What  avail  the  best  sentiments,  if  persons  do  not  live  suitably 
to  them  ? 

Reconciliation  was  offered,  on  conditions  as  moderate  as  were 
consistent  with  a permanent  union. 

Not  one  of  them  whom  thou  seest  clothed  in  purple,  is  com- 
pletely happy. 

And  the  fame  of  this  person,  and  of  his  wonderful  actions, 
was  diffused  throughout  the  country. 

The  variety  of  the  productions  of  genius,  like  that  of  the  ope- 
rations of  nature,  is  without  limit. 

In  vain  our  flocks  and  fields  increase  our  store, 

When  our  abundance  makes  us  wish  for  more. 

Thou  shouldst  love  thy  neighbour  as  sincerely  as  thou  lovest 
thyself. 

Hast  thou  no  better  reason  for  censuring  thy  friend  and  com- 
panion ? 

Thou,  who  art  the  Author  and  Bestower  of  life,  canst  doubt- 
less, restore  it  also:  but  whether  thou  wilt  please  to  restore  it  or 
not,  that  thou  only  knowest, 

O thou  my  voice  inspire. 

Who  touch’d  Isaiah’s  hallow’d  lips  with  fire. 

“ Who  touchedst  or  didst  touch.^^ 

Accept  these  grateful  tears  : for  thee  they  flow  ; 

For  thee  that  ever  felt  another’s  wo. 

Didst  feel.^^ 

Just  to  thy  word,  in  every  thought  sincere  ; 

Who  knew  no  wish  but  what  the  world  might  hear. 

“ Who  kneivest,  or  didst  knoiv,^^ 

The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  ohseiwations 
under  rule  i. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  143.  Vol.  2.  p.  45. 

1.  To  do  unto  all  men,  as  we  would  that  they,  in  similar 


Rule  1.  SYNTAX.  181 

circumstances  should  do  unto  us,  constitutes  the  great  principle 
of  virtue. 

From  a fear  of  the  world’s  censure,  to  be  ashamed  of  the 
practice  of  precepts,  which  the  heart  approves  and  embraces^ 
marks  a feeble  and  imperfect  character. 

The  erroneous  opinions  which  we  form  concerning  happiness 
and  misery,  give  rise  to  all  the  mistaken  and  dangerous  passions 
that  embroil  our  life. 

To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  is  required  of  all 
men. 

That  it  is  our  duty  to  promote  the  purity  of  our  minds  and 
bodies,  to  be  just  and  kind  to  our  fellow-creatures,  and  to  be 
pious  and  faithful  to  Him  that  made  us,  admits  not  of  any  doubt 
to  a rational  and  well-informed  mind. 

To  be  of  a pure  and  humble  mind,  to  exercise  benevolence 
towards  others,  to  cultivate  piety  towards  God,  are  the  sure 
means  of  becoming  peaceful  and  happy. 

It  is  an  important  truth,  that  religion,  vital  religion,  the  re- 
ligion of  the  heart,  is  the  most  powerful  auxiliary  of  reason,  in 
waging  war  with  the  passions,  and  promoting  that  sweet  com- 
posure which  constitutes  the  peace  of  God. 

The  possession  of  our  senses  entire,  of  our  limbs  uninjured, 
of  a sound  understanding,  of  friends  and  companions,  is  often 
overlooked  ; though  it  would  be  the  ultimate  wish  of  many,  who, 
as  far  as  we  can  judge,  deserve  it  as  much  as  ourselves. 

All  that  makes  a figure  on  the  great  theatre  of  the  world,  the 
employments  of  the  busy,  the  enterprises  of  the  ambitious,  and 
the  exploits  of  the  warlike  ; the  virtues  which  form  the  happi- 
ness, and  the  crimes  which  occasion  the  misery  of  mankind  ; 
originate  in  that  silent  and  secret  recess  of  thought,  which  is 
hidden  from  every  human  eye. 

2.  If  the  privileges  to  which  he  has  an  undoubted  right,  and 
which  he  has  long  enjoyed,  should  now  be  wrested  from  him,  it 
would  be  flagrant  injustice. 

These  curiosities  we  have  imported  from  China,  and  they 
are  similar  to  those  which  were  some  time  ago  brought  from 
Africa. 


Will  martial  flames  for  ever  fire  thy  mind, 

And  wilt  thou  never  be  to  Heav’n  resign’d  '! 

3.  When  two  substantives  come  together,  and  do  not  sig- 
nify the  same  thing,  the  frst  of  them  must  be  in  the  genitive 
case. 


183 


KEY. 


Rule  2. 


Such  is  the  constitution  of  men  that  virtue^  however  it  may 
be  neglected  for  a time,  will  ultimately  be  acknowledged  and 
respected. 

4.  The  crown  of  virtue  are  peace  and  honour. 

His  chief  occupation  and  enjoyment  was  controversy. 

5.  destroy’d, 

Or  won  to  what  may  work  his  utter  loss, 

All  this  will  soon  follow. 

rWhose  gray  top 

Shall  tremble,  he  descending. 

RULE  II. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  149.  Vol.  2.  p.  46. 

Idleness  and  ignorance  are  the  parents  of  many  vices. 

Wisdom,  virtue,  happiness,  dimll  wdth  the  golden  medi- 
ocrity. 

In  unity  consist  the  welfare  and  security  of  every  society. 

Time  and  tide  for  no  man. 

His  politeness  and  good  disposition  were,  on  failure  of  their 
effect,  entirely  changed. 

Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  remove  mountains. 

Humility  and  knowledge,  with  poor  apparel,  excel  pride  and 
ignorance  under  costly  attire. 

The  planetary  system,  boundless  space,  and  the  immense 
ocean,  affect  the  mind  with  sensations  of  astonishment. 

Humility  and  love,  whatever  obscurities  may  involve  religious 
tenets,  constitute  the  essence  of  true  religion. 

Religion  and  virtue,  our  best  support  and  highest  honour,  con- 
fer on  the  mind  principles  of  noble  independence. 

What  signify  the  counsel  and  care  of  preceptors,  when 
youth  think  they  have  no  need  of  assistance  ? 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  ii. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  149.  Vol.  2.  p.  47. 


I.  Much  do  human  pride  and  self-complacency  require  cor- 
rection. 

Luxurious  living,  and  high  pleasures,  beget  a languor  and 
satiety  that  destroy  all  enjoyment. 

Pride  and  self-sufficiency  stifle  sentiments  of  dependence 


Rule  3. 


SYNTAX. 


183 


on  our  Creator:  levity  and,  attachment  to  worldly  pleasures, 
destroy  the  sense  of  gratitude  to  him. 

2.  Good  order  in  our  affairs,  not  mean  savings,  produces 
great  profits. 

The  following  treatise,  together  with  those  that  accompany  it, 
was  written  many  years  ago,  for  my  own  private  satisfaction. 

That  great  senator,  in  concert  with  several  other  eminent 
persons,  was  the  projector  of  the  revolution. 

The  religion  of  these  people,  as  well  as  their  customs  and 
manners  was  strangely  misrepresented. 

Virtue,  joined  to  knowledge  and  wealth,  confers  great  influ- 
ence and  respectability.  But  knowledge,  with  wealth  united, 
if  virtue  is  wanting,  has  a very  limited  influence,  and  is  often 
despised. 

That  superficial  scholar  and  critic,  like  some  renowned  critics 
of  our  own,  has  furnished  most  decisive  proofs,  that  he  knew 
not  the  characters  of  the  Hebrew  language. 

The  buildings  of  the  institution  have  been  enlarged ; the 
expense  of  which,  added  to  the  increased  price  of  provisions, 
renders  it  necessary  ta  advance  the  terms  of  admission. 

One,  added  to  nineteen,  makes  twenty. — Better  thus:  one 
and  nineteen,  make  twenty. 

What  black  despair,  what  horror  fill  his  mind  ! 

3.  Thou,  and  the  gardener,  and  the  huntsman,  must  share  the 
blame  of  this  business  amongst  you. 

My  sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my  brother,  are  daily  employed  in 
our  respective  occupations. 


RULE  III. 

See  vol.  1.  p.  151.  Vol.  2.  p.  47. 

Man’s  happiness,  or  misery,  is,  in  a great  measure  put  into 
his  own  hands. 

Man  is  not  such  a machine  as  a clock  or  a watch,  which 
moves  merely  as  it  is  moved. 

Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of 
life  ; for  it  is,  perhaps,  to  be  your  own  lot. 

Speaking  impatiently  to  servants,  or  any  thing  that  betrays 
unkindness  or  ill-humour,  is  certainly  criminal. 

There  are  many  faults  in  spelling,  which  neither  analogy  nor 
pronunciation  justifies. 


184  KEY.  Rule  4. 

When  sickness,  infirmity,  or  reverse  of  fortune,  affects  us,  the 
sincerity  of  friendship  is  provedk 

Let  it  be  remembered,  that  it  is  not  the  uttering,  or  the  hear- 
ing of  certain  vv^ords,  that  constitutes  the  worship  of  the  Al- 
mighty. 

A tart  reply,  a proneness  to  rebuke,  or  a captious  and  con- 
tradictious spirit,  is  capable  of  imbittering  domestic  life,  and  of 
setting  friends  at  variance. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  observations  under 

RULE  III. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  151,  Vol.  2.  p.  48. 

Either  thou  or  I am  greatly  mistaken  in  our  judgment  on 
this  subject. 

I or  thou  art  the  person  who  must  undertake  the  business 
proposed. 

2.  One  or  both  of  the  scholars  were  present  at  the  transaction. 

Some  parts  of  the  ship  and  cargo  were  recovered ; but 
neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors,  were  saved. 

Whether  one  person,  or  more  than  one^  were  concerned  in  the 
business,  does  not  yet  appear. 

The  deceitfulness  of  riches,  or  the  cares  of  this  life,  have 
choked  the  seeds  of  virtue  in  many  a promising  mind. 

RULE  IV. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  152.  Vol.  2.  p.  48. 

The  people  rejoice  in  that  which  should  give  them  sorrow. 

The  flock,  and  not  the  fleece,  w,  or  ought  to  be,  the  object  of 
the  shepherd’s  care. 

The  court  has  just  ended,  after  having  sat  through  the  trial  of 
a very  long  cause. 

The  crowd  was  so  great,  that  the  judges  with  difficulty  made 
their  way  through  it. 

The  corporation  of  York  consists  of  a mayor,  aldermen,  and 
a common  council. 

The  British  parliament  is  composed  of  king,  lords,  and  com- 
mons. 

When  the  nation  complains,  the  rulers  should  listen  to  its 
voice. 

In  the  days  of  youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure 
as  their  chief  good. 

The  church  has  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishment. 

The  fleet  was  seen  sailing  up  the  channel. 


Rule  5. 


SYNTAX. 


185 


The  regiment  consists  of  a thousand  men. 

The  meeting  has  established  several  salutary  regulations. 

The  council  were  not  unanimous,  and  they  separated  without 
coming  to  any  determination. 

The  fleet  are  all  arrived  and  moored  in  safety. 

These  people  draw  near  to  me  with  their  mouth,  and  honour 
me  with  their  lips,  but  their  heart  is  far  from  me. 

The  committee  were  divided  in  their  sentiments,  and  they 
have  referred  the  business  to  the  general  meeting. 

The  committee  was  very  full  when  this  point  was  decided ; 
and  its  judgment  has  not  been  called  in  question. 

Why  does  this  generation  wish  for  greater  evidence,  when  so 
much  is  already  given  ? 

Tli^remnant  of  the  people  was  persecuted  with  great  severity. 

Never  was  any  people  so  much  infatuated  as  the  Jewish 
nation. 

The  shoal  of  herrings  was  of  an  immense  extent. 

No  society  is  chargeable  wdth  the  disapproved  misconduct  of 
particular  members.  ^ 

RULE  V. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  154.  Vol.  2.  p.  50. 

The  exercise  of  reason  appears  as  little  in  these  sportsmen, 
as  in  the  beasts  which  they  sometimes  hunt,  and  by  which  they 
are  sometimes  hunted. 

They  who  seek  wisdom  will  certainly  find  her. 

The  male  amongst  birds  seems  to  discover  no  beauty,  but  in 
the  colour  of  his  species. 

Take  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the  furnace,  and  let  Moses  sprinkle 
them  towards  heaven,  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh;  and  they  shall 
become  small  dust. 

Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment,  which  was  with  her  in  the 
house,  and  put  it  upon  Jacob. 

The  wheel  killed  another  man,  v^ho  is  the  sixth  that  has  lost 
his  life  by  this  means. 

The  fair  sex,  whose  task  is  not  to  mingle  in  the  labours  of 
public  life,  have  their  own  part  assigned  them  to  act. 

The  Hercules  ship  of  war  foundered  at  sea ; she  overset,  and 
lost  most  of  her  men. 

The  mind  of  man  cannot  be  long  without  some  food  to 
nourish  the  activity  of  its  thoughts. 

What  is  the  reason  that  our  language  is  less  refined  than  that 
of  Italy,  Spain,  or  France  ? 

Vol.  II. 


24 


186  KEY.  Rule  5, 

I do  not  think  any  one  should  incur  censure  for  being  tender 
of  his  reputation. 

Thou  who  hast  been  a witness  of  the  fact,  canst  give  an 
account  of  it. 

In  religious  concerns,  or  those  which  are  conceived  to  be 
such,  every  man  rhust  stand  or  fall  by  the  decision  of  the 
Great  Judge. 

Something  like  what  has  been  here  premised,  is  the  con- 
jecture  of  Dryden. 

Thou  great  First  Cause,  least  understood  ! 

Who  all  my  sense  confin’d 

To  know  but  this,  that  thou  art  good, 

And  that  myself  am  blind  ; 

Yet  gave  me  in  this  dark  estate,  &c. 

“ Conjinedst  or  didst  confine  “ Gavedst  or  didst  give^* 

What  art  thou,  speak,  that  on  designs  unknown. 

While  others  sleep,  dost  range  the  camp  alone  ? 


The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  Rule  v. 


See  Vol.  1.  p.  154.  Vol.  2.  p.  51. 


1.  Whoever  entertains  such  an  opinion,  judges  erroneously. 
The  cares  of  this  world  often  choke  the  growth  of  virtue. 
Disappointments  and  afflictions,  however  disagreeable,  often 

improve  us. 

2.  Moses  was  the  meekest  man  that  we  read  of  in  the  Old 
Testament. 

Humility  is  one  of  the  most  amiable  virtues  that  we  can 
possess. 

They  are  the  same  persons  that  assisted  us  yesterday. 

The  men  and  things  that  he  has  studied  have  not  improved 
his  morals. 

3.  How  beautiful  soever  they  appear,  they  have  no  real  merit. 
In  what  light  soever  we  view"  him,  his  conduct  will  bear 

inspection. 

On  which  side  soever  they  are  contemplated,  they  appear  to 
advantage. 

How  much  soever  he  might  despise  the  maxims  of  the  king’s 
administration,  he  kept  a total  silence  on  that  subject. 


Rule  5. 


SYNTAX. 


187 


Which  o?  those  two  persons  has  most  distinguished  himself? 

None  more  impatiently  suffer  injuries,  than  they  who  are  most 
forward  in  doing  them. 

5.  He  would  not  be  persuaded  that  I was  not  greatly  in  fault. 

These  commendations  of  his  children,  appear  to  have  been 

made  in  a manner  which  is,  in  some  respects,  injudicious : or,  ap- 
pear to  he,  in  some  respects,  injudicious. 

6.  He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  that  surrounded  him. 

Sidney  was  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  active  governors,  that 

Ireland  had  enjoyed  for  several  years. 

He  was  the  ablest  minister  that  James  ever  possessed. 

The  court,  which  gives  currency  to  manners,  ought  to  be  ex- 
emplary. 

1 am  happy  in  the  friend  whom  I have  long  proved. 

7.  The  child  that  we  have  just  seen,  is  wholesomely  fed,  and 
not  injured  by  bandages  or  clothing. 

He  is  like  a beast  of  prey,  that  destroys  without  pity. 

8.  Having  once  disgusted  him,  he  could  never  regain  the  fa- 
vour of  Nero,  whose  name  was  hut  another  word  for  cruelty. 

Flattery,  the  nature  of  which  is  to  deceive  and  betray,  should'^ 
be  avoided  as  the  poisonous  adder. 

Which  of  those  men  came  to  his  assistance  ? 

9.  The  king,  who  had  never  before  committed  so  unjust  an 
action,  dismissed  his  minister  without  any  inquiry. 

There  are  in  the  empire  of  China,  millions  of  people,  whose 
support  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  rice. 

10.  His  continual  endeavours  to  serve  us,  notwithstanding  our 
ingratitude,  are  remarkable.  Or— It  is  remarkable,  that  he  is 
continually  endeavouring  to  serve  us,  notwithstanding  our  ingrat- 
itude. 

His  assertion,  though  paradoxical,  is  indisputably  true. 

11.  Ah!  unhappy  thou,  who  art  deaf  to  the  calls  of  duty  and 
of  honour. 

Oh  ! happy  us,  surrounded  with  so  many  blessings. 


188 


KEY. 


Rules  6, 7. 


RULE  VI. 

\ 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  159.  Vol.  2.  p.  52. 

•We  are  dependent  on  each  other’s  assistance  ! who  is  there 
that  can  subsist  by  himself? 

If  he  will  not  hear  his  best  friend,  who  shall  be  sent  to  ad- 
monish him  ? 

They  to  whom  much  is  given,  will  have  much  to  answer  for. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  they,  who,  in  early  life,  have  been 
dark  and  deceitful,  should  afterwards  become  fair  and  ingenuous. 

They  who  have  laboured  to  make  us  wise  and  good,  are  the 
persons  whom  we  ought  to  love  and  respect,  and  to  whom  we 
ought  to  be  grateful. 

The  persons  whom  conscience  and  virtue  support,  may  smile 
at  the  caprices  of  fortune. 

From  the  character  of  those  with  whom  you  associate,  your 
own  will  be  estimated. 

That  is  the  student  to  whom  I gave  the  book,  and  who,  I am 
persuaded,  deserves  it. 

1.  Of  whom  were  the  articles  bought?  Of  a mercer;  him 
who  resides  near  the  mansion-house. 

Was  any  person  besides  the  mercer  present?  Yes,  both  he 
and  his  clerk. 

To  whom  was  the  money  paid  ? To  the  mercer  and  his  clerk. 

Who  counted  it  ? Both  the  clerk  and  he. 


' • RULE  YII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  leo.  Vol.  2.  p.  53. 

I acknowledge  that  I am  the  teacher,  who  adopt  that  senti- 
ment, and  maintain  the  propriety  of  such  measures.  Or — that 

who  adopt  that  sentiment,  and  maintain,  &c. 

Thou  art  a friend  that  has  often  relieved  me,  and  that  has 
not  deserted  me  now  in  the  time  of  peculiar  need.  Or — Thou, 
ivho  hast  often  relieved  me,  and  who  hast  not,  &c. 

I am  the  man  who  approves  of  wholesome  discipline,  and 
who  recommends  it  to  others:  but  I am  not  a person  who  pro- 
motes useless  severity,  or  who  objects  to  mild  and  generous 
treatment. 

I perceive  that  thou  art  a pupil,  who  possesses  bright  parts, 
but  who  has  cultivated  them  but  little. 


Rule  8. 


SYNTAX. 


189 


Thou  art  he  who  breathes  on  the  earth  with  the  breath  of 
spring,  and  who  covers  it  with  verdure  and  beauty. 

I am  the  Lord  thy  God,  who  teaches  thee  to  profit,  and  who 
leads  thee  by  the  way  thou  should st  go. 

Thou  art  the  Lord  who  didst  choose  Abraham,  and  broughtest 
him  forth  out  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  Or — Thou  who  didst 
choose  Abraham,  &c. 

RULE  VIII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  161.  Vol.  2.  p.  54. 

This  kind  of  indulgence  softens  and  injures  the  mind. 

Instead  of  improving  yourselves,  you  have  been  playing  these 
two  hours. 

That  sort  of  favours  did  real  injury,  under  the  appearance  of 
kindness. 

The  chasm  made  by  the  earthquake  was  twenty  feet  broad, 
and  one  hundred  fathoms  in  depth. 

How  many  sorrows  should  we  avoid,  if  we  were  not  indus- 
trious to  make  them  ! 

He  saw  one  person,  or  more  than  one,  enter  the  garden. 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observa- 
tions under  rule  viii. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  161,  Vol.  2.  p.  54. 

I.  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Charles  was  extravagant,  and  by  this  means  became  poor 
and  despicable. 

It  was  by  that  ungenerous  means  that  he  obtained  his  end. 

Industry  is  the  means  of  obtaining  competency. 

Though  a promising  measure,  it  is  a means  which  I cannot 
adopt.  V 

This  person  embraced  every  opportunity  to  display  his  talents ; 
and  by  this  means  rendered  himself  ridiculous. 

Joseph  was  industrious,  frugal  and  discreet ; and  by  these 
means  obtained  property  and  reputation. 

2.  Religion  raises  men  above  themselves;  irreligion  sinks 
them  beneath  the  brutes : this  binds  them  down  to  a poor 
pitiable  speck  of  perishable  earth  ; that  opens  to  them  a pros- 
pect to  the  skies. 

More  rain  falls  in  the  first  two  summer  months,  than  in  the 
first  two  winter  ones : but  it  makes  a much  greater  show  upon 


KEY. 


190 


Rule  8. 


the  earth,  in  these  than  in  those ; because  there  is  a much  slower 
evaporation. 

Rex  and  Tyrannus  are  of  very  different  characters.  The 
one  rules  his  people  by  laws  to  which  they  consent ; the  other, 
by  his  absolute  will  and  power : that  is  called  freedom,  this, 
tyranny. 

3.  Each  of  them,  in  his  turn,  receives  the  benefits  to  which  he 
is  entitled.  * 

My  counsel  to  each  of  you  is,  that  he  make  it  his  endeavour  to 
come  to  a friendly  agreement. 

By  discussing  what  relates  to  each  particular,  in  order,  we 
shall  better  understand  the  subject. 

Every  person,  whatever  be  his  station,  is  bound  by  the  duties 
of  morality  and  religion. 

Every  leaf,  every  twig,  every  drop  of  water,  teems  with  life. 

Every  man’s  heart  and  temper  are  productive  of  much  in- 
ward joy  or  bitterness. 

Whatever  he  undertakes,  either  his  pride  or  his  folly  dis- 
gusts us. 

Every  man  and  every  woman  was  numbered."^ 

Neither  of  those  men  seems  to  have  any  idea,  that  his  opinions 
may  be  ill-founded. 

When  benignity  and  gentleness  reign  within,  we  are  always 
least  in  hazard  from  without : every  person,  and  every  occur- 
rence, is  beheld  in  the  most  favourable  light. 

On  each  side  of  the  river  was  there  the  tree  of  life. 


II.  ADJECTIVES. 


4.  She  reads  im'perly,  writes  very  neatly,  and  composes 
accurately. 


The  copulative  conjunction,  in  this  instance,  makes  no  difference  with  regard  to  the 
verb.  All  the  men  and  women  are  referred  to  separately  and  individually.  The  verb  must 
therefore  have  the  same  construction  as  it  has  in  the  sentence;  “Every  one  of  the  men 
and  women  tras  numbered.”  Whatever  number  of  nouns  may  be  connected  by  a conjunction 
with  the  pronoun,  every,  this  pronoun  is  as  applicable  to  the  whole  mass  of  them,  as  to 
any  one  of  the  nouns  : and  therefore  the  verb  is  correctly  put  in  the  singular  number, 
and  refers  to  the  whole,  separately  and  individually  considered.  In  short,  this  pronoun  so 
entirely  coalesces  with  the  nouns,  however  numerous  and  united,  that,  it  imparts  its  peculiar 
nature  to  them,  and  makes  the  whole  number  correspond  together,  and  requires  a similar  con- 
struction. 

The  subject  may  be  farther  illustrated  and  confirmed,  by  the  following  examples,  “ Every 
rnan,  woman,  and  child  loas  preserved  from  the  devouring  element “ Every  good 
gift,  and  every  perfect  gift,  zs  from,  ^bove,  and  cometh  down  from  the  Father  of  lights 
James  i.  17 ; “It  is  the  original  cause  of  every  reproach  and  distress  which  has  attended 
the  government Junius  ; “ To  those  that  have  lived  long  together,  every  thing  heard,  and 
every  thing  seen,  recalls  some  pleasure  communicated,  or  some  benefit  conferred  : some 
petty  quarrel,  or  some  slight  endearment.” — Dr.  Johnson.  This  construction  forms  an  ex- 
ception to  the  second  rule  of  Syntax.  Another  exception  to  this  second  rule,  is,  when  a 
copulative  conjunction  connects  two  or  more  nouns,  which  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing  : 
as,  “ That  able  scholar  and  critic  has  been  eminently  useful  to  the  cause  of  religion.”  See 
pages  24,  25. 


Rule  8. 


SYNTAX. 


191 


He  was  extremely  prodigal,  and  his  property  is  now  nearly 
exhausted. 

They  generally  succeeded  ; for  they  lived  conformably  to  the 
rules  of  prudence. 

We  may  reason  very  clearly  and  exceeding  strongly  without 
knowing  that  there  is  such  a thing  as  a syllogism. 

He  had  many  virtues,  and  was  exceedingly  beloved. 

The  amputation  was  exceedingly  well  performed,  and  saved 
the  patient’s  life. 

He  came  agreeably  to  his  promise,  and  conducted  himself 
suitably  to  the  occasion. 

He  speaks  very  fluently^  and  reads  excellently^  but  he  does 
not  think  very  coherently. 

He  behaved  himself  submissively,  and  was  exceedingly  careful 
not  to  give  offence. 

They  rejected  the  advice,  and  conducted  themselves  exceed- 
ing indiscreetly. 

He  is  a person  of  great  abilities,  and  exceedingly  upright ; and 
is  likely  to  be  a very  useful  member  of  the  community. 

The  conspiracy  was  the  more  easily  discovered,  from  its  being 
knowm  to  many. 

Not  being  fully  acquainted  with  the  subject,  he  could  not 
affirm  more  strongly  than  he  did. 

He  was  so  deeply  impressed  with  the  subject,  that  few  could 
speak  more  nobly  upon  it. 

We  may  credit  his  testimony,  for  he  says  expressly,  that  he 
saw  the  transaction. 

Use  a little  wine  for  thy  stomach’s  sake,  and  thy  frequent  in- 
firmities. 

From  these  favourable  beginnings,  we  may  hope  for  a speedy 
and  prosperous  issue. 

He  addressed  several  exhortations  to  them  suitable  to  their 
circumstances. 

Conformable  to  their  vehemence  of  thought,  was  Jtheir  vehem- 
ence of  gesture. 

We  should  implant  in  the  minds  of  youth,  such  seeds  and 
principles  of  piety  and  virtue,  as  are  likely  to  take  the  earliest 
and  deepest  root. 

A disposition  so  amiable  will  secure  universal  regard. 

Virtues  so  distinguished  seldom  occur. 

5.  It  is  easier  to  build  two  chimneys  than  to  maintain  one. 

The  tongue  is  like  a race-horse ; which  runs  the  faster  the 
less  weight  it  carries. 

The  pleasures  of  the  understanding  are  preferable  to  those  of 
the  imagination,  or  of  sense. 


192 


KEY. 


Rule  9. 


The  nightingale  sings : hers  is  the  sweetest  voice  in  the  grove. 

The  Most  High  hath  created  us  for  his  glory,  and  our  own 
happiness. 

The  Supreme  Being  is  the  wisest,  the  mo^i  powerful^  and  the 
best  of  beings. 

6.  Virtue  confers  supreme  dignity  on  man : and  should  be  his 
chief  desire. 

His  assertion  was  better  founded  than  that  of  his  opponent ; 
nay,  the  words  of  the  latter  were  not  true. 

His  work  is  well  executed ; his  brother’s  still  better ; and  his 
father’s  the  best  of  all. 

He  gave  a full  and  sincere  proof  of  true  friendship.  Or — 
He  gave  the  strongest  proof  of  warm  and  genuine  friendship. 

7.  A talent  of  this  kind  would,  perhaps,  prove  the  likeliest  of 
all  to  succeed.  Or — prove  more  likely  than  any  other  to  succeed. 

He  is  the  stronger  of  the  tw^o,  but  not  the  wiser. 

He  spoke  with  so  much  propriety,  that  I understood  him  the 
best  of  all  who  spoke  on  the  subject.  Or — better  than  any  other 
who  spoke  on  the  subject. 

Eve  wasjfezrer  than  any  n/’her  daughters. 

8.  He  spoke  in  a manner  distinct  enough  to  be  heard  by  the 
whole  assembly.  Or — He  spoke  distinctly  enough  to  be  heard 
by  the  whole  assembly. 

Thomas  is  equipped  with  a pair  of  new  shoes,  and  a pair  of 
new  gloves  ; he  is  the  servant  of  a rich  old  man. 

The  first  two  in  the  row  are  cherry-trees,  the  other  two  are 
pear-trees. 


RULE  IX. 


SeeVol.  1.  p.  170.  Vol  2.  p.  57. 

Fire,  air,  earth,  and  water,  are  the  four  elements  of  philoso- 
phers. 

Reason  was  given  to  man  to  control  his  passions. 

We  have  within  us  an  intelligent  principle,  distinct  from  the 
body  and  from  matter. 

Man  is  the  noblest  work  of  the  creation. 

The  wisest  and  the  best  men  sometimes  commit  errors. 

Beware  of  drunkenness : it  impairs  the  understanding ; wastes 
the  estate;  destroys  reputaiion ; consumes  the  body;  and 


Rule  9. 


SYNTAX. 


193 


renders  a man  of  the  brightest  parts  a comrnofi  jest  of  the  mean- 
est clown. 

He  is  a much  better  writer  than  reader. 

The  king  has  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  duke. 

There  are  some  evils  of  life,  which  equally  affect  the  prince 
and  the  people. 

We  must  act  our  part  with  constancy,  though  the  reward  of 
our  constancy  be  distant. 

We  are  placed  here  under  the  trial  of  our  virtue. 

Virtues  like  his  are  not  easily  acquired.  Such  qualities  honour 
the  nature  of  man. 

Purity  has  its  seat  in  the  heart : but  extends  its  influence  over 
so  much  of  the  outward  conduct,  as  to  form  a great  and  material 
part  of  the  character. 

A profligate  man  is  seldom  or  never  found  to  be  a good  hus- 
band, a good  father,  or  a beneficent  neighbour. 

True  charity  is  not  a meteor,  which  occasionally  glares ; but 
a luminary,  which,  in  its  orderly  and  regular  course,  dispenses  a 
benignant  influence. 


The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  ix. 


See  Vol.  1.  p,  171.  Vol.  2.  p.  58. 

1.  He  has  been  much  censured  for  conducting  himself  with 
little  attention  to  his  laisiness. 

So  bold  a breach  of  order,  called  for  a little  severity  in  pun- 
ishing the  offender. 

His  error  was  accompanied  with  so  little  contrition  and  can- 
did acknowledgment,  that  he  found  few  persons  to  intercede 
for  him. 

There  were  so  many  mitigating  circumstances  attending  his 
misconduct,  particularly  that  of  his  open  confession,  that  he 
found  a few  friends  who  were  disposed  to  interest  themselves 
in  his  favour. 

As  his  misfortunes  were  the  fruits  of  his  own  obstinacy,  few 
persons  pitied  him. 

2.  The  fear  of  shame,  and  the  desire  of  approbation,  prevent 
many  bad  actions. 

In  this  business  he  was  influenced  by  a just  and  a generous 
principle. 

He  w^as  fired  with  the  desire  of  doing  something,  though  he 
knew  not  yet,  with  distinctness,  either  the  end  or  the  means. 
Vol.  H.  25 


194 


KEY. 


Rule  10. 


3.  At  the  worst,  I could  but  incur  a gentle  reprimand. 

At  the  best,  his  gift  was  but  a poor  offering,  when  we  con- 
sider his  estate. 

RULE  X. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  173.  Vol.  2.  p.  59. 

My  ancestor's  virtue  is  not  mine. 

His  brother's  offence  will  not  condemn  him. 

I will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten^s  sake. 

Nevertheless,  Asa^s  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord. 

A mother'^ s tenderness  and  a father^ s care,  are  nature's  ^ifts 
for  man’s  advantage. 

A man’s  manners  frequently  influence  his  fortune. 

Wisdom's  precepts  form  the  good  man’s  interest  and  happi- 
ness. 


They  slew  Varus,  him  that  was  mentioned  before. 

They  slew  Varus,  who  was  he  that  I mentioned  before. 

The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 

under  rule  x. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  175.  Vol.  2.  p.  59. 

It  was  the  men^  women,  and  children’s  lot,  to  suffer  great  ca- 
lamities. Or — It  was  the  lot,  &c. 

Peter,  John,  and  Andrew’s  occupation,  was  that  of  fishermen. 
Or — The  occupation  of  Peter,  &c. 

The  measure  gained  the  king’s,  as  well  as  the  people’s  appro- 
bation. 

Not  only  the  counsel  and  attorney’s,  but  the  judge’s,  opinion 
also,  favoured  his  cause.  Or — counsel  and  attorney’s  opinion, 
hut  the  judge’s  also,  &c. 

2.  And  he  cast  himself  down  at  Jesus’s  feet. 

Moses’s  rod  was  turned  into  a serpent. 

For  Herodias’s  sake,  his  brother  Philip’s  w’ife. 

If  ye  suffer  for  righteousness’  sake,  happy  are  ye. 

Ye  should  be  subject  for  conscience’  sake. 

3.  They  very  justly  condemned  the  senseless  and  extravagant 
conduct  of  the  Prodigal,  as  he  was  called. 

They  implicitly  obeyed  the  imperious  mandates  of  him  whom 
they  called  their  protector. 


Rule  11. 


SYNTAX. 


195 


4.  I bought  the  knives  at  Johnson’s  the  cutler. 

The  silk  was  purchased  at  Brown’s,  the  mercer  and  haber- 
dasher. 

The  tent  of  lord  Feversham  the  general. 

This  palace  had  been  the  grand  sultan  Mahomet’s. 

I will  not  for  David  thy  father’s  sake. 

He  took  refuge  at  the  governo7'’s,  the  king’s  representative. 

Whose  works  are  these  1 They  are  Cicero's,  the  most  elo- 
quent of  men. 

4.  The  government  of  the  world  is  not  left  to  chance. 

She  married  the  brother  of  my  son's  wife.  Or — my  son's 
hr  other ‘indaw. 

This  house  belongs  to  the  partner  of  my  wife's  brother. 

It  was  necessary  to  have  the  advice  both  of  the  physician 
and  the  surgeon. 

The  extent  of  the  king  of  England’s  prerogative  is  sufficiently 
ascertained. 

6.  This  picture  of  the  king  does  not  much  resemble  him. 

These  pictures  of  the  king's  were  sent  to  him  from  Italy. 

Or — These  pictures  belonging  to  the  king^  &c. 

This  estate  of  the  corpoi'ation  is  much  encumbered. 

That  is  the  eldest  son  of  the  king  of  England.  Or — The 
king  of  England's  eldest  son. 

7.  What  can  be  the  cause  of  the  parliament's  neglecting  so 
important  a business  ? 

Much  depend’s  on  this  rule's  being  observed. 

The  time  of  William's  making  the  experiment  at  length 
arrived. 

It  is  very  probable  that  this  assembly  was  called,  to  clear 
some  doubt  which  the  king  had  about  the  lawfulness  of  the 
Hollandei^'s  throwing  off  the  monarchy  of  Spain,  and  withdi'aw- 
ing  entirely,  their  allegiance  to  that  crown. 

If  we  alter  the  situation  of  any  of  the  words,  we  shall  pre- 
sently be  sensible  of  the  melody's  suffering. 

Such  will  ever  be  the  effect  of  youth's  associating  with  vi- 
cious companions. 

RULE  XI. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  179.  Vol.  2.  p.  61. 

They  whom  opulence  has  made  proud,  and  whom  luxury  has 
corrupted,  cannot  relish  the  simple  pleasures  of  nature. 


196 


KEY. 


Rule  II. 


You  have  reason  to  dread  his  wrath,  which  one  day  will 
destroy  you  both. 

Whom  have  I reason  to  Jove  so  much  as  this  friend  of  my 
youth  ? 

You,  who  were  dead,  hath  he  quickened. 

Whom  did  they  entertain  so  freely  ? 

The  man  whom  he  raised  from  obscurity  is  dead. 

You  only  have  I known  of  all  the  families  of  the  earth. 

Him  and  them  we  know,  but  who  are  you  ? 

Her  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

Whom  did  they  send  on  so  important  an  errand  ? 

That  is  the  friend  whom  you  must  receive  cordially,  and  whom 
you  cannot  esteem  to6  highly. 

He  invited  my  brother  and  me  to  see  and  examine  his 
library. 

Him  who  committed  the  offence,  you  should  correct,  not 
me  who  am  innocent. 

We  should  fear  and  obey  the  Author  of  our  being,  even  Him 
who  has  powder  to  reward  and  punish  us  for  ever. 

Them  whom  he  had  most  injured,  he  had  the  greatest  reason 
to  love. 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xi. 

See  VoL  1.  p.  180.  Vol.  2.  p.  61. 

1.  Though  he  nowjakes  pleasure  in  them,  he  will  one  day 
repent  of  indulgences  so  unwarrantable. 

The  nearer  his  virtues  approached  to  the  great  example  before 
him,  the  humbler  he  grew. 

It  will  be  very  difficult  to  make  his  conduct  agree  with  the 
principles  he  professes. 

2.  To  ingratiate  ourselves  with  some,  by  traducing  others, 
marks  a base  and  despicable  mind. 

I shall  premise  two  or  three  general  observations. 

3.  If  such  maxims  and  such  practices  prevail,  what  is  be- 
come of  decency  and  virtue. 

I am  come  according  to  the  time  proposed ; but  I am  fallen 
upon  an  evil  hour. 

The  mighty  rivals  have  now  at  length  agreed. 

The  influence  of  his  corrupt  example  had  then  entirely 
ceased. 


Rule  12. 


SYNTAX. 


197 


He  had  entered  into  the  connexion,  before  the  consequences 
were  considered. 

4.  Well  may  you  be  afraid  ; it  is  he  indeed. 

I would  act  the  same  part,  if  I were  he,  or  in  his  situation. 

Search  the  Scriptures  ; for  in  them  ye  think  ye  have  eternal 
life  : and  they  are  they  which  testify  of  me. 

Be  composed  : it  is  I : you  have  no  cause  for  fear. 

I cannot  tell  who  has  befriended  me,  unless  it  is  he  from 
whom  I have  received  many  benefits. 

I know  not  whether  they  were  the  persons  who  conducted  the 
business  ; but  I am  certain  it  was  not  he. 

He  so  much  resembled  my  brother,  that,  at  first  sight,  I took  it 
to  be  him. 

After  all  their  professions,  is  it  possible  to  be  they  ? 

It  could  not  have  been  she,  for  she  always  behaves  discreetly. 

If  it  was  not  he,  whom  do  you  imagine  it  to  have  been  ? 

Whom  do  you  think  him  to  be? 

Who  do  the  people  say  that  we  are  ? 

5.  Whatever  others  do,  let  thee  and  me  act  wisely. 

Let  them  and  us,  unite  to  oppose  this  growing  evil. 

RULE  XH. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  183,  Vol.  2.  p.  62. 

It  is  better  to  live  on  a little,  than  to  outlive  a great  deal. 

You  ought  not  to  walk  too  hastily. 

I wish  him  not  to  wrestle  with  his  happiness. 

I need  not  solicit  him  to  do  a kind  action. 

I dare  not  proceed  so  hasily,  lest  I should  give  offence. 

I have  seen  some  young  persons  conduct  themselves  very 
discreetly. 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  observations 
under  Rule  xii. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  183,  Vol.  2.  p.  63. 

1.  It  is  a great  support  to  virtue,  when  we  see  a good  mind 
maintain  its  patience  and  tranquillity,  under  injuries  and  afflic- 
tion, and  cordially  forgive  its  oppressors. 

It  is  the  difference  of  their  conduct,  which  makes  us  approve 
the  one  and  reject  the  other. 


198  KEY.  Rule  13. 

We  should  not  be  like  many  persons,  who  depreciate  the 
virtues  they  do  not  possess. 

To  see  young  persons,  who  are  courted  by  health  and 
pleasure,  resist  all  the  allurements  of  vice,  and  steadily  pursue 
virtue  and  knowledge,  is  cheering  and  delightful  to  every  good 
mind. 

They  acted  with  so  much  reserve,  that  some  persons  doubted 
their  sincerity. 

And  the  multitude  wondered  when  they  saw  the  persons 
who  had  been  lame^  walking ; and  those  who  had  been  blindy 
seeing. 


RULE  Xlll. 

See  VoL  1.  p.  185,  Vol.  2.  p.  63. 

The  next  new-year’s  day,  I shall  have  been  at  school  three 
years. 

And  he  that  had  been  dead,  sat  up,  and  began  to  speak. 

I should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  would  gratify  me  in  that 
particular. 

And  the  multitude  wondered,  when  they  heard  the  persons 
who  had  been  dumby  speaking ; when  they  saw  those  who  had 
been  maimed,  whole  : who  had  been  lame,  walking;  and  who  had 
been  blind,  seeing. 

I have  compassion  on  the  multitude,  because  they  have  con- 
tinned  with  me  now  three  days. 

In  the  treasury  belonging  to  the  Cathedral  in  this  city,  has 
been  preserved  with  the  greatest  veneration,  for  upwards  of 
six  hundred  years,  a dish  which  they  pretend  to  be  made  of 
emerald. 

The  court  of  Rome  gladly  laid  hold  on  all  the  opportunities 
which  the  imprudence,  weakness,  or  necessities  of  princes, 
afforded  it,  to  extend  its  authority. 

Fierce  as  he  moves,  his  silver  shafts  resound. 

They  maintained  that  Scripture  conclusion,  that  all  mankind 
have  risen  from  one  head. 

John  will  have  earned  his  wages,  when  his  service  shall  he 
completed. 

Ye  will  not  come  unto  me,  that  ye  may  have  life. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  he  cannot  justify  his  conduct. 

I have  been  at  London  a year,  and  I saw  the  king  last  summer. 

After  we  had  visited  London,  we  returned,  content  and 
thankful,  to  our  retired  and  peaceful  habitation. 


Rule  13. 


SYNTAX. 


199 


The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  Rule  xiii. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  187.  Vol.  2.  p.  64. 

1.  I purpose  to  go  to  London  in  a few  months,  and  after  I 
shall  have  finished  my  business  there,  to  proceed  to  America. 

These  prosecutions  of  William  seem  to  have  been  the  most 
iniquitous  measures  pursued  by  the  court,  during  the  time  that 
the  use  of  parliament  was  suspended. 

From  the  little  conversation  I had  with  him,  he  appeared  to 
be  a man  of  letters. 

I always  intended  to  reward  my  son  according  to  his 
merit. 

It  would,  on  reflection,  have  given  me  great  satisfaction,  to 
have  relieved  him  from  that  distressed  situation. 

It  required  so  much  care,  that  I thought  I should  lose  it  before 
I reached  home. 

We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  do. 

He  would  have  assisted  one  of  his  friends,  if  he  could  have 
done  it  without  injuring  the  other ; but  as  that  could  not  be  done, 
he  avoided  all  interference. 

Might  it  not  have  been  expected,  that  he  would  defend  an 
authority,  which  had  been  so  long  exercised  without  contro- 
versy ? 

These  enemies  of  Christianity  were  confounded,  whilst  they 
were  expecting  io  find  an  opportunity  to  betray  its  author. 

His  sea-sickness  was  so  great,  that  I often  feared  he  would 
die  before  our  arrival. 

If  these  persons  had  intended  to  deceive,  they  would  have 
taken  care  to  avoid  what  would  have  exposed  them  to  the  objec- 
tions of  their  opponents. 

It  was  a pleasure  to  receive  his  approbation  of  my  labours ; 
for  which  I cordially  thanked  him. 

It  would  have  afforded  me  still  greater  pleasure,  to  have  re- 
ceived his  approbation  at  an  earlier  period ; but  to  have  received 
it  at  all,  reflected  credit  upon  me. 

To  have  been  censured  by  him,  would  soon  have  proved  an 
insuperable  discouragement. 


Him  portion’d  maids,  apprentic’d  orphans  blest, 
The  young  who  labour,  and  the  old  who  rest. 

“ Laboured  and  rested.^^ 


200  KEY.  Rule  14. 

The  doctor,  in  his  lecture,  said,  that  fever  always  produces 
thirst. 

RULE  XIV. 

See  Vol  1.  p.  192.  Vol.  2.  p.  65. 

Esteeming  themselves  wise,  they  became  fools. 

Suspecting  not  only  you^  but  them  also,  I was  studious  to  avoid 
all  intercourse. 

I could  not  avoid  considering,  in  some  degree,  them  as  ene- 
mies to  me  ; and  him  as  a suspicious  friend. 

From  having  exposed  himself  too  freely  in  different  climates, 
he  entirely  lost  his  health. 


The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xiv. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  192.  Vol.  2.  p.  65.  . 

1.  By  observing  truth,  you  will  command  esteem,  as  well  as 
secure  peace. 

He  prepared  them  for  this  event,  by  sending  to  them  proper 
information. 

A person  may  be  great  or  rich  by  chance ; but  cannot  be 
wise  or  good,  without  taking  pains  for  it. 

Nothing  could  have  made  her  so  unhappy,  as  marrying  a 
man  who  possessed  such  principles.  Or — the  marrying  of  a 
man^  &c. 

The  changing  of  times  and  seasons,  the  removing  and  setting 
up  of  kings,  belong  to  Providence  alone.  Or — changing  times 
and  seasons,  removing  and  setting  up  kings,  &c. 

The  middle  station  of  life  seems  to  be  the  most  advantageously 
situated  for  the  gaining  of  wisdom.  Poverty  turns  our  thoughts 
too  much  upon  the  supplying  of  our  wants  ; and  riches,  upon 
enjoying  our  superfluities.  Or — for  gaining  wisdom — upon  sup- 
plying  our  wants. 

Pliny,  speaking  of  Cato  the  Censor’s  disapproving  of  the 
Grecian  orators,  expressed  himself  thus. 

Propriety  of  pronunciation  is  the  giving  q/*  that  sound  to  every 
word,  which  the  most  polite  usage  of  the  language  appropriates 
to  it.  Or — is  giving  to  every  word  that  sound,  &c.  Or — con- 
sists in  giving  to  every  word  that  sound,  &c. 

Not  attendmg  to  this  rule  was  the  cause  of  a very  common 
error.  Or — want  of  attention  to  this  rule,  &c. 

This  was  in  fact  a converting  of  the  deposite  to  his  own  use. 
Or — in  fact  convei^ting  the  deposite,  &c. 


Rule  14. 


SYNTAX. 


201 


2.  There  will  be  no  danger  of  their  spoiling  of  their  faces,  or 
of  their  gaining  of  converts.  Or — no  danger  of  spoiling  their 
faces,  or  of  gaining  converts.  Or — no  danger  that  they  will  spoil 
their  f aces,  or  gain  converts. 

For  his  avoiding  of  that  precipice,  he  is  indebted  to  his  friend’s 
care.  Or — For  avoiding  that  precipice,  &lc. 

It  was  from  our  misunderstanding  of  the  directions,  that  we 
lost  our  way.  Or — From  misunderstanding  the  directions,  we 
lost  our  way. 

In  tracing  his  history  we  discover  little  that  is  worthy  of  imi- 
tation. 

By  reading  books  written  by  the  best  authors,  his  mind  be- 
came highly  improved. 

3.  By  too  eager  pursuit,  he  ran  a great  risk  of  being  disap- 
pointed. 

He  had  not  long  enjoyed  repose,  before  he  began  to  be  weary 
of  having  nothing  to  do. 

He  was  greatly  heated,  and  drank  with  avidity. 

Though  his  conduct  was,  in  some  respects,  exceptionable,  yet 
he  durst  not  commit  so  great  an  offence,  as  that  which  was  pro- 
posed to  him. 

A second  deluge  learning  thus  o^er-ran ; 

And  the  monks  finish’d  what  the  Goths  began. 

If  some  events  had  not  fallen  out  very  unexpectedly,  I should 
have  been  present. 

He  would  have  gone  with  us,  had  he  been  invited. 

He  returned  the  goods  which  he  had  stolen^  and  made  all  the 
reparation  in  his  power. 

They  have  chosen  the  part  of  honour  and  virtue. 

His  vices  have  weakened  his  mind,  and  broken  his  health. 

He  had  mistaken  his  true  interests,  and  found  himself/or^aAen 
by  his  former  adherents. 

The  bread  that  has  been  eaten  is  soon  forgotten. 

No  contentions  have  arisen  amongst  them,  since  their  recon- 
ciliation. 

The  cloth  had  no  seam,  but  was  woven  throughout. 

The  French  language  is  spoken  in  every  state  in  Europe. 

His  resolution  was  too  strong  to  be  shaken  by  slight  oppo- 
sition. 

He  was  not  much  restrained  afterwards,  having  taken  im- 
proper liberties  at  first. 

He  has  not  yet  worn  off  the  rough  manners,  which  he  brought 
with  him. 

VoL.  II.  26 


202  key.  Rule  15. 

You  who  have  forsaken  your  friends,  are  entitled  to  no  con- 
fidence. 

They  who  have  home  a part  in  the  labour,  shall  share  the  re- 
wards. 

V/hen  the  rules  have  been  wantonly  broken,  there  can  be  no 
plea  for  favour. 

He  writes  as  the  best  authors  would  have  written,  had  they 
written  on  the  same  subject. 

He  heaped  up  great  riches,  but  passed  his  time  miserably. 

He  talked  and  stamped  with  such  vehemence,  that  he  was  sus- 
pected to  be  insane. 


RULE  XV. 

See  VgI.  1.  p.  196.  Vol.  2.  p.  67. 

He  was  not  often  pleasing,  because  he  was  vain. 

William  acted  nobly,  though  he  was  unsuccessful. 

We  may  live  happily,  though  our  possessions  are  small. 

From  whence  we  may  likeioise  date  the  period  of  this  event. 

It  cannot  theref&i^e  be  impertinent  or  ridiculous  to  remon- 
strate. 

He  offered  an  apology,  which  not  being  admitted,  he  became 
submissive. 

These  things  should  never  be  separated. 

Unless  he  have  more  government  of  himself,  he  will  always 
be  discontented. 

No  sovereign  was  ever  so  much  beloved  by  the  people. 

He  was  determined  to  invite  the  king  hack,  and  to  call  his 
friends  together. 

A boy  so  well  educated  gives  great  hopes  to  his  friends. 

He  found  her  not  only  employed,  but  also  pleased  and  tran- 
quil. 

We  should  always  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

It  is  impossible  to  be  at  work  continually. 

The  heavenly  bodies  diVe  perpetually  in  motion. 

Not  having  known,  or  not  having  considered,  the  measures 
proposed,  he  failed  of  success. 

My  opinion  was  given  on  a rather  cursory  perusal  of  the  book. 

It  is  too  common  with  mankind,  to  be  totally  engrossed,  and 
overcome,  by  present  events. 

When  the  Romans  were  pressed  with  a foreign  enemy,  the 
women  voluntarily  contributed  all  their  rings  and  jewels,  to  as- 
sist the  government. 


Rale  16. 


SYNTAX. 


203 


The  following  sentences  exemplify  the  notes  and  observations  under 

RULE  XV. 


See  Vol.  1.  p.  197.  Vol  2.  p.  68. 


1.  They  could  not  persuade  him,  though  they  were  ever  so 
eloquent. 

If  some  person’s  opportunities  were  ever  so  favourable,  they 
would  be  too  indolent  to  improve  them. 

2.  He  drew  up  a petition,  in  which  he  too  freely  represented 
his  own  merits. 

His  follies  had  reduced  him  to  a situation,  in  which  he  had 
much  to  fear,  and  nothing  to  hope. 

It  is  reported  that  the  prince  will  come  hither  to-morrow. 

George  is  active  ; he  walked  thither  in  less  than  an  hour. 

Whither  are  you  all  going  in  such  haste  ? 

Where  have  they  been  since  they  left  the  city  ? 

3.  Charles  left  the  seminary  too  early,  and  from  that  time  he 
has  made  very  little  improvement.  Or — and  has  since  made,  ^c. 

Nothing  is  better  worth  the  time  and  attention  of  young  per- 
sons, than  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  virtue.  . » 

RULE  XVI. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  198.  Vol.  2.  p.  69. 

Neither  riches  nor  honours,  nor  any  such  perishing  goods  can 
satisfy  the  desires  of  an  immortal  spirit. 

Be  honest,  and  take  no  shape  or  semblance  of  disguise. 

We  need  not,  and  we  do  not,  confine  his  operations  to  nar- 
row limits. 

I am  resolved  not  to  comply  with  the  proposal,  either  at 
present,  or  at  any  other  lime. 

There  cannot  he  any  thing  more  insignificant  than  vanity. 

Nothing  ever  aflfected  her  so  much  as  this  misconduct  of  her 
child. 

Do  not  interrupt  me  yourselves,  nor  let  any  one  disturb  my 
retirement.  Or — neither  interrupt  me  yourselves,  nor  let  any 
one,  <^c. 

These  people  do  not  judge  wisely,  nor  take  proper  measures 
to  effect  their  purpose. 

The  measure  is  so  exceptionable,  that  we  cannot  by  any 
means  permit  it. 

I have  received  no  information  on  the  subject,  either  from 
him  or  from  his  friend. 


204 


KEY. 


Rule  17. 


Neither  precept  nor  discipline  is  so  forcible  as  example. 

Neither  the  king  nor  the  queen  was  at  all  deceived  in  the 
business. 

RULE  XVII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  199.  Vol.  2.  p.  69. 

We  are  all  accountable  creatures,  each  for  himself. 

They  willingly,  and  of  themselves,  endeavoured  to  make  up  the 
difference. 

He  laid  the  suspicion  upon  somebody,  I know  not  upon  ivhom, 
in  the  company. 

I hope  it  is  not  I with  whom  he  is  displeased. 

To  poor  us  there  is  not  much  hope  remaining. 

Does  that  boy  know  to  whom  he  speaks  ? To  whom  does  he 
offer  such  language  ? 

It  was  not  with  him  that  they  were  so  angry. 

What  concord  can  subsist  between  those  who  commit  crimes 
and  those  who  abhor  them  ? 

The  person  with  whom  I travelled,  has  sold  the  horse  on  which 
he  rode  during  our  journey.  ’ , 

It  is  not  with  me  he  is  engaged. 

From  whom  did  he  receive  that  intelligence  ? 

The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xvn. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  199.  Vol.  2.  p.  70. 

1.  To  have  no  one  to  whom  we  heartily  wdsh  well,  and  for 
whom  we  are  warmly  concerned,  is  a deplorable  state. 

He  is  a friend  to  whom  I am  highly  indebted. 

2.  On  these  occasions,  the  pronoun  is  governed  by  the  pre- 
ceding word,  and  consequently  agrees  with  it. 

They  were  refused  entrance  into  the  house,  and  forcibly  driven 
from  it, 

3.  We  are  often  disappointed  in  things  which,  before  posses- 
sion, promised  much  enjoyment. 

I have  frequently  desired  their  company,  but  have  always 
hitherto  been  disappointed  of  that  pleasure. 

4.  She  finds  a difficulty  in  fixing  her  mind.  Or — She  finds 
it  difficult  to  fix  her  mind. 

Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation /rom  her  understanding. 


Rule  17. 


SYNTAX. 


205 


There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  of  thirst. 

We  can  fully  confide  in  none  but  the  truly  good. 

I have  no  occasion  ybr  his  services. 

Many  have  profited  hy  good  advice. 

Many  ridiculous  practices  have  been  brought  into  vogue. 

The  error  was  occasioned  by  compliance  with  earnest  en- 
treaty. 

This  is  a principle  in  unison  with  our  nature. 

We  should  entertv^in  no  prejudices  against  simple  and  rustic 
persons. 

They  are  at  present  resolved  on  doing  their  duty.  Or — to  do 
their  duty. 

That  boy  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Idler. 

Though  conformable  to  custom  it  is  not  warrantable. 

This  remark  is  founded  on  truth. 

His  parents  think  of  him,  and  his  improvements,  with  pleas- 
ure and  hope. 

His  excuse  was  admitted  by  his  master. 

What  went  ye  out  to  see  ? 

There  appears  to  have  been  a million  of  men  brought  into 
the  field.  ) 

His  present  was  accepted  by  his  friends. 

More  than  a thousand  men  were  destroyed. 

It  is  my  request  that  he  will  be  particular  in  speaking  on  the 
following  points. 

The  Saxons  reduced  the  greater  part  of  Britain  under  their 
power. 

He  lives  opposite  to  the  Royal  Exchange. 

Their  house  is  situated  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  road. 

The  performance  was  approved  by  all  who  understood  it. 

He  was  accused  of  having  acted  unfairly. 

She  has  an  abhorrence  of  dW  deceitful  conduct. 

They  were  at  some  distance  from  home  when  the  accident 
happened. 

His  deportment  was  adapted  to  conciliate  regard. 

My  father  writes  to  me  very  frequently. 

Their  conduct  was  agreeable  to  their  profession. 

We  went  leisurely  up  stairs,  and  came  hastily  down.  We 
shall  write  above  stairs  this  forenoon,  and  below  stairs  in  the 
afternoon. 

The  politeness  of  the  world  has  the  same  resemblance  to 
benevolence,  that  the  shadow  has  the  substance. 

He  had  a taste /hr  such  studies,  and  pursued  them  earnestly. 

When  we  have  had  a true  taste  of  the  pleasures  of  virtue,  we 
can  have  no  relish /br  those  of  vice. 

How  happy  is  it  to  know  how  to  live  at  times  with  one’s 


206  KEY.  Rule  18. 

self,  to  leave  one’s  self  with  regret,  and  to  find  one's  self  again 
with  pleasure  ! The  world  is  then  less  necessary  to  us. 

Civility  makes  its  way  with  every  kind  of  persons.  Or — 
amongst  all  kinds  of  persons, 

5.  I went  to  London,  after  having  resided  a year  in  France  ; 
and  I now  live  at  Islington. 

They  have  just  landed  at  Hull,  and  are  going  to  Liverpool. 
They  intend  to  reside  some  time  in  Ireland. 


RULE  XVIII. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  204.  Vol.  2.  p.  71. 

Professing  regard,  and  acting  differently,  discover  a base 
mind.  Or — To  profess  regard,  and  to  act  differently,  &c. 

Did  he  not  tell  me  his  fault,  and  entreat  me  to  forgive  him  ? 

My  brother  and  he  are  tolerable  grammarians. 

If  he  understands  the  subject,  and  attends  to  it  industriously, 
he  can  scarcely  fail  of  success. 

You  and  we  enjoy  many  privileges. 

This  excellent  person  appeared  to  be  fully  resigned,  either  to 
live  or  to  die. 

She  and  he  are  very  unhappily  connected. 

To  be  moderate  in  our  views,  and  to  proceed  temperately  in 
the  pursuit  of  them,  is  the  best  way  to  ensure  success. 

On  that  occasion,  he  could  not  have  done  more,  nor  have 
offered  to  do  less. 

Between  him  and  me  there  is  some  disparity  of  years  ; but 
none  between  him  and  her. 

By  forming  themselves  on  fantastic  models,  and  vying  with 
one  another  in  the  reigning  follies,  the  young  begin  with  being 
ridiculous,  and  end  with  being  vicious  and  immoral. 

In  early  life  they  were  headstrong  and  rash,  though  now  they 
are  compliant  and  gentle. 

Can  these  persons  consent  to  such  a proposal,  and  will  they 
consent  to  it  ? 

How  affluent,  and  distinguished  for  talents,  he  is,  and  how 
extensively  useful  he  might  be  ! 

We  have  met  with  many  disappointments  ; and,  if  life  con- 
tinue, we  shall  probably  meet  with  many  more. 

He  might  have  been  happy,  and  now  he  is  fully  convinced 
of  it. 

Virtue  is  praised  by  many,  and  doubtless  she  would  be  de- 
sired also,  if  her  worth  were  really  known. 


Rule  19. 


SYNTAX. 


207 


Though  Charles  was  sometimes  hasty,  yet  he  was  not  often 
ungenerous. 

He  could  command  his  temper,  though  he  certainly  would  not. 
They  may  visit  that  country,  but  unquestionably  they  should 
not  long  remain  there. 


RULE  XIX. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  205.  Vol.  2.  p.  73. 

If  he  acquire  riches  they  will  corrupt  his  mind,  and  be  use- 
less to  others. 

. Though  he  urge  me  yet  more  earnestly,  I shall  not  comply 
unless  he  advance  more  forcible  reasons. 

I shall  walk  in  the  fields  to-day,  unless  it  rain. 

As  the  governess  was  present,  the  children  behaved  properly. 
She  disapproved  the  measure,  because  it  was  very  improper. 
Though  he  is  high,  he  hath  respect  to  the  lowly. 

Though  he  was  her  friend,  he  did  not  attempt  to  justify  her 
conduct. 

, Whether  he  improves  or  not,  I cannot  determine. 

Though  the  fact  is  extraordinary,  it  certainly  did  happen. 
Remember  what  thou  ivast,  and  be  humble. 

O ! that  his  heart  were  tender,  and  susceptible  of  the  woes 
of  others. 


Shall  then  this  verse  to  future  age  pretend, 
Thou  loast  my  guide,  philosopher,  and  friend ! 


The  examples  which  follow,  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  ohserva^ 
tions  under  rule  xix. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  206.  Vol.  2.  p.  73. 

1.  Despise  not  any  condition,  lest  it  happen  to  be  your  own. 

Let  him  that  is  sanguine,  take  heed  lest  he  miscarry. 

Take  care  that  thou  break  not  any  of  the  established  rules. 

If  he  do  but  intimate  his  desire,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce obedience. 

At  the  time  of  his  return,  if  he  be  but  expert  in  his  business, 
he  will  find  employment. 

If  he  does  but  speak  to  display  his  abilities  he  is  unworthy 
of  attention. 


208 


KEY. 


Rule  19. 


If  he  is  but  in  health,  I am  content. 

If  he  do  promise,  he  will  certainly  perform. 

Though  he  does  praise  her,  it  is  only  for  her  beauty. 

If  thou  do  not  forgive,  perhaps  thou  wilt  not  be  forgiven. 

If  thou  dost  sincerely  believe  the  truths  of  religion,  act 
accordingly. 


2.  His  confused  behaviour  made  it  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  he  was  guilty. 

He  is  so  conscious  of  deserving  the  rebuke  that  he  dates  not 
make  any  reply. 

His  apology  was  so  plausible,  that  many  befriended  him,  and 
thought  he  was  innocent. 

3.  If  one  man  prefers  a life  of  industry,  it  is  because  he  has 
an  idea  of  comfort  in  wealth  ; if  another  prefers  a life  of  gaiety, 
it  is  from  a like  idea  concerning  pleasure. 

No  one  engages  in  that  business,  unless  he  aims^i  reputation, 
or  hopes  for  some  singular  advantage. 

Though  the  design  is  laudable,  and  is  favourable  to  our  inter- 
est, it  will  involve  much  anxiety  and  labour. 

4.  Unless  he  learn  faster  he  will  be  no  scholar. 

Though  he he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down. 

On  condition  that  he  come^  I will  consent  to  stay. 

However  that  affair  terminate,  my  conduct  will  be  unim- 
peachable. Or — may  terminate. 

If  virtue  reward  us  not  so  soon  as  we  desire,  the  payment 
will  be  made  with  interest. 

Till  repentance  compose  his  mind,  he  will  be  a stranger  to 
peace. 

Whether  he  confess  -or  not,  the  truth  will  certainly  be  dis- 
covered. 

If  thou  censure  uncharitably,  thou  wilt  be  entitled  to  no 
favour. 

Though  at  times,  the  ascent  to  the  temple  of  virtue  appear 
steep  and  craggy,  be  not  discouraged.  Persevere  until  thou 
gain  the  summit ; there,  all  is  order,  beauty,  and  pleasure. 

If  Charlotte  desires  to  gain  esteem  and  love,  she  does  not 
employ  the  proper  means. 

Unless  the  accountant  deceives  me,  my  estate  is  considerably 
improved. 

Though  self-government  some  uneasiness,  it  is  light, 

when  compared  w ith  the  pain  of  vicious  indulgence. 

Whether  he  thinks  as  he  speaks,  time  will  discover. 


Rule  19. 


SYNTAX. 


209 


If  thou  censurest  uncharitably,  thou  deservest  no  favour. 

Though  virtue  appears  severe,  she  is  truly  amiable. 

Though  success  is  very  doubtful,  it  is  proper  that  he  endeavour 
to  succeed.  Or — he  should  endeavour^  &c. 

5.  If  thou  hast  promised,  be  faithful  to  thy  engagement. 

Though  he  has  proved  his  right  to  submission,  he  is  too 

generous  to  exact  it. 

Unless  he  has  improved,  he  is  unfit  for  the  office. 

6.  If  thou  hadst  succeeded,  perhaps  thou  wouldst  not  be  the 
happier  for  it. 

Unless  thou  shall  see  the  propriety  of  the  measure,  we  shall 
not  desire  thy  support. 

Though  thou  wilt  not  acknowledge,  thou  canst  not  deny  the 
fact. 

7.  If  thou  gavest  liberally,  thou  wilt  receive  a liberal  reward. 

Though  thou  didst  injure  him,  he  harbours  no  resentment. 

It  would  be  well,  if  the  report  werQ  only  the  misrepresenta- 
tion of  her  enemies. 

Were  he  ever  so  great  and  opulent,  this  conduct  would 
debase  him. 

Were  I to  enumerate  all  her  virtues,  it  Would  look  like  flattery. 

Though  I were  perfect,  yet  would  I not  presume. 

8.  If  thou  mayst  share  in  his  labours,  be  thankful,  and  do  it 
cheerfully. 

Unless  thou  canst  fairly  support  the  cause,  give  it  up  honour- 
ably. 

Though  thou  mightst  have  foreseen  the  danger,  thou  couldst 
not  have  avoided  it. 

If  thou  couldst  convince  him,  he  would  not  act  accordingly. 

If  thou  wouldst  improve  in  knowledge,  be  diligent. 

Unless  thou  shouldst  make  a timely  retreat,  the  danger  will 
be  unavoidable. 

I have  laboured  and  wearied  myself,  that  thou  mayst  be  at  ease. 

He  enlarged  on  those  dangers,  that  thou  shouldst  avoid  them. 

9.  Neither  the  cold  nor  the  fervid,  but  characters  uniformly 
warm,  are  formed  for  friendship. 

They  are  both  praise-worthy,  and  one  is  as  deserving  as  the 
other.  Or — and  equally  deserving. 

He  is  not  so  diligent  and  learned  as  his  brother. 

VoL.  II.  27 


210  KEY.  Rule  19^ 

I will  either  present  it  to  him  myself,  or  direct  it  to  be  given 
to  him. 

Neither  despise  nor  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

The  house  is  not  so  commodious  as  we  expected  it  would  be. 

I must,  however,  be  so  candid  as  to  own  that  I have  been 
mistaken. 

There  was  something  so  amiable,  and  yet  so  piercing  in  his 
look,  that  it  affected  me  at  once  with  love  and  terror. 

“ I gain’d  a son  ; 

And  such  a son,  that  all  men  hail’d  me  happy.” 

The  dog  in  the  manger  would  neither  eat  the  hay  himself  nor 
suffer  the  ox  to  eat  it. 

So  far  as  I am  able  to  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

We  should  either  faithfully  perform  the  trust  committed  to  us, 
or  ingenuously  relinquish  the  charge. 

He  is  not  so  eminent,  and  so  much  esteemed  as  he  thinks 
himself  to  be. 

The  work  is  a dull  performance  ; and  is  incapable  of  pleasing 
neither  the  understanding,  nor  the  imagina;tion. 

There  is  no  condition  so  secure,  as  not  to  admit  of  change. 

This  is  an  event  which  nobody  presumes  upon,  or  is  so 
sanguine  as  to  hope  for. 

We  are  generally  pleased  with  any  little  accomplishments 
either  of  body  or  of  mind. 

10.  Be  ready  to  succour  such  persons  as  need  your  assistance. 
Or — those  persons  who  need,  &c. 

The  matter  was  no  sooner  proposed,  than  he  privately  with- 
drew to  consider  it. 

He  has  too  much  sense  and  prudence  to  become  a dupe  to 
such  artifices. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  our  conduct,  so  far  as  it  respects 
others,  appears  to  be  exceptionable. 

The  resolution  was  not  the  less  fixed,  though  the  secret  was 
communicated  to  very  few. 

He  opposed  the  most  remarkable  corruptions  of  the  church 
of  Rome ; and,  on  this  account,  his  doctrines  were  embraced 
by  great  numbers. 

He  gained  nothing  further  by  his  speech,  than  to  be  com- 
mended for  his  eloquence.  Or — nothing  hy  his  speech  hut 
commendation  for  his  eloquence. 

He  has  little  more  of  the  scholar  than  the  name. 

He  has  little  of  the  scholar  hut  the  name.  Or — besides  the 
name. 


Rule  20. 


SYNTAX. 


211 


They  had  no  sooner  risen^  than  they  applied  themselves  to 
their  studies. 

From  no  other  institution,  than  the  admirable  one  of  juries, 
could  so  great  a benefit  be  expected. 

Those  savage  people  seemed  to  have  no  other  element  than 
war.  Or — no  element  hut  that  of  war. 

Such  men  as  act  treacherously  ought  to  be  avoided.  Or — 
The  men  who  act  treacherously,  &c. 

Germany  ran  the  same  risk  that  Italy  had  done. 

No  errors  are  so  trivial  that  they  do  not  deserve  to  be  cor- 
rected*. Or — as  not  to  deserve  amendment.  ^ 

RULE  XX. 

See  Vol.  I.  p.  214.  Vol  2.  p.  77. 

In  some  respects,  we  have  had  as  many  advantages  as  they ; 
but  in  the  article  of  a good  library,  they  have  had  a greater 
privilege  than  we  have  had. 

The  undertaking  was  much  better  executed  by  his  brother 
than  hy  him. 

They  are  much  greater  gainers  than  / am  by  this  unexpected 
event. 

They  know  how  to  write  as  well  as  he  does;  but  he  is  a much 
better  grammarian  than  they  are. 

Though  she  is  not  so  learned  as  he  is,  she  is  as  much  beloved 
and  respected. 

These  people,  though  they  possess  more  shining  qualities,  are 
not  so  proud  as  he  is,  nor  so  vain  as  she. 

The  following  examples  are  adapted  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xx. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  214.  Vol.  2^  p.  77. 

1.  Who  betrayed  her  companion  ? Not  I. 

Who  revealed  the  secrets  he  ought  to  have  concealed? 
Not  he. 

Who  related  falsehoods  to  screen  himself,  and  to  bring  an 
odium  upon  others  ? Not  I;  it  was  she. 

There  is  but  one  in  fault,  and  that  is  I.  Or — myself. 

Whether  he  will  be  learned  or  not,  must  depend  on  his  appli- 
cation. 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  than  whom  a more  courageous  per- 
son never  lived,  appears  to  have  been  destitute  of  the  tender 
sensibilities  of  nature. 

Salmasius  (and  a more  learned  man  than  he  has  seldom  ap- 
peared) was  not  happy  at  the  close  of  life. 


212 


KEY. 


Rule  21. 


RULE  XXL 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  217.  Tol.  2.  p.  78. 

I gladly  shunned  him  who  gladly  fled  from  me. 

And  this  is  that  which  men  mean  by  distributive  justice,  and 
which  is  properly  termed  equity. 

His  honour,  his  interest,  ins  religion,  were  all  embarked  in 
this  undertaking. 

When  so  good  a man  as  Socrates  fell  a victim  to  the  madness 
of  the  people,  truth,  and  virtue,  and  religion  fell  with  him. 

Neither  the  fear  of  death,  nor  the  hope  of  life,  could  make 
him  submit  to  a dishonest  action. 

An  elegant  house  and  much  costly  furniture  were,  by  this 
event,  irrecoverably  lost  to  the  owner. 

The  examples  which  follow  are  suited  to  the  notes  and  observations 
under  rule  xxi. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  217.  Vol.  2.  p.  78. 

1.  These  rules  are  addressed  to  none  but  the  intelligent  and 
attentive. 

The  gay  and  pleasing  are,  sometimes,  the  most  insidious  and 
dangerous  companions. 

Old  age  will  prove  a joyless  and  dreary  season,  if  we  arrive 
at  it  with  an  unimproved,  or  a corrupted  mind. 

The  more  I see  of  his  conduct,  the  better  I like  him. 

It  is  not  only  the  duty,  but  the  interest  of  young  persons,  to 
be  studious  and  diligent. 

2.  These  counsels  were  the  dictates  of  virtue  and  of  true 
honour. 

Avarice  and  cunning  may  acquire  an  estate  ; but  they  cannot 
gain  friends. 

A taste  for  useful  knowledge,  will  provide  far  us  a great  and 
noble  entertainment,  when  other  entertainments  leave  us. 

Without  firmness,  nothing  that  is  great  can  be  undertaken ;; 
nothing  that  is  difficult  or  hazardous,  can  be  accomplished. 

The  anxious  man  is  the  votary  of  riches  ; the  negligent  man, 
that  of  pleasure. 

3.  His  crimes  had  brought  him  into  extreme  distress  and 
perplexity. 

He  has  an  affectionate  brother  and  sister ; and  they  live  in 
great  harmony. 


Rule  2L 


SYNTAX. 


213 


We  must  guard  against  too  great  severity,  and  too  great  fa- 
cility of  manners. 

We  should  often  recollect  what  the  wisest  men  have  said  and 
written,  concerning  human  happiness  and  human  vanity. 

That  species  of  commerce  will  produce  great  gain  or  great 
loss. 

Many  days,  and  even  many  weeks,  pass  away  unimproved. 

This  wonderful  action  struck  the  beholders  with  exceedingly 
great  astonishment.  Or — with  very  great,  &c. 

The  people  of  this  country  possess  a healthful  climate  and  a 
fruitful  soil. 

They  enjoy  also  a free  constitution  and excellentXdisvs. 

4.  His  reputation  and  estate  were  both  lost  by  gaming. 

This  intelligence  excited  not  only  our  hopes  but  our  fears. 

His  conduct  is  not  scandalous ; and  this  is  the  best  that  can 

be  said  of  it. 

This  was  the  person  whom  calumny  had  greatly  abused,  and 
who  sustained  the  injustice  with  singular  patience. 

He  discovered  some  qualities  in  the  youth,  of  a disagreeable 
nature,  and  which  to  him  were  wholly  unaccountable. 

The  captain  had  several  men  who  died  in  his  ship  of  the 
scurvy. 

He  is  not  only  sensible  and  learned,  but  he  is  religious  too. 

The  Chinese  language  contains  an  immense  number  of 
words ; and  he  who  would  learn  them  must  possess  a great 
memory. 

By  presumption  and  vanity,  we  provoke  enmity,  and  incur 
contempt. 

In  the  circumstances  in  whicl\  I was  at  that  time,  my  troubles 
pressed  heavily  upon  me. 

He  has  destroyed  his  constitution,  by  the  very  same  errors 
hy  which  many  have  been  destroyed.  Or — same  errors  that 
have  destroyed  so  many, 

5.  He  is  temperate,  disinterested,  and  benevolent,  an  orna- 
ment to  his  family,  and  a credit  to  his  professsion. 

Genuine  virtue  supposes  our  benevolence  to  be  strengthened, 
and  confirmed  by  principle. 

Perseverance  in  laudable  pursuits,  will  reward  all  our  toils,, 
and  produce  effects  beyond  our  calculation. 

It  is  happy  for  us,  when  we  can  calmly  and  deliberately  look 
back  on  the  past,  and  anticipate  the  future. 

The  sacrifices  of  virtue  will  not  only  be  rewarded  hereafter,, 
but  they  will  he  recompensed  even  in  this  life. 


214 


KEY. 


Rule  21. 


All  those  who  were  possessed  of  any  office,  resigned  their 
former  commission.  Or — all  who  were  possessed,  &c. 

If  young  persons  were  determined  to  conduct  themselves 
by  the  rules  of  virtue,  not  only  Would  they  escape  innumerable 
dangers,  but  they  would  command  respect  from  the  licentious 
themselves. 

Charles  was  a man  of  learning,  knowledge,  and  benevolence  ; 
and  what  is  still  more,  he  was  a true  Christian. 

6.  The  temper  of  him  who  is  always  in  the  bustle  of  the  world, 
will  often  be  ruffied  and  disturbed. 

We  often  commend  as  well  as  censure  imprudently. 

How  a seed  grows  up  into  a tree,  and  how  the  mind  acts  upon 
the  body,  are  mysteries  which  we  cannot  explain. 

Verity,  there  is  a reward  for  the  righteous  ! Verily  there  is 
a God  that  judgeth  in  the  earth. 

7.  Changes  are  almost  continually  taking  place  in  men  and 
manners,  in  opinions  and  customs,  in  private  fortunes  and  in 
public  conduct. 

Averse  either  to  contradict  or  to  blame,  the  the  complaisant 
man  goes  along  with  the  manners  that  prevail. 

By  this  habitual  indelicacy,  the  virgins  smiled  at  what  they 
blushed  at  before. 

They  are  now  reconciled  to  what  they  could  not  formerv 
prompted  to  by  any  considerations. 

Censure  is  the  tax  which  a man  pays  to  the  public  for  being 
eminent. 

Reflect  on  the  state  of  human  life,  and  on  the  society  of  men, 
as  mixed  with  good  and  evil. 

8.  In  all  stations  and  conditions,  the  important  relations  take 
place,  of  masters  and  servants,  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and 
children,  brothers  and  friends,  citizens  and  subjects. 

Destitute  of  principle,  he  regarded  neither  his  family,  his 
friends,  nor  his  reputation. 

Religious  persons  are  often  unjustly  represented  as  persons  of 
romantic  character,  and  of  visionary  notions  : unacquainted  with 
the  world,  and  unfit  to  live  in  it. 

No  rank,  nor  station,  no  dignity  of  birth,  nor  any  posses- 
sions, exempt  men  from  contributing  their  share  to  public 
utility. 

9.  Oh,  my  father  ! my  friend  ! how  great  has  been  my  ingra- 
titude. 


Rule  22. 


SYNTASK. 


215 


Oh,  piety ! Oh  virtue ! how  insensible  have  I been  to  your 
charms  ! 

10.  That  is  a property  which  most  men  have,  or  which  at 
least  they  may  attain. 

Why  do  ye  that,  which  it  is  not  lawful  to  do  on  the  sabbath 
days  ? Or — to  do  which  is  not  lawful^  &c. 

The  showbread,  which  it  is  not  lawful  to  eat,  but  for  the 
priests  only.  Or — to  eat  which  is  not  lawful,  but,  &c. 

Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  royal  family,  had  quitted  the  place. 

By  these  happy  labours,  they  who  sow,  and  they  who  reap, 
will  rejoice  together. 


RULE  XXll. 

See  Vol.  1.  p.  222.  Vol.  2.  p.  81. 

The  work  has  received  several  alterations  and  additions. 

The  first  proposal  was  inferior  to  the  second,  and  essentially 
different  from  it. 

He  is  more  bold  and  active,  than  his  companion,  but  not  so 
wise  and  studious. 

We  hear  the  sound  of  the  wind,  but  we  cannot  tell  whence 
it  cometh  nor  whither  it  goeth. 

Neither  has  he,  nor  have  any  other  persons,  suspected  so 
much  dissimulation. 

The  court  of  France,  or  that  of  England,  was  to  be  the 
umpire. 

the  reign  of  Henry  H.  all  foreign  commodities  plen- 
tiful in  England.  Or — In  the  reign,  &c.  there  was  plenty  of,  &c. 

There  is  no  talent  more  useful  towards  success  in  busines,  or 
which  puts  men  more  out  of  the  reach  of  accidents,  than  that 
quality  generally  possessed  by  persons  of  cool  temper,  and 
which  is,  in  common  language  called  discretion.  Or — no  talent 
so  useful,  &c.  or  which  puts  men  so  much  out  of  the  reach,  &c. 
as  that  quality,  &c. 

The  first  project  was  to  shorten  discourse,  by  poly- 

syllables to  words  of  one  syllable, 

I shall  do  all  I can,  to  persuade  others  to  take  the  same 
measures  for  their  cure  which  I have  taken, 

Tlie  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ  among  them- 
selves, Or — do  not  always  harmonize, 

Micaiah  said,  “ If  thou  return  in  peace,  then  the  Lord  hath 
not  spoken  by  me.” 

I do  not  suppose  that  we  Britons  want  genius,  more  than  our 
neighbours. 


216  KEY.  Rule  22. 

The  deaf  man,  whose  ears  were  opened,  and  whose  tongue 
was  loosened,  doubtless  glorified  the  great  Physician. 

Groves,  fields,  and  meadows,  are  at  any  season  of  the  year, 
pleasant  to  look  upon ; but  never  so  much  so  as  in  the  opening 
of  the  spring.  Or — hut  never  so  agreeable  as  in  the  opening 
of  the  spring. 

The  multitude  rebuked  them,  that  they  should  hold  their 
peace.  Or — that  they  might  be  silent. 

The  intentions  of  some  of  these  philosophers,  nay,  of  many, 
might  have  been,  and  probably  were  good. 

The  wonderful  civilities  which  have  passed  between  the  nation 
of  authors  and  that  of  readers,  are  unanswerable  argument, 
of  a very  refined  age. 

It  was  an  unsuccessful  undertaking : the  failure  of  which  is, 
however,  no  objection  at  all  to  an  enterprise  so  well  concerted. 

The  reward  is  his  due,  and  it  has  already  been,  or  it  will  here- 
after be,  given  to  him.  Or — already  been  given  to  him,  or  it 
will  be  hereafter  bestowed. 

By  intercourse  with  wise  and  experienced  persons,  who 
know  the  world,  we  may  improve  a private  and  retired  educa- 
tion, and  rub  off  its  rust. 

Sincerity  is  as  valuable  as  knowledge,  and  even  more  valuable. 

No  person  was  ever  so  perplexed,  as  he  has  been  to-day,  or 
sustained  mortifications. 

The  Romans  gave,  not  only  the  freedom  of  the  city,  but 
capacity  for  employments,  to  the  inhabitants  of  several  towns 
in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Germany. 

Such  writers  have  no  standard  on  which  to  form  themselves, 
except  what  chances  to  be  fashionable  and  popular.  Or — have 
no  other  standard,  &c.  than  that  which  chances,  &c. 

Whatever  we  do  secretly,  shall  be  displayed  in  the  clearest 
light. 

To  the  happiness  of  possessing  a person  of  so  uncommon 
merit,  Boethius  soon  joined  the  satisfaction  of  obtaining  the 
highest  honour  his  country  could  bestow.  Or — joined  that  of 
obtaining,  &c. 


( 217  y 


CHAPTER  11. 


CONTAINING  CORRECTIONS  OF  THE  FALSE  SYNTAX,  PROMIS- 
CUOUSLY DISPOSED. 


SECTION  I. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  83. 

Though  great  have  been  his  disobedience  and  folly,  yet  if  he 
sincerely  a^nowledge  his  misconduct,  he  will  be  forgiven. 

On  these  causes  depends  all  the  happiness  or  misery,  which 
exists  among  men. 

The  property  of  James,  I mean  his  books  and  furniture,  was 
wholly  destroyed. 

This  prodigy  of  learning,  this  scholar,  critic,  and  antiquarian, 
was  entirely  destitute  of  breeding  and  civility. 

That  writer  has  given  an  account  of  the  rnanner,  in  w^hich 
Christianity  was  formerly  propagated  among  the  heathens. 

We  adore  the  Divine  Being,  Him  vv^ho  Js  from  eternity  to 
eternity. 

Thou,  Lord,  who  hast  permitted  affliction  to  come  upon  us 
wilt  deliver  us  from  it,  in  due  time. 

In  this  place,  there  was  not  only  security,  but  an  abundance 
of  provisions. 

By  these  attainments  the  master  is  honoured,  and  the  scholars 
are  encouraged. 

The  sea  appeared  to  be  agitated  more  than  usual.  Or — un- 
usually agitated. 

Not  one  in  fifty  of  those  who  call  themselves  deists,  under- 
stands the  nature  of  the  religion  which  he  rejects. 

Virtue  and  mutual  confidence  are  the  soul  of  friendship. 
Where  these  are  w^anting,  disgust  or  hatred  often  follows  little 
differences. 

Time  and  chance  happen  to  all  men  ; but  every  person  does 
not  consider  who  governs  those  powerful  causes. 

The  active  mind  of  man  seldom  or  never  rests  satisfied  with 
its  present  condition,  how  prosperous  soever  it  may  he. 

Habits  must  be  acquired  of  temperance  and  self-denial,  that 
we  may  be  able  to  resist  pleasure,  and  to  endure  pain,  when 
either  of  them  interferes  with  our  duty. 

VoL.  II.  28 


218 


KEY. 


Promiscuous. 


The  error  of  resting  wholly  on  faith,  or  wholly  on  works,  is 
one  of  those  seductions  which  most  easily  mislead  men  ; under 
the  semblance  of  piety,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  virtue  on  the 
other. 

It  was  no  exaggerated  tale;  for  she  was  really  in  that  sad 
condition  in  lohich  her  friend  had  represented  her. 

An  presents  a painful  sight  to  a feeling  mind. 

The  enemies  whom  we  have  most  to  fear,  are  those  of  our 
own  hearts. 

Thou  art  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  who  was  come  into 
the  world,  and  loho  has  been  so  long  promised  and  desired. 

Thomas's  disposition  is  better  than  his  brother's;  (or  than  that 
of  his  brother ;)  and  he  appears  to  be  the  happier  but  some 
degree  of  trouble  is  al!  men's  portion. 

Though  remorse  sometimes  sleeps  during  prosperity,  it  will 
surely  awake  in  adversity. 

It  is  an  invariable  law  of  our  present  condition,  that  every 
pleasure  which  is  pursued  to  excess,  converts  itself  into  poison. 

If  a man  bring  into  the  solitary  retreat  of  age,  a vacant,  an 
unimproved  mind,  in  which  no  knowledge  dawns,  no  ideas  rise, 
ami  which  supplies  him  with  nothing  to  feed  upon  within  him’- 
self  many  a heavy  and  comfortless  day  he  must  necessarily 
pass. 

I cannot  yield  to  so  dishonourable  conduct,  either  at  the  pres- 
ent moment  of  difficulty,  or  under  any  circumstance  whatever. 

Themistocles  concealed  the  enterprises  of  Pausanias,  either 
because  he  thought  it  base  to  betray  the  secrets  trusted  to  his 
confidence,  or  because  he  imagined  it  impossible  for  schemes  so 
dangerous  and  ill-concerted,  to  take  effect. 

Pericles  gained  such  an  ascendant  over  the  minds  of  the  Athe- 
nians, that  it  may  be  said  he  attained  monarchical  power  in 
Athens. 

Christ  applauded  the  liberality  of  the  poor  widow  whom  he 
saw  casting  her  two  mites  into  the  treasury. 

A multiplicity  of  little  kind  offices,  in  persons  frequently  con- 
versant with  each  other,  are  the  bands  of  society  and  friendship. 

To  do  good  to  them  that  hate  us,  and,  on  no  occasion  to  seek 
revenge,  are  the  duties  of  a Christian.  - 

If  a man  professes  a regard  for  the  duties  of  religion,^nd  ne- 
glects those  of  morality,  that  n)an’s  religion  is  vain. 

Affluence  may  give  us  respect,  in  the  eyes  of  the  vulgar,  but 
it  will  not  recommend  us  to  the  wise  and  good. 

The  polite,  accomplished  libertine,  is  miserable  amidst  all  his 
pleasures  : the  rude  inhabitant  of  Lapland  is  happier  than  he  is. 

The  cheerful  and  gay,  when  warmed  by  pleasure  and  mirth, 
lose  that  sobriety  and  self  denial,  which  are  essential  to  the  sup- 
port of  virtue. 


Promiscuous, 


SYNTAX. 


219 


SECTION  II. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  85. 

There  was,  in  the  metropolis  much  to  amuse  them,  as  well  as 
many  things  to  excite  disgust. 

How  much  are  real  virtue  and  merit  exposed  to  suffer  the 
hardships  of  a stormy  life  ? 

This  is  one  of  the  duties  which  recjuire  peculiar  circumspec- 
tion. 

A higher  degree  of  happiness  than  that  which  I have  described, 
seldom  falls  to  the  lot  of  mortals. 

There  are  principles  in  man,  which  ever  have  inclined,  and 
which  ever  will  incline  him  to  offend. 

Whence  has  arisen  so  gYQdX  a variety  of  opinions  and  tenets  in 
religion  ? 

Its  stature  is  less  than  that  of  a man : but  its  strength  and 
agility  are  much  greater. 

Them  that  honour  me,  I will  honour. 

He  summons  me  to  attend,  and  I must  summon  the  others. 

Then  did  the  officer  lay  hold  of  him  and  execute  him  imme- 
diately. Or — The  officer  then  laid  hold-  of  him,  and  executed 
him  immediately. 

Who  is  that  person  whom  I saw  you  introduce,  and  present 
to  the  duke  ? 

I offer  observations  which  a long  and  chequered  pilgrimage 
has  enabled  me  to  make  on  man. 

Every  church  and  sect  of  people  has  a set  of  opinions  peculiar 
to  itself. 

Mayst  thou  as  well  as  I,  be  meek,  patient,  and  forgiving. 

These  men  were  under  high  obligations  to  adhere  to  their 
friend  in  every  situation  of  life. 

After  I had  visited  Europe,  I returned  to  America. 

Their  example,  their  influence,  their  fortune,  every  talent 
they  possess,  dispense  blessings  on  all  around  them. 

When  a string  of  such  sentences  occurs,  the  effect  is  disagree- 
able. 

I was  lately  at  Gibraltar,  and  saw  the  commander  in  chief. 

Propriety  of  pronunciation  consists  in  giving  to  every  word 
that  sound  which  the  most  polite  usage  of  the  language  appro- 
priates to  it. 

The  book  is  printed  very  neatly  and  on  fine  woven  paper. 

M.any  of  the  fables  of  the  ancients  are  highly  instructive. 

He  resembles  one  of  those  solitary  animals,  that  have  been 
forced  from  their  forests,  to  gratify  human  curiosity. 


320  KEY.  Promiscuous. 

There  neither  is,  nor  ought  to  be,  such  a thing  as  constructive 
treason. 

He  is  a new-created  knight  and  his  dignity  sits  awkwardly  on 
him. — Or — a newly  created  night,  &c. 

Hatred  or  revenge  deserves  censure,  wherever  it  is  found  to 
exist. 

If  you  please  to  employ  your  thoughts  on  that  subject,  you 
will  easily  conceive  our  miserable  condition. 

His  speech  contains  one  of  the  grossest  and  most  infamous 
calumnies  that  ever  were  uttered. 

Too  great  cz  variety  of  studies  dissipates  and  weakens  the  mind. 

Each  of  those  two  authors  has  his  merit. 

James  was  resolved  not  to  indulge  himself  in  so  cruel  an 
amusement. 

The  want  of  attention  to  this  rule,  is  the  source  of  a very  com- 
mon error.  Or — Vfant  of  attention,  &c. 

Calumny  and  detraction  are  sparks,  which,  if  you  do  not  blow 
them,  will  go  out  of  themselves. 

Clelia  is  a vain  woman,  who,  if  we  do  not  flatter  her,  will  be 
disgusted.  \ 

That  celebrated  work  had  been  nearly  ten  years  published, 
before  its  importance  was  at  all  understood. 

Ambition  is  insatiable  : it  will  make  any  sacrifices  to  attain 
its  objects. 

A great  mass  of  rocks  thrown  together  by  the  hand  of  nature 
with  wildness  and  confusion,  strikes  the  mind  with  more  gran- 
deur, than  if  the  parts  had  been  adjusted  to  one  another  with 
the  most  accurate  symmetry. 

SECTION  III. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  87. 


He  showed  a spirit  of  forgiveness,  and  a magnanimity,  that  do 
honour  to  human  nature. 

Them  that  honour  me,  I will  honour ; and  they  that  despise 
me  shall  be  lightly  esteemed. 

Reason’s  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense, 

Lie  in  three  words,  health,  peace,  and  competence. 

Having  thus  begun  to  throw  off  the  restraint  of  reason,  he 
was  soon  hurried  into  deplorable  excesses. 

These  arts  have  enlightened  many  minds ; and  they  will  en- 
lighten every  person  who  shall  attentively  study  them. 


Promiscuous, 


SYNTAX. 


221 


When  we  succeed  in  our  plans,  it  is  not  always  to  be  attrib- 
uted to  ourselves  : the  aid  of  others  often  promotes  the  end,  and 
claims  our  acknowledgment. 

Their  intentions  were  good ; but  wanting  prudence,  they 
missed  the  mark  at  which  they  aimed. 

I have  not  consented,  nor  shall  / consent  to  a proposal  so 
unjust. 

We  have  subjected  ourselves  to  much  expense,  that  thou 
mayst  be  well  educated. 

This  treaty  was  made  at  the  castle  of  earl  Moreton,  the  gov-- 
ernor. . 

Be  especially  careful,  that  thou  give  no  offence  to  the  aged 
or  helpless. 

The  business  was  no  sooner  opened,  than  it  was  cordially 
acquiesced  in. 

On  account,  of  his  general  conduct,  he  deserved  punishment 
as  much  as  his  companion,  and,  indeed,  deserved  it  more.  He 
left  a son  of  a singular  character,  and  who  behaved  so  ill  that  he 
was  put  in  prison. 

If  he  do  but  approve  my  endeavours,  it  will  be  an  ample  reward. 

I hope  you  will  do  me  the  favour  to  accept  a copy  of  “ A view 
of  the  manufactories  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire^ 

I had  intended  to  write  the  letter  before  he  urged  me  to  it ; 
and,  therefore,  he  has  not  all  the  merit  of  it. 

All  the  power  of  ridicule,  aided  by  the  desertion  of  friends, 
and  the  diminution  of  his  estate,  was  not  able  to  shake  his 
principles. 

In  his  conduct  was  treachery,  and  in  his  words  were  faithless 
professions. 

Though  the  measure  is  mysterious,  it  is  worthy  of  attention. 

Be  solicitous  to  aid  such  deserving  persons  as  appear  to  be 
destitute  of  friends. 

Ignorance,  or  the  want  of  light,  produces  sensuality,  covet- 
ousness, and  those  violent  contests  with  others  about  trifles, 
which  occasion  so  much  misery,  and  so  many  crimes  in  the  world. 

He  will  one  day  reap  the  reward  of  his  labour,  if  he  he  dili- 
gent and  attentive.  Till  that  period  come,  let  him  be  contented 
and  patient. 

To  the  resolutions  which  we  have  once,  upon  due  considera- 
tion, adopted  as  rules  of  conduct,  let  us  firmly  adhere. 

He  has  little  more  of  the  great  man  than  the  title. 

Though  he  were  my  superior  in  knowledge,  he  would  not 
thence  have  a right  to  impose  his  sentiments. 

That  picture  of  the  emperor  is  a very  exact  resemblance  of 
him. 


222 


KEY. 


Promiscuous, 


How  happy  are  the  virtuous  who  can  rest  under  the  protection 
of  that  powerful  arm,  which  made  the  earth  and  the  heavens  ! 

Prosperity  and  adversity  may  equally  improved:  both  the 
one  and  the  other  proceed  from  the  same  author. 

He  acted  conformably  to  his  instructions,  and  c^moi  justly 
be  censured. 

The  orators  did  not  forget  to  enlarge  on  so  popular  a subject. 

The  language  of  Divine  Providence  to  every  human  agent, 
is,  ‘‘  Hitherto  shalt  thou  come  and  no  farther.” 

Idle  persons  imagine,  that  how  deficient  soever  they  may  he 
in  point  of  duty,  they  at  least  consult  their  own  satisfaction. 

Good  as  the  cause  is,  it  is  one  from  which  numbers  have 
deserted. 

The  man  is  prudent  speaks  little. 


SECTION  IV. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  S8. 


He  acted  independently  of  foreign  assistance. 

Every  thing  that  we  here  enjoy,  changes,  decays,  and  comes 
to  an  end.  All  floats  on  the  surface  of  that  river,  which  with 
swift  current,  is  running  towards  a boundless  ocean. 

The  winter  has  not  been  so  severe  as  we  expected  it  to  he. 
Or — expected  it  would  he,  ^ 

Temperance,  more  than  medicines,  is  the  proper  means  of 
curing  many  diseases. 

They  understand  the  practical  part  better  than  he  does ; but 
he  is  much  better  acquainted  with  the  theory  than  they  are. 

When  we  have  once  drawn  the  line,  with  intelligence  and 
precision,  between  duty  and  sin,  that  line  we  ought  on  no 
occasion  to  transgress. 

They  who  are  distinguished  by  extraordinary  talents,  have 
extraordinary  duties  to  perform. 

No  person  could  speak  7nore  strongly  on  this  subject,  or  behave 
more  nohly,  than  our  young  advocate  for  the  cause  of  toleration. 

His  conduct  was  so  provoking,  that  many  will  condemn  him, 
and  few  will  pity  him. 

The  peoples  happiness  is  the  statesman's  honour. 

We  are  in  a perilous  situation.  On  the  one  side,  and  on  the 
other,  dangers  meet  us  ; and  either  extreme  will  be  pernicious 
to  virtue. 

Several  pictures  of  the  Sardinian  king's  were  transmitted  to 


Promiscuous, 


SYNTAX. 


223 


France.  Or — Several  of  the  Sardinian  hinges  pictures,  &c. 
Or — Several  pictures  belonging  to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  &c. 

When  I last  saw  him,  he  ivas  grown  considerably. 

If  we  consult  either  the  improvement  of  the  mind,  or  the  health 
of  the  body,  it  is  well  known  that  exercise  is  the  great  instrument 
of  promoting  both. 

If  it  were  they  who  acted  so  ungratefully,  they  are  doubly  in 
fau-t.  Or — If  they  acted,  &c. 

Whether  Vvcixxe promote  our  interest  or  not,  w^e  must  adhere  to 
her  dictates. 

We  should  be  studious  to  avoid  too  much  indulgence,  as  well 
as  too  much  restraint  in  our  management  of  children. 

No  human  happiness  is  so  great  as  not  to  contain  some  imper- 
fection. Or — as  to  contain  no  imperfection. 

His  father  cannot  hope  for  this  success,  unless  his  son  give 
better  proofs  of  genius,  or  apply  himself  with  indefatigable 
labour. 

The  house  framed  a remonstrance,  in  which  they  spoke  with 
great  freedom  of  the  king’s  prerogative. 

The  conduct  which  has  been  mentioned,  is  one  of  those  arti- 
fices which  most  easily  seduce  men,  under  the  appearance  of  be- 
nevolence. 

This  is  the  person  to  whom  we  are  so  much  obliged,  and  whom 
w^e  expected  to  see,  when  the  favour  was  conferred. 

He  is  a person  of  great  property,  but  he  does  not  possess  the 
esteem  of  his  neighbours. 

They  were  solicitous  to  ingratiate  themselves  with  those,  whom 
it  was  dishonourable  to  favour. 

The  great  diversity  which  takes  place  among  men,  is  not  ow- 
ing to  a distinction  that  nature  has  made  in  their  original  powers, 
so  much  as  to  the  superior  diligence,  with  which  some  have  im- 
proved these  powers  beyond  others. 

While  we  are  unoccupied  by  what  is  good,  evil  is  continually 
at  hand. 

There  is  not  a creature  that  moves,  nor  a vegetable  that  grows, 
but  which,  when  minutely  examined,  furnishes  materials  for 
pious  admiration. 

What  can  be  the  reason  of  the  committees  having  delayed  this 
business  ? Or — What  can  be  the  committed  s reason  for  having 
delayed  this  business  ? 

I know  not  whether  Charles  was  the  author,  but  I understood 
it  to  be  him, 

A good  and  well-cultivated  mind,  is  greatly  preferable  to 
rank  or  riches: 

When  charity  to  the  poor,  is  governed  by  knowledge  and 
prudence,  every  one  admits  it  to  be  a virtue. 


224  KEY.  Promiscuous, 

His  greatest  concern,  and  highest  enjoyment,  was  to  be  ap- 
proved in  the  sight  of  his  Creator. 

Let  us  not  set  our  hearts  on  so  mutable,  so  unsatisfying  a 
world. 


SECTION  V. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  90. 

Shall  you  attain  success,  without  that  preparation,  and  escape 
dangers  without  that  precaution,  which  are  required  of  others  ? 

When  we  see  bad  men  honoured  and  prosperous  in  the  world, 
it  is  some  discouragement  to  virtue. 

The  furniture  was  all  purchased  at  Wentworth's  the  joiner. 

Every  member  of  the  body,  every  bone,  joint,  and  muscle, 
lies  exposed  to  many  disorders  ; and  the  greatest  prudence  or 
precaution,  or  the  deepest  skill  of  the  physician  is  not  sufficient 
to  prevent  them. 

It  is  rightly  said,  that  though  justijles  us,  yet  works  must 
justify  our  faith. 

If  an  academy  he  established  for  the  cultivation  of  our  lan- 
guage, let  the  members  of  it  stop  the  license  of  translators ; whose 
idleness  and  ignorance  if  they  be  suffered  to  proceed,  will  reduce 
us  to  babble  a dialect  of  French. 

It  is  of  great  consequence  that  a teacher  should  firmly  believe 
both  the  truth  and  the  importance  of  those  principles  which  he 
inculcates  on  others  ; and  not  only  that  he  should  speculatively 
believe  them,  but  have  a lively  and  serious  feeling  of  them. 

It  is  not  the  uttering  or  the  hearing  of  certain  words,  that 
constitutes  the  worship  of  the  Almighty.  It  is  the  heart  that 
praises  or  prays.  If  the  heart  accompanies  not  the  words  that 
are  spoken,  we  offer  the  sacrifice  of  fools. 

Neither  flatter  nor  contemn  the  rich  or  the  great. 

He  has  travelled  much,  and  passed  through  many  stormy 
seas  and  over  extensive  tracts  of  land. 

You  must  be  sensible  that  there  is,  and  can  be  no  other  per- 
son than  myself  who  could  give  the  information  desired.  Or — 
no  person  bat  myself  &LC. 

To  be  patient,  resigned,  and  thankful,  under  afflictions  and 
disappointments,  demonstrates  genuine  piety. 

Alvarez  was  a man  of  corrupt  principles,  and  detestable  con- 
duct ; and,  what  is  still  worse,  he  gloried  in  his  shame. 

As  soon  as  the  sense  of  a Supreme  Being  is  lost,  the  great 
check  is  taken  off,  which  keeps  under  restraint  the  passions  of 


Promiscuous. 


SYNTAX. 


225 


men.  Mean  desires,  and  low  pleasures,  take  place  of  the 
greater  and  nobler  sentiments,  which  reason  and  religion  inspire. 

We  should  be  careful  not  to  follow  the  example  of  many 
persons,  who  censure  the  opinions,  manners,  and  customs  of 
others,  merely  because  they  are  foreign  to  them. 

Steady  application,  as  well  as  genius  and  abilities,  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  eminence. 

There  are  in  that  seminary,  several  students  who  are  con- 
siderably skilled  in  mathematical  knowledge. 

If  Providence  clothes  the  grass  of  the  field,  and  shelters  and 
adorns  the  flowers  that  every  where  grow  wild  amongst  it,  will 
he  not  much  more  clothe  and  protect  his  servants  and  children  ? 

We  are  too  often  hurried  6^  the  violence  of  passion,  or 
insnared  hy  the  allurements  of  pleasure. 

High  hopes,  and  florid  views,  are  great  enemies  to  tranquillity. 

Year  after  year  steals  something  from  us  ; till  the  decaying 
fabric  totter  of  itself,  and  crumble  at  length  into  dust.  Or — 
shall  totter,  &c. 

I had  intended  io  finish  the  letter  before  the  bearer  called,  that 
he  might  not  he  detained ; but  I was  prevented  by  company. 

George  is  the  most  learned  and  accomplished  of  all  the 
students,  that  belong  to  the  seminary. 

This  excellent  and  well  written  treatise,  with  others  that 
might  be  mentioned,  was  the  foundation  of  his  love  of  study. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  pleasures  of  the  mind  excel 
those  of  sense. 


SECTION  VI. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  92. 


The  grand  temple  consisted  of  one  great  edifice,  and  several 
smaller  ones. 

Many  would  gladly  exchange  their  honours,  beauty,  and 
riches,  for  that  more  quiet  and  humble  station,  with  which  you 
are  now  dissatisfied. 

Though  the  scene  was  a very  affecting  one,  Louis  showed 
little  emotion  on  the  occasion. 

The  climate  of  England  is  not  so  pleasant  as  that  of  France, 
Spain,  or  Italy. 

Much  of  the  good  and  evil  that  happen  to  us  in  this  world, 
is  owing  to  apparently  undesigned  and  fortuitous  events ; but 

Vol.  IL  29 


226  KEY.  Promiscuous, 

it  is  the  Supreme  Being  who  secretly  directs  and  regulates  all 
things. 

To  despise  others  on  account  of  their  poverty,  or  to  value 
ourselves  for  our  wealth,  is  a disposition  highly  culpable. 

This  task  was  the  more  easily  performed,  from  the  cheerful- 
ness with  which  he  engaged  in  it. 

She  lamented  the  unhappy  fate  of  Lucretia,  whose  name 
seemed  to  her  another  word  for  chastity. 

He  has  not  yet  cast  off  all  regard  for  decency ; and  this  is 
the  most  that  can  be  advanced  in  his  favour. 

The  girVs  school  was  formerly  better  conducted  than  the 
hoy^s.  Or— than  that  of  the  hoys. 

The  loss  of  his  much-loved  friend,  or  the  disappointments  he 
he  has  met  with,  have  occasioned  the  total  derangement  of  his 
mental  powers. 

The  concourse  of  people  was  so  great,  that  we  passed  with 
difficulty. 

All  the  women,  children,  and  treasure,  that  remained  in  the 
city,  fell  under  the  victor’s  power. 

They  have  already  made  great  progress  in  their  studies,  and^ 
if  attention  and  diligence  continue,  they  will  soon  fulfil  the 
expectations  of  their  friends. 

His  propensity  to  this  vice,  against  every  principle  of  interest 
and  honour,  is  amazing. 

This  kind  of  vice,  though  it  inhabits  the  upper  circles  of  life, 
is  not  less  pernicious,  than  that  which  we  meet  with  amongst 
the  lowest  of  men. 

He  acted  agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  prudence,  though  he 
was  in  a situation  exceedingly  delicate. 

If  I had  known  the  distress  of  my  friend,  it  would  have  been 
my  duty  to  relieve  him  ; and  it  would  always  have  yielded  me 
pleasure  to  have  granted  him  that  relief. 

, They  admired  the  candour  and  uprightness  of  the  country- 
man, as  they  called  him. 

The  set  of  new  curtains  did  not  correspond  to  the  pair  of  old 
blinds. 

The  tutor  commends  him  for  being  more  studious  than  any 
other  pupil  of  the  school.  Or — for  being  the  most  studious 
pupil  of  the  school. 

Two  principles  in  human  nature  reign  ; 

Self-love  to  urge,  and  reason  to  restrain  : 

Nor  this  a good,  nor  that  a bad  we  call  ; 

Each  works  its  end,  to  move  or  govern  all. 

Temperance  and  exercise,  how  little  soever  they  may  be 
regarded,  are  the  best  means  of  preserving  health. 


Promiscuous. 


SYNTAX. 


227 


He  has  greatly  blessed  me  ; yes,  even  me,  who,  loaded  with 
kindness,  have  not  been  sufficiently  grateful. 

No  persons  feel  so  much  the  distresses  of  others,  as  they  who 
have  experienced  distress  themselves. 


SECTION  VII. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  93. 


Constantinople  was  the  point  in  which  were  concentrated 
the  learning  and  science  of  the  world. 

Disgrace  not  your  station,  by  that  grossness  of  sensuality, 
that  levity  of  dissipation,  or  that  insolence  of  rank,  which  bespeaks 
a little  mind. 

A circle,  a square,  a triangle,  or  a hexagon,  pleases  the  eye  by 
its  regularity,  as  a beautiful 

His  conduct  was  equally  unjust  and  dishonourable.  Or — was 
as  unjust  as  it  was  dishonourable. 

Though,  at  first,  he  began  to  defend  himself,  yet,  when  the 
proofs  appeared  against  him,  he  durst  not  any  longer  contend. 

Many  persons  will  not  believe  that  they  are  influenced  by 
prejudices.  Or — Many  persons  believe  that  they  are  free  from 
prejudices. 

The  pleasure  or  pain  of  one  passion,  difl'ers  from  that  of 
another. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides,  in  this  place,  make  a difference 
of  about  twelve  feet. 

Five  and  seven  make  twelve,  and  one  make  thirteen. 

He  did  not  know  whom  to  suspect. 

I intended  yesterday  to  walk  out,  but  I was  again  disap- 
pointed. 

The  court  of  Spain,  which  gave  the  order,  was  not  aware  of 
the  consequence. 

If  the  acquisitions  which  he  has  made,  and  which  have  quali- 
fied him  to  be  a useful  member  of  society,  should  be  misapplied, 
he  will  be  highly  culpable. 

There  was  much  spoken  and  written  on  each  side  of  the 
question  ; but  I have  chosen  to  suspend  my  decision. 

Were  there  no  bad  men  in  the  world,  to  vex  and  distress  the 
good,  these  might  appear  in  the  light  of  harmless  innocence ; 
but  they  could  have  no  opportunity  of  displaying  fidelity,  mag- 
nanimity, patience,  and  fortitude. 

The  most  ignorant  and  savage  tribes  of  men,  when  they 
looked  round  on  the  earth,  and  the  heavens,  could  not  avoid 
ascribing  their  origin  to  some  invisible,  designing  cause,  and 
feeling  a propensity  to  adore  their  Creator. 


228 


KEY. 


Promiscuous 


Let  us  not  forget,  that  something  more  than  gentleness  and 
modesty,  than  complacency  of  temper  and  affability  of  manners, 
is  requisite  to  form  a worthy  man,  or  a true  Christian. 

One  of  the  first  and  the  most  common  extremes  in  moral  con- 
duct, is  that  of  placing  all  virtue  either  in  justice,  on  the  one  handy 
or  in  generosity,  on  the  other. 

It  is  an  inflexible  regard  to  principle,  which  has  ever  marked 
the  characters  of  those  who  have  eminently  distinguished  them- 
selves in  public  life  ; who  have  patronised  the  cause  of  justice 
against  powerful  oppressors ; who,  in  critical  times,  have  sup- 
ported the  falling  rights  and  liberties  of  men  ; and  have  reflected 
honour  on  their  nation  and  country. 

When  it  is  with  regard  to  trifles,  that  diversity  or  contrariety 
of  opinions  shows  itself,  it  is  childish  in  the  last  degree,  if  this 
become  the  ground  of  estranged  affection.  When,  from  such 
a cause,  there  arises  any  breach  of  friendship,  human  weakness 
is  discovered  in  a mortifying  light.  In  matters  of  serious  mo- 
ment, the  sentiments  of  the  best  and  worthiest  may  vary  from 
those  of  their  friends,  according  as  their  lines  of  life  diverge,  or 
as  their  temper,  and  habits  of  thought,  present  objects  under 
different  points  of  view.  But  hy  candid  and  liberal  minds,  unity 
of  affection  will  still  be  preserved. 

Desires  and  wishes  are  the  first  springs  of  action.  When 
they  become  exorbitant,  the  whole  character  is  likely  to  be 
tainted.  If  we  suffer  our  fancy  to  create  to  itself  w^orlds  of 
ideal  happiness  ; if  we  feed  our  imagination  w ith  plans  of  opu- 
lence and  splendour ; if  we  fix  to  our  wishes  certain  stages  of 
high  advancement,  or  certain  degrees  of  uncommon  reputation, 
as  the  sole  stations  of  felicity ; the  assured  consequence  will  be, 
that  we  shall  become  unhappy  in  our  present  state ; unfit  for 
acting  the  part,  and  discharging  the  duties  that  belong  to  it ; we 
shall  discompose  the  peace  and  order  of  our  minds,  and  shall 
foment  many  hurtful  passions. 

Maria  always  appears  amiable.  She  never  speaks  severely 
or  contemptuously. 


PART  IV. 


PUNCTUATION. 

I 


CHAPTER  1. 

CONTAINING  APPLICATIONS  OF  THE  COMMA,  DISPOSED  UNDER 
THE  PARTICULAR  RULES. 


RULE  1. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  97. 

The  tear  of  repentance  brings  its  own  relief. 

Manhood  is  disgraced  by  the  consequences  of  neglected 
youth. 

Idleness  is  the  great  fomenter  of  all  corruptions  in  the  human 
heart. 

It  is  honourable  to  be  a friend  to  the  unfortunate. 

All  finery  is  a sign  of  littleness. 

Slovenliness  and  indelicacy  of  character  commonly  go  hand 
in  hand. 

The  friend  of  order  has  made  half  his  way  to  virtue. 

Too  many  of  the  pretended  friendships  of  youth,  are  mere 
combinations  in  pleasure. 

The  indulgence  of  harsh  dispositions,  is  the  introduction  to 
future  misery. 

The  intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society,  serves  to  exercise 
the  suffering  graces  and  virtues  of  the  good. 

RULE  II. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.97. 

Gentleness  is,  in  truth,  the  great  avenue  to  mutual  enjoyment. 

Charity,  like  the  sun,  brightens  all  its  objects. 

The  tutor,  by  instruction  and  discipline,  lays  the  foundation 
of  the  pupifs  future  honour. 


230 


KEV. 


Comma, 


Trials,  in  this  stage  of  being,  are  the  lot  of  man. 

No  assumed  behaviour  can  always  hide  the  real  character. 

The  best  men  often  experience  disappointments. 

Advice  should  be  seasonably  administered. 

RULE  III. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  98. 

Self-conceit,  presumption,  and  obstinacy,  blast  the  prospect 
of  many  a youth. 

In  our  health,  life,  possessions,  connexions,  pleasures,  there 
are  causes  of  decay  imperceptibly  working. 

Discomposed  thoughts,  agitated  passions,  and  a ruffled  tem- 
per, poison  every  pleasure  of  life. 

Vicissitudes  of  good  and  evil,  of  trials  and  consolations,  fill 
up  the  life  of  man. 

Health  and  peace,  a moderate  fortune,  and  a few  friends, 
sum  up  all  the  undoubted  articles  of  temporal  felicity. 

We  have  no  reason  to  complain  of  the  lot  of  man,  or  of  the 
world’s  mutability. 

RULE  IV. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  98. 

An  idle,  trifling  society  is  near  akin  to  such  as  is  corrupting. 

Conscious  guilt  renders  us  mean-spirited,  timorous,  and  base. 

An  upright  mind  will  never  be  at  a loss  to  discern  what  is 
just  and  true,  lovely,  honest,  and  of  good  report. 

The  vicious  man  is  often  looking  round  him,  with  anxious 
and  fearful  circumspection. 

True  friendship  will,  at  all  times,  avoid  a careless  or  rough 
behaviour. 

Time  brings  a gentle  and  powerful  opiate  to  all  misfortunes. 
RULE  V. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  93. 

The  man  of  virtue  and  honour  will  be  trusted,  relied  upon, 
and  esteemed. 

Deliberate  slowly,  execute  promptly. 

A true  friend  unbosoms  freely,  advises  justly,  assists  readily. 


Comma. 


PUNCTUATION. 


231 


adventures  boldly,  takes  all  patiently,  defends  resolutely,  and 
continues  a friend  unchangeably. 

Sensuality  contaminates  the  body,  depresses  the  understand- 
ing, deadens  the  moral  feelings  of  the  heart,  and  degrades  man 
from  his  rank  in  the  creation. 

Idleness  brings  forward  and  nourishes  many  bad  passions. 

We  must  stand  or  fall  by  our  own  conduct  and  character. 

The  man  of  order  catches  and  arrests  the  hours  as  they  fly. 

The  great  business  of  life  is,  to  be  employed  in  doing  justly, 
loving  mercy,  and  walking  humbly  with  our  Creator. 

RULE  VI. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  99. 

This  unhappy  person  had  often  been  seriously,  affectionately 
admonished,  but  in  vain. 

To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  comprehends  the 
whole  of  our  duty. 

When  thy  friend  is  calumniated,  openly  and  boldly  espouse 
his  cause. 

Benefits  should  be  long  and  gratefully  remembered. 

RULE  VII. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  99. 

True  gentleness  is  native  feeling,  heightened  and  improved  by 
principle. 

The  path  of  piety  and  virtue,  pursued  with  a firm  and  con- 
stant spirit,  will  assuredly  lead  to  happiness. 

Human  affairs  are  in  continual  motion  and  fluctuation,  alter- 
ing their  appearance  every  moment,  and  passing  into  some  new 
forms. 

What  can  be  said  to  alarm  those  of  their  danger,  who,  intox- 
icated with  pleasures,  become  giddy  and  insolent ; who,  flat- 
tered by  the  illusions  of  prosperity,  make  light  of  every  serious 
admonition,  which  their  friends,  and  the  changes  of  the  world, 
give  them  ? 


RULE  VIII. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  99. 

If,  from  any  internal  cause,  a man’s  peace  of  mind  be  dis- 
turbed, in  vain  we  load  him  with  riches  or  honours. 

Gentleness  delights,  above  all  things,  to  alleviate  distress; 


232 


KEY, 


Comma. 


and,  if  it  cannot  dry  up  the  falling  tear,  to  soothe  at  least  the 
grieving  heart. 

Wherever  Christianity  prevails,  it  has  discouraged,  and,  in 
some  degree,  abolished  slavery. 

We  may  rest  assured  that,  by  the  steady  pursuit  of  virtue,  we 
shall  obtain  and  enjoy  it. 

RULE  IX. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  100. 

Continue,  my  dear  children,  to  make  virtue  your  principal 
study. 

To  you,  my  worthy  benefactors,  am  I indebted,  under  Prov- 
idence, for  all  I enjoy. 

Canst  thou  expect,  thou  betrayer  of  innocence,  to  escape  the 
hand  of  vengeance  ? 

Come  then,  companion  of  my  toils,  let  us  take  fresh  courage, 
persevere,  and  hope  to  the  end. 

RULE  X. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  100. 

Peace  of  mind  being  secured,  we  may  smile  at  misfortunes. 

Virtue  abandoned,  and  conscience  reproaching  us,  we  become 
terrified  with  imaginary  evils. 

Charles  having  been  deprived  of  the  help  of  tutors,  his  studies 
became  totally  neglected. 

To  prevent  further  altercation,  I submitted  to  the  terms  pro- 
posed. 

To  enjoy  present  pleasure,  he  sacrificed  his  future  ease  and 
reputation. 

To  say  the  least,  they  have  betrayed  great  want  of  pru- 
dence. 

RULE  XI. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  100. 

Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  soothes  us  under  every  misfortune. 

Content,  the  offspring  of  virtue,  dwells  both  in  retirement, 
and  in  the  active  scenes  of  life. 

Confucius,  the  great  Chinese  philosopher,  was  eminently  good, 
as  well  as  wise. 

The  patriarch  Joseph,  is  an  illustrious  example  of  chastity, 
resignation,  and  filial  affectbn. 


Comma, 


PUNCTUATION. 


233 


RULE  XII. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  100. 

Nothing  is  so  opposite  to  the  true  enjoyment  of  life,  as  the 
relaxed  and  feeble  state  of  an  indolent  mind. 

The  more  a man  speaks  of  himself,  the  less  he  likes  to  hear 
another  talked  of. 

Nothing  more  strongly  inculcates  resignation,  than  the  ex- 
perience of  our  own  inability  to  guide  ourselves. 

The  friendships  of  the  w^orld,  can  subsist  no  longer  than 
interest  cements  them. 

Expect  no  more  from  the  world  than  it  is  able  to  afford  you. 
RULE  XIII. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  101. 

He  who  is  a stranger  to  industry,  may  possess,  but  he  cannot 
enjoy. 

Contrition,  though  it  may  melt,  ought  not  to  sink  or  over- 
whelm the  heart  of  a Christian. 

The  goods  of  this  world  were  gi^ien  to  man  for  his  occasional 
refreshment,  not  for  his  chief  felicity. 

It  is  the  province  of  superiors  to  direct,  of  inferiors  to  obey ; 
of  the  learned,  to  be  instructive,  of  the  ignorant,  to  be  docile  : 
of  the  old,  to  be  communicative,  of  the  young,  to  be  attentive 
and  diligent. 

Though  unavoidable  calamities  make  a part,  yet  they  make 
not  the  chief  part,  of  the  vexations  and  sorrow's  that  distress 
human  life. 

An  inquisitive  and  meddling  spirit,  often  interrupts  the  good 
order,  and  breaks  the  peace  of  society. 

RULE  XIV. 

S<  e Vol.  2.  p.  101. 

Vice  is  not  of  such  a nature,  that  we  can  say  to  it,  “ Hitherto 
shalt  thou  come,  and  no  further.” 

One  of  the  noblest  of  the  Christian  virtues,  is,  “ to  love  our 
enemies.’’ 

Many  too  confidently  say  to  themselves,  “ My  mountain 
stands  strong,  and  it  shall  never  be  removed.” 

We  are  strictly  enjoined,  “ not  to  follow  a multitude  to  do  evil.” 
Vol.  II.  30 


231 


KEY. 


Comma. 


RULE  XV. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  101. 

The  gentle  mind  is  like  the  smooth  stream,  which  reflects 
every  object  in  its  just  proportion,  and  in  its  fairest  colours. 

Beware  of  those  rash  and  dangerous  connexions,  which  may 
afterwards  load  you  with  dishonour. 

Blind  must  that  man  be,  who  discerns  not  the  most  striking 
marks  of  a Divine  government,  exercised  over  the  world. 

It  is  labour  only  which  gives  the  relish  to  pleasure. 

In  that  unaffected  civility  which  springs  from  a gentle  mind, 
there  is  an  incomparable  charm. 

They  who  raise  envy,  will  easily  incur  censure. 

Many  of  the  evils  which  occasion  our  complaints  of  the 
world,  are  wholly  imaginary. 

He  who  is  good  before  invisible  witnesses,  is  eminently  so 
before  the  visible. 

His  conduct,  so  disinterested  and  generous,  was  universally 
approved. 


RULE  XVI. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  102. 

The  fumes  which  arise  from  a heart  boiling  with  violent 
passions,  never  fail  to  darken  and  trouble  the  understanding. 

If  we  delay  till  to-morrow  what  ought  to  be  done  to-day,  we 
overcharge  the  morrow  with  a burden  which  belongs  not  to  it. 

By  whatever  means  we  may  at  first  attract  the  attention,  we 
can  hold  the  esteem,  and  secure  the  hearts  of  others,  only  by 
amiable  dispositions,  and  the  accomplishments  of  the  mind. 

If  the  mind  sow  not  corn  it  will  plant  thistles. 

One  day  is  sufficient  to  scatter  our  prosperity,  and  bring  it  to 
nought. 

Graceful  in  youth,  are  the  tears  of  sympathy,  and  the  heart 
that  melts  at  the  tale  of  wo. 

The  ever  active  and  restless  power  of  thought,  if  not  em- 
ployed about  what  is  good,  will  naturally  and  unavoidably 
engender  evil. 

He  who  formed  the  heart,  certainly  knows  what  passes 
within  it. 

To  be  humble  and  modest  in  opinion,  to  be  vigilant  and 
attentive  in  conduct,  to  distrust  fair  appearances,  and  to  restrain 
rash  desires,  are  instructions  which  the  darkness  of  our  present 
state  should  strongly  inculcate. 


Comma. 


PUNCTUATION. 


235 


RULE  XVL 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  102. 

The  greatest  misery  is,  to  be  condemned  by  our  own  hearts. 

The  greatest  misery  that  we  can  endure,  is,  to  be  condemned 
by  our  own  hearts. 

Charles’s  highest  enjoyment  was,  to  relieve  the  distressed, 
and  to  do  good. 

The  highest  enjoyment  that  Charles  ever  experienced,  was, 
to  relieve  the  distressed,  and  to  do  good. 

RULE  XVIII. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  103. 

If  opulence  increases  our  gratifications,  it  increases,  in  the 
same  proportion,  our  desires  and  demands. 

He  whose  wishes  respecting  the  possessions  of  this  world, 
are  the  most  reasonable  and  bounded,  is  likely  to  lead  the  safest, 
and,  for  that  reason,  the  most  desirable  life. 

By  aspiring  too  high,  we  frequently  miss  the  happiness,  which 
by  a less  ambitious  aim,  we.  might  have  gained. 

By  proper  management,  we  prolong  our  time  : we  live  more, 
in  a few  years,  than  others  do  in  many. 

In  your  most  secret  actions,  suppose  that  you  have  all  the 
world  for  witnesses. 

In  youth,  the  habits  of  industry  are  most  easily  acquired. 

What  is  the  right  path,  few  take  the  trouble  of  inquiring. 

RULE  XIX. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  103. 

Providence  never  intended,  that  any  state  here  should  be 
either  completely  happy,  or  entirely  miserable. 

As  a companion,  he  was  severe  and  satirical ; as  a friend 
captious  and  dangerous ; in  his  domestic  sphere,  harsh,  jealous, 
and  irascible. 

If  the  Spring  put  forth  no  blossoms,  in  Summer  there  will  be 
no  beauty,  and  in  Autumn,  no  fruit.  So,  if  youth  be  trifled 
away  without  improvement,  manhood  will  be  contemptible, 
and  old  age,  miserable. 


236 


KEY. 


Semicolon^  (^c. 


RULE  XX. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  103. 

Be  assured,  then,  that  order,  fni^ality,  and  economy,  are  the 
necessary  supports  of  every  personal  and  private  virtue. 

I proceed,  secondly,  to  point  out  the  proper  stale  of  our 
tefoper,  with  respect  to  one  another. 

Here,  every  thing  is  in  stir  and  fluctuation  ; there,  all  is 
serene,  steady,  and  orderly. 

1 shall  make  some  observations,  first,  on  the  external,  and 
oext,  on  the  internal  (ujndition  of  man. 

Sornetimes,  timidity  and  false  shame  prevent  our  opposing 
vicious  customs ; frequently,  expectation  and  interest  impel  us 
strongly  to  comply. 


CHAPTER  II. 

' CONTAINING  INSERTIONS  OF  THE  SEMICOLON  AND  COM3IA. 


See  Vol.  2 p.  104. 

That  darkne-s  of  character,  where  we  can  see  no  heart; 
those  foldings  of  art,  through  which  no  native  affection  is  al- 
lowed to  penetrate  ; present  an  object,  unamiable  in  every 
season  of  life,  but  particularly  odious  in  youth. 

To  give  an  early  preference  to  honour  above  gain,  when 
they  stand  in  competion  ; to  despise  every  advantage  which 
cannot  be  attained  without  dishonest  arts  ; to  brook  no  mean- 
ness, and  to  stoop  to  no  dissimulation  ; are  the  indications  of  a 
great  mind,  the  presages  of  future  eminence  and  usefulness  in 
life. 

As  there  is  a worldly  happiness,  which  God  perceives  to  be 
no  other  than  disguised  misery  ; as  there  are  worldly  honours, 
wliich,  in  his  estimation,  are  reproach;  so  there  is  a worldly 
wisdom,  which,  in  his  sight,  is  foolishness. 

'The  passions  are  the  chief  destroyers  of  our  peace  ; the 
storms  and  tempests  of  the  moral  world. 

Heaven  is  the  region  of  gentleness  and  friendship  ; hell,  of 
fierceness  and  animosity. 

The  path  of  truth,  is  a plain  and  a safe  path  ; that  of  false- 
hood, is  a [)erplexing  maze. 

Modesty  is  one  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  youth  ; and  it  has 
ever  been  esteemed  a presage  of  rising  merit. 


PUNCTUATION. 


237 


Colon,  <^c. 

Life,  with  a swift,  though  insensible  course,  glides  away; 
and,  like  a river  which  undermines  its  banks,  gradually  impairs 
our  state. 

The  violent  spirit,  like  troubled  waters,  renders  back  the 
images  of  things  distorted  and  broken  ; and  communicates  to 
them  all  that  disordered  motion,  which  arises  solely  from  its 
own  agitation. 

Levity  is  frequently  the  forced  production  of  folly  or  vice  ; 
cheerfulness  is  the  natural  ofLpring  of  wisdom  and  virtue  only. 

Persons  who  live  according  to  order,  may  be  compared  to 
the  celestial  bodies,  which  move  in  regular  courses,  and  by 
stated  laws ; whose  influence  is  beneficent ; whose  operations, 
are  quiet  and  tranquil. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CONTAINING  APPLICATIONS  OF  THE  COLON,  &C. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  105. 

The  three  great  enemies  to  tranquillity,  are  vice,  superstitiony 
and  idleness  : vice,  which  poisons  and  disturbs  the  mind  with 
bad  passions  ; superstition,  which  fills  it  with  imaginary  terrors  ; 
idleness,  which  loads  it  with  tediousness  and  disgust. 

To  sail  on  the  tranquil  surface  of  an  unruffled  lake,  and  to 
steer  a safe  course  through  a troubled  and  stormy  ocean,  re- 
quire different  talents:  and,  alas  ! human  life  oftener  resembles 
the  stormy  ocean,  than  the  unruffled  lake. 

When  we  look  forward  to  the  year  which  is  beginning,  what 
do  we  behold  there  ? All,  my  brethren,  is  a blank  to  our  view  : 
a dark  unknown  presents  itself. 

Happy  would  the  poor  man  think  himself,  if  he  could  enter 
on  all  the  treasures  of  the  rich : and  happy  for  a short  time  he 
might  be : but  before  he  had  long  contemplated  and  admired 
his  state,  his  possessions  would  seem  to  lessen,  and  his  cares 
would  grow.  4 

By  doing,  or  at  least  endeavouring  to  do,  our  duty  to  God 
and  man  ; by  acquiring  an  humble  trust  in  the  mercy  and  favour 
of  God,  through  Jesus  Christ ; by  cultivating  our  minds,  and 
properly  employing  our  time  and  thoughts  ; by  governing  our 
passions  and  our  temper;  by  correcting  all  unreasonable  expec- 
tations from  the  world,  and  from  men  ; and,  in  the  midst  of 
worldly  business,  habituating  ourselves  to  calm  retreat  and  serious 
recollection  : by  such  means  as  these,  it  may  be  hoped,  thaty 
through  the  Divine  blessing,  our  days  shall  flow  in  a stream  as 
unruffled  as  the  human  state  admits. 


238 


KEY. 


Period, 

A metaphor  is  a compa:rison,  expressed  in  an  abridged  form, 
but  without  any  of  the  words  that  denote  comparison : as,  “ To 
the  upright  there  ariseth  light  in  darkness.” 

All  our  conduct  towards  men,  should  be  influenced  by  this 
important  precept : “ Do  unto  others  as  you  would  that  others 
should  do  unto  you.” 

Philip  III.  king  of  Spain,  when  he  drew  near  the  end  of  his 
days,  seriously  reflecting  on  his  past  life,  and  greatly  affected 
with  the  remembrance  of  his  rnispent  time,  expressed  his  deep 
regret  in  these  terms  : “ Ah  ! how  happy  would  it  have  been  for 
me,  had  I spent,  in  retirement,  these  twenty-three  years,  that  I 
have  possessed  my  kingdom.” 

Often  is  the  smile  of  gaiety  assumed,  whilst  the  heart  aches 
within : though  folly  may  laugh,  guilt  will  sting. 

There  is  no  mortal  truly  wise  and  restless  at  once  : wisdom 
is  the  repose  of  minds. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CONTAINING  INSERTIONS  OF  THE  PERIOD,  &C. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  106. 

The  absence  of  evil  is  a real  good.  Peace,  quiet,  exemption 
from  pain,  should  be  a continual  feast. 

Worldly  happiness  ever  tends  to  destroy  itself,  by  corrupting 
the  heart.  It  fosters  the  loose  and  the  violent  passions.  It 
engenders  noxious  habits;  and  taints  the  mind  with  false  delicacy, 
which  makes  it  feel  a thousand  unreal  evils. 

Feeding  the  hungry,  clothing  the  naked,  comforting  the 
afflicted,  yield  more  pleasure  than  we  receive  from  those  actions 
which  respect  only  ourselves.  Benevolence  may,  in  this  view, 
be  termed  the  most  refined  self  love. 

The  resources  of  virtue  remain  entire,  when  the  days  of 
trouble  come.  They  remain  with  us  in  sickness,  as  in  health ; 
in  poverty,  as  in  the  midst  of  riches  ; in  our  dark  and  solitary 
hours,  no  less  than  when  surrounded  with  friends  and  cheerful 
society.  The  mind  of  a good  man  is  a kingdom  to  him,  and  he 
can  always  enjoy  it. 

We  ruin  the  happiness  of  life,  when  we  attempt  to  raise  it 
too  high.  A tolerable  and  comfortable  state,  is  all  that  we  can 
propose  to  ourselves  on  earth.  Peace  and  contentment,  not 
bliss,  nor  transport,  are  the  full  portion  of  man.  Perfect  joy  is 
reserved  for  heaven. 

If  we  look  around  us,  we  shall  perceive  that  the  whole 
universe  is  full  of  active  powers.  Action  is  indeed  the  genius 


PUNCTUATION. 


239 


Interrogation^  <^c, 

of  nature.  By  motion  and  exertion,  the  system  of  being  is  pre- 
served in  vigour.  By  its  different  parts  always  acting  in  sub- 
ordination one  to  another,  the  perfection  of  the  whole  is  carried 
on.  The  heavenly  bodies  perpetually  revolve.  Day  and  night 
incessantly  repeat  their  appointed  course.  Continual  operations 
are  going  on  in  the  earth,  and  in  the  waters.  Nothing  stands 
still. 

Constantine  the  Great,  was  advanced  to  the  sole  dominion  of 
the  Roman  world,  A.  D.  325  ; and  soon  after  openly  professed 
the  Christian  faith. 

The  letter  concludes  with  this  remarkable  postscript : ‘‘  P.  S. 
Though  I am  innocent  of  the  charge,  and  have  been  bitterly 
persecuted,  yet  I cordially  forgive  my  enemies  and  persecutors.” 

The  last  edition  of  that  valuable  work,  was  carefully  com- 
pared with  the  original  M.  S. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CONTAINING  APPLICATIONS  OF  THE  DASH  ; OF  THE  NOTES  OF  IN- 
TERROGATION AND  EXCLAMATION  ; AND  OF  THE  PARENTHET- 
ICAL CHARACTERS. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  107. 

Beauty  and  strength,  combined  with  virtue  and  piety — how 
lovely  in  the  sight  of  men  ! how  pleasing  to  Heaven  ! peculiarly 
pleasing,  because  with  every  temptation  to  deviate,  they  volun- 
tarily walk  in  the  path  of  duty. 

Something  there  is  more  needful  than  expense  ; 

And  something  previous  e’en  to  taste  ; — ’tis  sense. 

“.I’ll  live  to-morrow,”  will  a wise  man  say  ? 

To-morrow  is  too  late  : — then  live  to-day. 

Gripus  has  long  been  ardently  endeavouring  to  fill  his  chest ; 
and  lo  ! it  is  now  full.  Is  he  happy  ? and  does  he  use  it  ? Does 
he  gratefully  think  of  the  Giver  of  all  good  things  ? Does  he 
distribute  to  the  poor  ? Alas  ! these  interests  have  no  place  in 
his  breast. 

What  is  there  in  all  the  pomp  of  the  world,  the  enjoyments 
of  luxury,  the  gratification  of  passion,  comparable  to  the  tran- 
quil delight  of  a good  conscience  ? 


240  * KEY.  Promiscuous. 

To  lie  down  on  the  pillow,  after  a day  spent  in  temperance, 
in  beneficence,  and  in  piety,  how  sweet  is  it ! 

We  wait  till  to-morrow  to  be  happy  : alas  ! why  not  to-day? 
Shall  we  be  younger?  Are  we  sure  we  shall  be  healthier  ? Will 
our  passions  become  feebler,  and  our  love  of  the  world  less? 

What  shadow  can  be  more  vain  than  the  life  of  a great  part 
of  mankind  ? Of  all  that  eager  and  bustling  crowd  which  we 
behold  on  earth,  how  few  discover  the  path  of  true  happiness  ! 
How  few  can  we  find  whose  activity  has  not  been  misemployed, 
and  whose  course  terminates  not  in  confessions  of  disappoint- 
ment ! 

On  the  one  hand,  are  the  Divine  approbation,  and  immortal 
honour ; on  the  other,  (remember  and  beware,)  are  the  stings  of 
of  conscience,  and  endless  infamy. 

As  in  riper  years,  all  unreasonable  returns  to  the  levity  of 
youth  ought  to  be  avoided,  (an  admonition  which  equally  be- 
longs to  both  sexes,)  still  more  are  we  to  guard  against  those 
intemperate  indulgences  of  pleasure,  to  which  the  young  are 
unhappily  prone. 

The  bliss  of  man,  (could  pride  that  blessing  find,) 

Is  not  to  act  or  think  beyond  mankind. 

Or  why  so  long  (in  life  if  long  can  be) 

Lent  Heaven  a parent  to  the  poor  and  me? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CORRECTIONS  OF  THE  PROMISCUOUS  INSTANCES  OF  DEFECTIVE 
PUNCTUATION. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  108. 

SECTION  I. 

Examples  in  Prose. 

When  Socrates  was  asked,  what  man  approached  the  near- 
est to  perfect  happiness,  he  answered : “ That  man  who  has  the 
fewest  wants.” 

She  who  studies  her  glass,  neglects  her  heart. 

Between  passion  and  lying,  there  is  not  a finger’s  breadth. 
The  freer  we  feel  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  others,  the 
more  free  are  they  : he  who  is  free,  makes  free. 

Addison  has  remarked,  with  equal  piety  and  truth,  “ that  the 
creation  is  a perpetual  feast  to  the  mind  of  a good  man.” 


Promiscuous. 


PUNCTUATION. 


241 


He  who  shuts  out  all  evasion  when  he  promises,  loves  truth* 

The  laurels  of  the  warrior  are  died  in  blood ; and  bedew^ed 
with  the  tears  of  the  widow  and  the  orphan. 

Between  fame  and  true  honour,  a distinction  is  to  be  made. 
The  former  is  a loud  and  noisy  applause : the  latter,  a more 
silent  and  internal  homage.  Fame  floats  on  the  breath  of  the 
multitude : honour  rests  on  the  judgment  of  the  thinking.  Fame 
may  give  praise  while  it  withholds  esteem : true  honour  implies 
esteem  mingled  with  respect.  The  one  regards  particular  dis- 
tinguished talents  : the  other  looks  up  to  the  whole  character. 

There  is  a certain  species  of  religion,  (if  we  can  give  it  that 
name,)  which  is  placed  wholly  in  speculation  and  belief;  in  the 
regularity  of  external  homage  ; or  in  fiery  zeal  about  contested 
opinions. 

Xenophanes,  who  was  reproached  with  being  timorous,  be- 
cause he  would  not  venture  his  money  in  a game  at  dice,  made 
this  manly  and  sensible  reply : “ I confess  I am  exceedingly 
timorous  ; for  I dare  not  commit  an  evil  action.” 

He  loves  nobly,  (I  speak  of  friendship,)  who  is  not  jealous, 
when  he  has  partners  of  love. 

Our  happiness  consists  in  the  pursuit,  much  more  than  in  the 
attainment,  of  any  temporal  good. 

Let  me  repeat  it ; — he  only  is  great  who  has  the  habits  of 
greatness. 

Prosopopoeia,  or  personification,  is  a rhetorical  figure,  by  which 
we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects ; as,  “ The 
ground  thirsts  for  rain  “ The  earth  smiles  with  plenty.” 

The  proper  and  rational  conduct  of  men,  with  regard  to 
futurity,  is  regulated  by  two  considerations  : first,  that  much  of 
what  it  contains,  must  remain  to  us  absolutely  unknown ; next, 
that  there  are  also  some  events  in  it,  which  may  be  certainly 
known  and  foreseen. 

The  gardens  of  the  world  produce  only  deciduous  flowers. 
Perennial  ones  must  be  sought  in  the  delightful  regions  above. 
Roses  without  thorns  are  the  growth  of  paradise  alone. 

How  many  rules  and  maxims  of  life  might  be  spared,  could 
we  fix  a principle  of  virtue  within ; and  inscribe  the  living  sen- 
timent of  the  love  of  God  in  the  affections ! He  who  loves 
righteousness,  is  master  of  all  the  distinctions  in  morality. 

He  who,  from  the  benignity  of  his  nature,  erected  this  world 
for  the  abode  of  men  ; he  who  furnished  it  so  richly  for  our  ac- 
commodation, and  stored  it  with  so  much  beauty  for  our  enter- 
tainment ; he  who,  since  first  we  entered  into  life,  hath  followed 
us  with  such  a variety  of  mercies ; this  amiable  and  beneficent 
being,  surely  can  have  no  pleasure  in  our  disappointment  and 
distress.  He  knows  our  frame  ; he  remembers  we  are  dust ; 
VoL.  H.  31 


242  KEY.  Promiscuous, 

and  looks  to  frail  man,  we  are  assured,  with  such  pity  as  a father 
beareth  to  his  children. 

One  of  the  first  lessons,  both  of  religion  and  of  wisdom,  is, 
to  moderate  our  expectations  and  hopes  ; and  not  to  set  forth 
on  the  voyage  of  life,  like  men  who  expect  to  be  always  carried 
forward  with  a favourable  gale.  Let  us  be  satisfied  if  the  path 
we  tread  be  easy  and  smooth,  though  it  be  not  strewed  with 
flowers. 

Providence  never  intended,  that  the  art  of  living  happily  in 
this  world,  should  depend  on  that  deep  penetration,  that  acute 
sagacity,  and  those^refinements  of  thought,  which  few  possess. 
It  has  dealt  more  graciously  with  us  ; and  made  happiness  de- 
pend on  upriglitness  of  intention,  much  more  than  on  extent  of 
capacity. 

JVlost  of  our  passions  flatter  us  in  their  rise.  But  their  begin- 
nings are  treacherous  ; their  growth  is  imperceptible  ; and  the 
evils  which  they  carry  in  their  train,  lie  concealed,  until  their 
dominion  is  established.  What  Solomon  says  of  one  of  them, 
holds  true  of  them  all,  “ that  their  beginning  is  as  when  one 
letteth  out  water.”  It  issues  from  a small  chink,  which  once 
might  have  been  easily  stopped  ; but  being  neglected,  it  is  soon 
widened  by  the  stream ; till  the  bank  is  at  last  totally  thrown 
down,  and  the  flood  is  at  liberty  to  deluge  the  whole  plain. 

Prosperity  debilitates  instead  of  strengthening  the  mind.  Its 
most  common  effect  is,  to  create  an  extreme  sensibility  to  the 
slightest  wound.  It  foments  impatient  desires ; and  raises  ex- 
pectations which  no  success  can  satisfy.  It  fosters  a false  del- 
icacy, which  sickens  in  the  midst  of  indulgence.  By  repeated 
gratification,  it  blunts  the  feelings  of  men  to  what  is  pleasing ; 
and  leaves  them  unhappily  acute  to  whatever  is  uneasy.  Hence, 
the  gale  which  another  would  scarcely  feel,  is,  to  the  prosperous, 
a rude  tempest.  Hence,  the  rose-leaf  doubled  below  them  on 
the  couch,  as  it  is  told  of  the  effeminate  Sybarite,  breaks  their 
rest.  Hence,  the  disrespect  shown  by  Mordecai,  preyed  with 
such  violence  on  the  heart  of  Haman. 

Anxiety  is  the  poison  of  human  life.  It  is  the  parent  of  many 
sins,  and  of  more  miseries.  In  a world  where  every  thing  is  so 
doubtful ; where  we  may  succeed  in  our  wish,  and  be  miserable; 
where  we  may  be  disappointed,  and  be  blessed  in  the  disap- 
pointment ; what  mean  this  restless  stir  and  commotion  of 
mind  ? Can  our  solicitude  alter  the  course,  or  unravel  the  in- 
tricacy, of  human  events  ? Can  our  curiosity  pierce  through  the 
cloud,  which  the  Supreme  Being  hath  made  impenetrable  to 
mortal  eye? 

No  situation  is  so  remote,  and  no  station  so  favourable  as 


Pi'omiscuous. 


PUNCTUATION. 


243 


to  preclude  access  to  the  happiness  of  a future  state.  A road  is 
opened  by  the  Divine  Spirit  to  those  blissful  habitations,  from 
all  corners  of  the  earth,  and  from  all  conditions  of  human  life  ; 
from  the  peopled  city,  and  from  the  solitary  desert ; from  the 
cottages  of  the  poor,  and  from  the  palaces  of  kings ; from  the 
dwellings  of  ignorance  and  simplicity,  and  from  the  regions  of 
science  and  improvement. 

The  scenes. which  present  themselves,  at  our  entering  upon 
the  world,  are  commonly  flattering.  Whatever  they  be  in  them- 
selves, the  lively  spirits  of  the  young  gild  every  opening  pros- 
pect. The  field  of  hope  appears  to  stretch  wide  before  them. 
Pleasure  seems  to  put  forth  its  blossoms  on  every  side.  Im- 
pelled by  desire,  forward  they  rush  with  inconsiderate  ardour ; 
prompt  to  decide,  and  to  choose ; averse  to  hesitate,  or  to  in- 
quire ; credulous,  because  untaught  by  experience;  rash,  because 
unacquainted  with  danger ; headstrong,  because  unsubdued  by 
disappointment.  Hence  arise  the  perils  to  which  they  are  ex- 
posed ; and  which,  too  often,  from  want  of  attention  to  faithful 
admonition,  precipitate  them  into  ruin  irretrievable. 

By  the  unhappy  excesses  of  irregular  pleasure  in  youth,  how 
many  amiable  dispositions  are  corrupted  or  destroyed  ! How 
many  rising  capacities  and  powers  are  suppressed  ! How  many 
flattering  hopes  of  parents  and  friends  are  totally  extinguished  ? 
Who  but  must  drop  a tear  over  human  nature,  when  he  beholds 
that  morning  which  arose  so  bright,  overcast  with  such  untimely 
darkness  ; that  sweetness  of  temper  which  once  engaged  many 
hearts,  that  modesty  which  w^as  so  prepossessing,  those  abilities 
which  promised  extensive  usefulness,  all  sacrificed  at  the  shrine 
of  low  sensuality  ; and  one  who  was  formed  for  passing  through 
life,  in  the  midst  of  public  esteem,  cut  oflF  by  his  vices  at  the 
beginning  of  his  course ; or  sunk,  for  the  whole  of  it,  into  insig- 
nificance and  contempt?  These,  O sinful  Pleasure!  are  thy 
trophies.  It  is  thus  that,  co-operating  wdth  the  foe  of  God  and 
man,  thou  degradest  human  honour,  and  blastest  the  opening 
prospects  of  human  felicity. 


SECTION  II. 


Examples  in  Poetry. 


Where  thy  true  treasure  ? Gold  says,  “ not  in  me.” 
And,  “ not  in  me,”  the  Di’mond.  Gold  is  poor. 


244 


KEY. 


Promiscuous. 


The  scenes  of  business  tell  us — what  are  men  ; 

The  scenes  of  pleasure — what  is  all  beside. 

Wo  then  apart,  (if  wo  apart  can  be 
From  mortal  man,)  and  fortune  at  our  nod, 

The  gay,  rich,  great,  triumphant,  and  august. 

What  are  they?  The  most  happy  (strange  to  say !) 
Convince  me  most  of  human  misery. 

All  this  dread  order  break — for  whom  ? for  thee  ? 

Vile  worm  ! — 0 madness  ! pride  ! impiety  ! 

Man,  like  the  gen’rous  vine,  supported  lives  ; 

The  strength  he  gains,  is  from  th’  embrace  he  gives. 

Know,  Nature’s  children  all  divide  her  care  : 

The  fur  that  warms  a monarch,  warm  d a bear. 

While  man  exclaims,  “ See  all  things  for  my  use !” 

See  man  for  mine,”  replies  a pamper’d  goose. 

And  just  as  short  of  reason  he  must  fall. 

Who  thinks  all  made  for  one,  not  one  for  all. 

Th’  Almighty,  from  his  throne,  on  earth  surveys 
Nought  greater  than  an  honest  humble  heart  : 

An  humble  heart  his  residence,  pronounced 
His  second  seat. 

Bliss  there  is  none,  but  unprecarious  bliss. 

That  is  the  gem  : sell  all,  and  purchase  that. 

Why  go  a begging  to  contingencies  ? 

Not  gain’d  with  ease,  nor  safely  lov’d  if  gain’d. 

There  is  a time  when  toil  must  be  preferr’d. 

Or  joy,  by  mistim’d  fondness  is  undone. 

A man  of  pleasure  is  a man  of  pains. 

Thus  nature  gives  us  (let  it  check  our  pride) 

The  virtue  nearest  to  our  vice  allied. 

See  the  sole  bliss  Heav’n  could  on  all  bestow  ! 

Which  who  but  feels  can  taste,  but  thinks  can  know  : 
Yet  poor  with  fortune,  and  with  learning  blind. 

The  bad  must  miss  ; the  good  untaught  will  find. 

Whatever  is,  is  right.  This  world,  ’tis  true, 

Was  made  for  Caesar, — but  for  Titus  too. 

And  which  more  blest  ? who  chain’d  his  country,  say, 
Or  he  whose  virtue  sigh’d  to  lose  a day  ? 


Promiscuous, 


PUNCTUATION. 


245 


< The  first  sure  symptom  of  a mind  in  health, 

Is  rest  of  heart,  and  pleasure  felt  at  home. 

True  happiness  resides  in  things  unseen. 

No  smiles  of  fortune  ever  bless  the  bad  ; 

Nor  can  her  frowns  rob  innocence  of  joy. 

Oh  the  dark  days  of  vanity  ! while  here, 

How  tasteless  ! and  how  terrible,  when  gone  ! 

Gone  1 they  ne’er  go  : when  past,  they  haunt  us  still. 

Father  of  light  and  life  ! Thou  good  supreme  ! 

O teach  me  what  is  good  ! Teach  me  thyself! 

Save  me  from  folly,  vanity,  and  vice. 

From  ev’ry  low  pursuit ; and  feed  my  soul 
With  knowledge,  conscious  peace,  and  virtue  pure. 
Sacred,  substantial,  never  fading  bliss  ! 

If  I am  right,  thy  grace  impart. 

Still  in  the  right  to  stay  : 

If  I am  wrong,  O teach  my  heart 
To  find  that  better  way. 

Save  me  alike  from  foolish  pride, 

Or  impious  discontent. 

At  aught  thy  wisdom  has  denied. 

Or  aught  thy  goodness  lent. 

O lost  to  virtue,  lost  to  manly  thought. 

Lost  to  the  noble  sallies  of  the  soul. 

Who  think  it  solitude  to  be  alone  ! 

Communion  sweet,  communion  large  and  high. 

Our  reason,  guardian  angel,  and  our  God. 

Then  nearest  these,  when  others  most  remote  ; 

And  all,  ere  long,  shall  be  remote,  but  these. 

BENEVOLENCE. 

God  loves  from  whole  to  parts  ; but  human  soul 
Must  rise  from  individual  to  the  whole. 

Self-love  but  serves  the  virtuous  mind  to  wake. 

As  the  small  pebble  stirs  the  peaceful  lake  : 

The  centre  mov’d,  a circle  straight  succeeds  ; 

Another  still,  and  still  another  spreads. 

Friend,  parent,  neighbour,  first  it  will  embrace  ; 

His  country  next ; and  next,  all  human  race  : 

Wide,  and  more  wide  th’  o’erflowings  of  the  mind, 
Take  ev’ry  creature  in,  of  ev’ry  kind. 


KEY. 


Promiscuous. 


Earth  smiles  around,  with  boundless  bounty  blest ; 
And  Heaven  beholds  its  image  in  his  breast. 

HAPPINESS. 

Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 

^‘Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below 

The  only  point  where  human  bliss  stands  still, 

And  tastes  the  good  without  the  fall  to  ill ; 

Where  only  merit  constant  pay  receives. 

Is  blest  in  what  it  takes,  and  what  it  gives  ; 

The  joy  unequalPd,  if  its  end  it  gain. 

And  if  it  lose  attended  with  no  pain : 

Without  satiety,  though  e’er  so  bless’d  ; 

And  but  more  relish’d  as  the  more  distress’d  : 

The  broadest  mirth  unfeeling  folly  wears, 

Less  pleasing  far  than  virtue’s  very  tears. 

Good,  from  each  object,  from  each  place  acquir’d ; 
For  ever  exercis’d,  yet  never  tir’d  ; 

Never  elated  while  one  man’s  oppress’d; 

Never  dejected  while  another’s  blest : 

And  where  no  wants,  no  wishes  can  remain  ; 

Since  but  to  wish  more  virtue,  is  to  gain. 

GRATITUDE. 

When  all  thy  mercies,  O my  God  ! 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 

Transported  with  the  view,  I’m  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 

O how  shall  words,  with  equal  warmth, 

The  gratitude  declare, 

That  glows  within  my  ravish’d  heart? 

But  thou  canst  read  it  there. 

Thy  providence  my  life  sustain’d 
And  all  my  wants  redress’d 
When  in  the  silent  womb  I lay. 

And  hung  upon  the  breast. 

To  all  my  weak  complaints  and  cries. 

Thy  mercy  lent  an  ear. 

Ere  yet  my  feeble  thoughts  had  learn’d 
To  form  themselves  in  pray’r. 

Unnumber’d  comforts  to  my  soul 
Thy  tender  care  bestow’d 
Before  my  infant  heart  conceiv’d 
From  whom  those  comforts  flow’d. 


Promiscuous. 


PUNCTUATION. 


247 


When  in  the  slipp’ry  paths  of  youth, 

With  heedless  steps,  I ran. 

Thine  arm,  unseen,  convey’d  me  safe. 

And  led  me  up  to  man. 

Through  hidden  dangers,  toils,  and  deaths, 

It  gently  clear’d  my  way  ; 

And  through  the  pleasing  snares  of  vice. 

More  to  be  fear’d  than  they. 

When  worn  with  sickness,  oft  hast  thou, 

With  health  renew’d  my  face  ; 

And  when  in  sin  and  sorrow  sunk, 

Reviv’d  my  soul  with  grace. 

Thy  bounteous  hand  with  worldly  bliss, 

Has  made  my  cup  run  o’er  ; 

And,  in  a kind  and  faithful  friend. 

Has  doubled  all  my  store. 

Ten  thousand* thousand  precious  gifts 
My  daily  thanks  employ  ; 

Nor  is  the  least,  a cheerful  heart. 

That  tastes  those  gifts  with  joy. 

Through  ev’r}r  period  of  my  life, 

Thy  goodness  I’ll  pursue  ; 

And,  after  death,  in  distant  worlds. 

The  glorious  theme  renew. 

When  nature  fails,  and  day  and  night 
Divide  thy  works  no  more. 

My  ever  grateful  heart,  O Lord  ! " 

Thy  mercy  shall  adore. 

Through  all  eternity,  to  thee 
A joyful  song  I’ll  raise  ; 

For  O ! eternity’s  too  short 
To  utter  all  thy  praise. 

THE  VOYAGE  OF  LIFE. 

Self-flatter’d,  unexperienc’d,  high  in  hope. 

When  young,  with  sanguine  cheer,  and  streamers  gay, 

We  cut  our  cable,  launch  into  the  world. 

And  fondly  dream  each  wind  and  star  our  friend, 

All  in  some  darling  enterprise  embark’d. 

But  where  is  he  can  fathom  its  event  ? 


248 


KEY. 


Promiscuous. 


Amid  a multitude  of  artless  hands, 

(Ruin’s  sure  perquisite,  her  lawful  prize,) 

Some  steer  aright : but  the  black  blast  blows  hard, 

And  puffs  them  wide  of  hope.  With  hearts  of  proof, 
Full  against  wind  and  tide,  some  win  their  way  ; 

And  when  strong  effort  has  deserv’d  the  port, 

And  tugg’d  it  into  view,  ’tis  won  ! ’tis  lost ! 

Though  strong  their  oar,  still  stronger  is  their  fate  : 
They  strike  and  while  they  triumph  they  expire 
In  stress  of  weather,  most,  some  sink  outright. 

O’er  them  and  o’er  their  names,  the  billows  close  ; 

To  morrow  knows  not  they  were  ever  born. 

Others,  a short  memorial  leave  behind. 

Like  a flag  floating  when  the  bark’s  ingulf’d  ; 

It  floats  a moment,  and  is  seen  no  more  ; 

One  Cmsar  lives,  a thousand  are  forgot. 

How  few,  favour’d  by  ev’ry  element. 

With  swelling  sails  make  good  the  promis’d  port, 
With  all  their  wishes  freighted  ! Yet  ev’n  these, 
Freighted  with  all  their  wishes,  soon  complain. 

Free  from  misfortune,  not  from  nature  free,. 

They  still  are  men ; and  when  is  man  secure  ? 

As  fatal  time,  as  storm.  The  rush  of  years 
Beats  down  their  strength ; their  numberless  escapes 
In  ruin  end  : and,  now,  their  proud  success 
But  plants  new  terrors  on  the  victor’s  brow. 

What  pain,  to  quit  the  world  just  made  their  own  ! 
Their  nests  so  deeply  down’d,  and  built  so  high  ! — 
Too  low  they  build,  who  build  beneath  the  stars. 


PART  V. 


PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY. 


FIRST, 

With  respect  to  single  words  and  phrases. 


CRAPTER  L 

Corrections  of  the  errors  that  relate  to  PURITY. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  117. 

We  should  be  daily  employed  in  doing  good. 

/ am  wearied  with  seeing  so  perverse  a disposition. 

/ know  not  who  has  done  this  thing. 

He  is  in  no  wise  thy  inferior ; and,  in  this  instance,  is  not  at 
all  to  blame. 

The  assistance  was  welcome,  and  seasonably  afforded. 

For  want  of  employment,  he  wandered  idly  about  the  fields. 

We  ought  to  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  in  the 
world. 

He  was  long  indisposed,  and  at  length  died  of  melancholy. 

That  word  follows  the  general  rule,  and  takes  the  penultimate 
accent. 

He  was  an  extraordinary  genius,  and  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. 

The  haughtiness  of  Florio  was  very  ungraceful,  and  dis- 
gusted both  his  friends  and  strangers. 

He  charged  me  with  want  of  resolution,  hut  in  this  censure 
he  was  greatly  mistaken. 

They  have  manifested  great  cdndour  in  all  the  transaction. 

The  conformity  of  the  thought  to  truth  and  nature  greatly 
recommended  it. 

The  importance  as  well  as  the  authenticity  of  the  books,  has 
been  clearly  displayed. 

It  is  difficult  to  discover  the  spirit  and  design  of  some  laws. 

The  disposition  which  he  exhibited,  was  both  unnatural  and 
uncomfortable. 

VoL.  II. 


33 


250  KEY.  Propriety. 

His  natural  severity  rendered  him  a very  unpopular  speaker. 

The  inquietude  of  his  mind,  made  his  station  and  wealth  far 
from  being  enviable. 

I received  the  gift  with  pleasure,  but  I shall  now  more  gladly 
resign  it.  Or — with  greater  pleasure  resign  it. 

These  are  things  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  growing  age. 

/ am  grieved  with  the  view  of  so  many  blank  leaves,  in  the 
book  of  my  life. 

I repent  that  I have  so  long  walked  in  the  paths  of  folly. 

/ think  that  I am  not  mistaken  in  an  opinion,  which  I have  so 
well  considered. 

They  thought  it  an  important  subject,  and  the  question  was 
strenuously  debated  on  both  sides. 

Thy  speech  betrays  thee  ; for  thou  art  a Gallilean. 

Let  us  not  give  too  hasty  credit  to  stories  which  may  injure 
our  neighbour : perhaps  they  are  the  offspring  of  calumny,  or 
misapprehension. 

The  gardens  were  void  of  simplicity  and  elegance  ; and  ex- 
hibited much  that  was  glaring  and  whimsical. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Corrections  of  the  errors  relating  to  PROPRIETY. 

SECTION  I. 

See  VoL  2.  p.  1 18. 

I would  as  readily  do  it  myself,  as  persuade  another  to  do  it. 

Of  the  justness  of  his  measures,  he  convinced  his  opponent 
by  the  force  of  argument. 

He  is  not  in  any  degree  better  than  those  whom  he  so  liber- 
ally condemns. 

He  insists  upon  security,  and  will  not  liberate  him  till  it  be 
obtained. 

The  meaning  of  the  phrase,  as  I understand  it,  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  common  acceptation. 

The  favourable  moment  should  be  embraced  ; for  he  does 
not  continue  long  in  one  mind. 

He  exposed  himself  so  much  amongst  the  people,  that  he 
was  once  or  twice  in  danger  of  having  his  head  broken. 

He  was  very  dexterous  in  penetrating  the  views  and  designs 
of  others. 

If  a little  care  were  bestowed  upon  his  education^  he  might  be 
very  useful  amongst  his  neighbours. 


Propriety.  perspicuity,  &c.  251 

He  might  have  perceived,  by  a transient  view,  the  difficulties 
to  w^hich  his  conduct  exposed  him. 

If  I should  have  a little  leisure  to-morrow,  I intend  to  pay 
them  a short  visit. 

This  performance  is  of  the  same  value  as  the  other. 

The  scene  was  new,  and  he  was  seized  with  wonder  at  all  he 
saw. 


SECTION  II. 

See  Vol.2.  p.  119. 

Let  us  consider  the  works  of  nature  and  those  of  art,  with 
proper  attention. 

He  is  engaged  in  a treatise  on  the  interests  of  the  soul  and  of 
the  body. 

Some  productions  of  nature  rise  or  sink  in  value,  according  as 
they  more  or  less  resemble  those  of  art. 

The  Latin  tongue  was  never  spoken,  in  its  purity,  in  this  island. 

For  some  centuries,  there  was  a constant  intercourse  between 
France  and  England,  by  reason  of  the  dominions  which  we  pos- 
sessed there,  and  the  conquests  which  v/e  made.  Or — occasioned 
by  the  dominions,  &c. 

He  is  impressed  with  a true  sense  of  the  importance  of  that 
function,  when  chosen  from  a regard  to  the  interests  of  piety 
and  virtue. 

The  wise  and  the  foolish,  the  virtuous  and  the  vile,  the  learned 
and  the  ignorant,  the  temperate  and  the  profligate,  must  often, 
like  the  wheat  and  the  tares,  be  blended  together. 


SECTION  III. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  119. 

An  eloquent  speaker  may  give  more  numerous,  but  cannot 
give  more  convincing  arguments,  than  this  plain  man  offered. 
Or — may  give  more,  but  cannot  give  stronger,  &c. 

These  persons  possessed  very  moderate  intellects,  even  before 
they  had  impaired  them  by  the  extravagance  of  passion. 

True  wit  is  nature  dressed  to  advantage ; but  some  works 
have  more  ornament  than  does  them  good. 

The  sharks,  that  prey  upon  the  inadvertency  of  young  heirs, 
are  more  pardonable  than  those,  who  trespass  upon  the  good 


252  KEY.  Propriety, 

opinion  of  persons  that  treat  them  with  great  confidence  and 
respect. 

Honour  teaches  us  properly  to  respect  ourselves,  and  to 
violate  no  right  or  privilege  of  our  neighbour:  it  leads  us  to 
support  the  feeble,  to  relieve  the  distressed,  and  to  scorn  to  be 
governed  by  degrading  and  injurious  passions.  It  must,  there- 
fore, he  a false  and  mistaken  honour,  that  prompts  the  destroyer 
to  take  the  life  of  his  friend. 

He  will  always  be  with  you,  to  support  and  comfort  you^ 
and  in  some  measure  to  prosper  your  labours ; and  he  will  also 
be  with  all  his  faithful  ministers,  who  shall  succeed  you  in  his 
service. 

SECTION  IV. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  120. 

Most  of  our  sailors  were  asleep  in  their  apartments,  when  a 
heavy  wave  broke  over  the  ship,  and  swept  away  one  of  our  boats, 
and  the  box  which  contained  our  compasses,  &c.  Our  cabin  win- 
doivs  were  secured,  or  the  vessel  would  have  been  filled.  The 
main-mast  was  so  .damaged  that  we  were  obliged  to  strengthen 
it,  and  to  proceed  for  Lisbon. 

The  book  is  very  neatly  printed : the  distances  between  the 
lines  are  ample  and  regular,  and  the  lines  themselves  on  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  each  leaf,  exactly  correspond  to  one  another. 


SECTION  V. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  120. 

When  our  friendship  is  considered,  how  i^  it  possible  that  I 
should  not  grieve  for  having  loU  such  a friend,  * 

The  hen  being  in  her  nest,  was  killed  and  eaten  there  by  the 
eagle.  Or — The  eagle  killed  the  hen,  flew  to  her  nest  in  the  tree, 
and  eat  her  there. 

It  may  be  justly  said,  that  there  are  no  laws  preferable  to  those 
of  England. 

They  who  have  pretended  to  polish  and  refine  the  English 
language,  have  been  the  chief  agents  in  multiplying  its  abuses 
and  absurdities.  Or — the  chief  thing,  which  they  who  have  pre- 
tended to  polish  and  reflne  theEnglish  language,  have  done,  is,  to 
multiply  its  abuses  and  absurdities. 

The  English  adventurers,  degenerating  from  the  customs  of 
tlwir  own  nation,  were  gradually  assimilated  to  the  natives,  in- 
stead of  reclaiming  them  from  their  uncultivated  manners. 


Propriety.  perspicuity,  &c.  253 

It  has  been  said,  that  Jesuits  can  not  only  equivocate.  Or — 
Jesuits  are  not  the  only  persons  who  can  equivocate^ 

We  must  not  i\nnk  that  these  people,  when  injured,  have  no 
right  at  all  to  our  protection.  Or — have  less  right  than  others 
to  our  protection. 

Solomon  the  son  of  David,  and  the  luilder  of  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  was  the  richest  monarch  that  reigned  over  the  Jew- 
ish people. 

Solomon,  whose  father  David  was  persecuted  by  Saul,  was 
the  richest  monarch  of  the  Jews. 

It  is  certain  that  all  the  words  which  are  signs  of  complex 
ideas,  may  furnish  matter  of  mistake  and  cavil.  Or — all  those 
words,  &c. 

Lisias,  speaking  of  his  friends,  promised  to  his  father,  never 
to  abandon  them.  Or — Lisias^  speaking  of  his  father'^s  friends, 
promised  to  his  father,  never  to  cd)andon  them. 

The  Divine  Being,  ever  liberal  and  faithful,  heapeth  favours 
on  his  servants.  Or — The  Divine  Being  heapeth  f avours  on  his 
liberal  and  faithful  servants. 

Every  well-instructed  scribe,  is  like  a householdej^,  who 
bringeth  out  of  his  treasure  new  things  and  old. 

Ho/ was  willing  to  spend  one  or  two  hundred  pounds,  rather 
than  be  enslaved. 

Dryden,  in  the  following  words,  makes  a very  handsome  ob- 
servation, on  Ovid’s  writing  a letter  from  Dido  to  ^Eneas. 

Imprudent  associations  disqualify  us  for  instructing  or  reprov- 
ing others.  Or — disqualify  us  for  receiving  instruction  or  re- 
proof from  others. 

SECTION  VI. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  121. 

I SELDOM  see  a noble  building,  or  any  great  piece  of  magnifi- 
^cence  and  pomp,  but  I think,  how  little  is  all  this  to  satisfy  the 
ambition  of  an  immortal  soul ! 

A poet,  speaking  of  the  universal  deluge,  says  : 

Yet  when  that  flood  in  its  own  depth  was  drown’d, 

It  left  behind  it  false  and  slipp’ry  ground. 

When  the  waters  of  the  deluge  had  subsided,  they  left,  &c. 

The  author  of  the  Spectator  says,  that  a man  is  not  qualified 
for  a bust,  who  has  not  a good  deal  of  wit  and  vivacity. 

And  Bezaleel  made  the  laver  of  brass,  and  the  foot  of  it  of 
brass,  of  the  mirrors  used  by  the  women. 


254 


KEY. 


Propriety, 


And,  in  the  lower  deep,  another  deep 
Still  threatening  to  devour  me,  opens  wide. 

SECTION  VII. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  122. 

No  fewer  than  two  hundred  scholars  have  been  educated  in 
that  school. 

The  business,  however  laudable  the  attempt,  was  found  to 
be  impracticable. 

He  is  our  common  benefactor,  and  deserves  our  respect  and 
obedience. 

Vivacity  is  often  promoted,  by  presenting  a sensible  object  to 
the  mind,  instead  of  an  intellectual  one. 

They  broke  down  the  banks,  and  the  country  was  soon 
overflowed. 

The  garment  was  decently  formed,  and  sewed  very  neatly. 

The  house  is  a cold  one,  for  it  has  a northern  aspect. 

The  proposal  for  each  of  us  to  relinquish  something,  was 
complied  with,  and  produced  a cordial  reconciliation. 

Though  learn’d,  well  bred  ; and  though  well  bred,  sincere  : 

Modestly  bold,  and  humanely  severe. 

A fop  is  a ridiculous  character,  in  every  one’s  view  but  his 
own. 

An  action  that  excites  laughter,  without  any  mixture  of  con- 
tempt, may  be  called  a risible  action. 

It  is  difficult  for  him  to  speak  three  sentences  successively. 

By  this  expression,  I do  not  mean  what  some  persons  annex 
to  it. 

The  neglect  of  timely  precaution  was  the  cause  of  his  great 
loss. 

All  the  sophistry  wffiich  has  been  employed,  cannot  obscure 
SQ  plain  a truth. 

Disputing  should  always  be  so  managed,  as  to  remind  us,  that 
the  only  end  of  it  is  truth. 

My  friend  was  so  ill  that  he  could  not  sit  up  at  all,  but  w^as 
obliged  to  lie  continually  in  bed. 

A certain  prince,  it  is  said,  when  he  invaded  the  Egyptians, 
placed,  in  the  front  of  his  army,  a number  of  cats  and  other 
animals,  which  were  worshipped  by  those  people.  A reverence 
for  these  creatures,  made  the  Egyptians  lay  down  their  arms, 
and  become  an  easy  conquest. 

The  presence  of  the  Deity,  and  the  interest  which  so  august 
a Being  is  supposed  to  take  in  our  concerns,  is  a source  of  con- 
solation. 


Propriety,  perspicuity,  &c.  255 

And  when  they  had  kindled  a fire  in  the  midst  of  the  hall,  and 
had  sat  down  together,  Peter  sat  down  among  them. 

By  the  slavish  disposition  of  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome, 
under  the  emperers,  the  wit  and  eloquence  of  the  age  were 
wholly  turned  towards  panegyric.  Or — wholly  employed  in 
panegyric. 

The  refreshment  came  in  seasonably,  before  they  had  lain 
down  to  rest. 

We  speak  what  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  which  we  have 
seen. 

They  shall  as  the  eagle  that  hasteth  to  eat. 

The  wicked  jlee  when  no  man  pursueth : but  the  righteous 
are  bold  as  a lion. 

A creature  of  a more  exalted  kind 

Was  wanted  yet,  and  then  was  man  design’d. 

He  died  by  violence  ; for  he  was  killed  with  a sword. 

He  had  scarcely  taken  the  medicine,  when  he  began  to  feel 
himself  relieved. 

No  place  nor  any  object  appears  to  him  void  of  beauty. 

When  we  fall  into  conversation,  with  any  person  the  first  thing 
we  should  consider,  is,  the  intention  of  it. 

Galileo  invented  the  telescope ; Hervey  discovered  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood. 

Philip  found  difficulty  in  managing  the  Athenians,  from  the 
nature  of  their  dispositions ; but  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes 
was  the  greatest  obstacle  to  his  designs. 

A hermit  is  austere  in  his  life  ; a ']\idg(d^  rigorous  in  his  sen- 
tences. 

A candid  man  acknowledges  his  mistake,  and  is.  forgiven  ; a 
patriot  avows  his  opposition  to  a bad  minister,  and  is  ap- 
plauded. 

We  have  increased  our  family  and  expenses ; and  enlarged 
our  garden  and  fruit  orchard. 

By  proper  reflection,  we  may  be  taught  to  correct  what  is 
erroneous  and  to  supply  what  is  defective. 

The  good  man  is  not  overcome  by  disappointment,  when 
that  which  is  mortal  dies ; when  that  which  is  mutable,  begins  to 
change ; and  when  that  which  he  knew  to  be  transient,  passes 
away. 


256 


KEY. 


Precision. 


CHAPTER  III. 

^ I ■ 

Corrections  of  the  errors  which  respect  PRECISION. 

SeeVol.  2.  p.  124. 

This  great  politician  desisted  from  his  designs,  when  he  found 
them  impracticable. 

He  was  of  so  high  and  independent  a spirit,  that  he  abhorred 
being  in  debt.  ^ 

Though  raised  to  an  exalted  station,  she  was  a pattern  of 
piety,  and  virtue. 

The  human  body  may  be  divided  into  the  head,  the  trunk, 
and  the  limbs. 

His  end  soon  approached  ; and  he  died  with  great  fortitude. 

He  was  a man  of  so  much  pride,  that  he  despised  the  senti- 
ments of  others. 

Poverty  induces  dependence  ; and  dependence  increases  cor- 
ruption. 

This  man  on  all  occasions,  treated  his  inferiors  with  great 
disdain. 

There  can  be  no  order  in  the  life  of  that  man,  who  does  not 
allot  a due  share  of  his  time,  to  retirement  and  reflection. 

Such  equivocal  expressions,  mark  an  intention  to  deceive. 

His  cheerful,  happy  temper,  keeps  up  a kind  of  daylight  in 
his  mind,  and  fills  it  with  a steady  and  perpetual  §erenity. 


SECONDLY, 

Perspicuity  and  accuracy^  with  respect  to  the  construction  of 

sentences. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Corrections  of  the  errors  which  relate  to  the  CLEARNESS  of 
a sentence. 

SECTION  I. 

Vol.  2.  p.  125. 

Hence  appears  the  impossibility  that  an  undertaking  so 
managed,  should  prove  successful. 


Clearness.  perspicuity,  &c.  257 

May  roe  not  here  say  with  the  poet,  that  “ virtue  is  its  own 
reward  ?” 

Had  he  died  before,  would  not  his  art  have  been  then  wholly 
unknown  ? 

Not  to  exasperate  him,  I s'poke  only  a very  few  words. 

The  works  of  art  receive  a great  advantage,  from  the  resem- 
blance which  they  have  to  those  of  nature,  because  \\GVQnot  only 
the  similitude  is  pleasant,  but  the  pattern  is  perfect. 

It  may  be  proper  to  give  some  account  of  those  practices, 
anciently  used  on  such  occasions,  and  discontinued  only  through 
the  neglect  and  degeneracy  of  later  times. 

Sixtus  the  fourth  was,  if  I mistake  not,  a great  collector  at 
least  of  books. 

If  Louis  XIV.  was  not  the  greatest  king,  he  was  at  least  the 
best  actor  of  majesty,  that  ever  filled  a throne. 

These  forms  of  conversation,  multiplied,  hy  degrees^  and  grew 
troublesome. 

Nor  does  this  false  modesty  expose  us  to  such  actions  only 
as  are  indiscreet,  but  very  often  to  such  as  are  highly  criminal. 

By  greatness,  I do  not  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object  only, 
but  the  largeness  of  a whole  view.  Or — / mean  not  only  the 
hulk  of  any  single  object,  hut,  &c. 

I formerly  engaged  in  that  business,  but  1 shall  never  be 
concerned  in  it  again. 

e frequently  do  those  things,  which  we  afterwards  repent  of. 

By  often  doing  the  same  thing,  it  becomes  habitual. 

Most  nations,  even  the  Jews  not  excepted,  were  prone  to 
idolatry. 

Raised  to  greatness  without  merit,  he  employed  his  power 
solely  for  the  gratification  of  his  passions. 

SECTION  II. 

SeeVol.  2.  p.  126. 

The  embarrassments  of  the  artificers,  rendered  the  progress 
of  the  work  very  slow. 

He  found  the  place  replete  with  wonders,  with  the  contem- 
plation of  which  he  proposed  to  solace  himself,  if  he  should 
never  be  able  to  accomplish  his  flight. 

They  are  now  engaged  in  a study,  the  usefulness  of  which 
they  have  long  wished  to  know. 

This  was  an  undertaking,  which,  in  the  execution,  proved  as 
impracticable,  as  every  other  of  their  pernicious,  yet  abortive 
schemes,  had  turned  out. 

VoL.  H. 


33 


358 


KEY. 


Clearness, 


He  thought  that  the  presbyters  would  soon  become  more 
dangerous  to  the  magistrates,  than  the  prelatical  clergy  had  ever 
been. 

Frederick,  seeing  it  was  impossible,  with  safety,  to  trust  his  lilfe 
in  their  hands,  was  obliged  to  take  the  Mahometans  for  his  guard. 

The  emperor  refused  to  convert  the  truce  at  once  into  a 
definitive  treaty. 

In  the  night,  however,  the  miserable  remains  were  taken  down. 

I have,  in  this  paver,  hy  way  of  introduction,  settled  the  mean- 
ing of  those  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  which  are  the  subject 
of  my  present  undertaking  : and  endeavoured,  several  con- 
siderations, to  recommend  to  my  readers,  the  pursuit  of  those 
pleasures : I shall,  in  my  next  paper,  examine  the  several  sources 
from  whence  these  pleasures  are  derived. 

Sir  Francis  Bacon,  in  his  Essay  upon  Health,  in  which  he 
particularly  dissuades  the  reader  from  knotty  and  subtle  inquisi- 
tions, has  not  thought  it  improper  to  prescribe  to  him  a poem, 
or  a prospect ; and  he  advises  him  to  pursue  studies  that  fill 
the  mind  with  splendid  and  illustrious  objects,  as  history,  poetry, 
and  contemplations  of  nature. 

The  English  reader,  if  he  would  see  the  notion  explained  at 
large,  may  find  it  in  Locke’s  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding. 

Fields  of  corn  form  a pleasant  prospect ; and  if  a little  care 
were  bestowed  on  the  walks  that  lie  between  them,  they  would 
display  neatness,  regularity,  and  elegance. 

Though  religion  will  indeed  bring  us  under  some  restraints, 
they  are  not  only  tolerable,  but,  on  the  whole,  desirable. 

I have  confined  myself  to  those  methods  for  the  advancement 
of  piety,  which,  by  a strict  execution  of  the  laws,  are  in  the 
power  of  a prince,  limited  like  ours. 

This  morning,  when,  with  great  care  and  diligence,  one  of  the 
gay  females  was  looking  over  some  hoods  and  ribands,  brought 
by  her  tirewoman,  I employed  no  less  in  examining  the  box 
which  contained  them. 

Since  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  a perpetual  inter- 
course of  buying  and  selling,  and  dealing  upon  credit,  the  honest 
dealer,  where  fraud  is  permitted  or  connived  at,  or  has  no  law 
to  punish  it,  is  often  undone,  and  the  knave  gets  the  advantage. 

Though  energetic  brevity  is  not  adapted  alike  to  every  subject, 
we  ought,  on  every  occasion,  to  avoid  its  contrary,  a languid 
redundancy  of  words.  It  is  sometimes  proper  to  be  copious, 
but  never  to  be  verbose.  % 


Clearness. 


PERSPICUITY,  &C. 


259 


A monarchy  limited  like  ours,  may,  for  aught  I know,  be 
placed,  as  it  has  often  been  represented,  just  in  the  middle  point, 
from  whence  a deviation  leads,  on  the  one  hand,  to  tyranny, 
and,  on  the  other,  to  anarchy. 

Having  already  shown  how  the  fancy  is  affected  by  the  works 
of  nature,  and  afterwards  considered,  in  gQueY^\how,  in  forming 
such  scenes  as  are  most  apt  to  delight  the  mind  of  the  beholder, 
the  works  both  of  nature  and  of  art  assist  each  other  ; I shall  in 
this  paper  throw  together  some  reflections,  &:c. 

Let  but  one  brave,  great,  active,  disinterested  man  arise,  and 
he  will  be  receiweA,  followed,  and  venerated. 

Ambition  creates  hatred,  shiness,  discords,  seditions,  and 
wars. 

The  scribes  made  it  their  profession  to  study,  and  to  teach, 
the  laws  of  Moses. 

Sloth  saps  the  foundation  of  every  virtue,  and  pours  upon  us 
a deluge  of  crimes  and  evils. 

The  ancient  laws  of  Rome  were  so  far  from  suffering  a Ro- 
man citizen  to  be  put  to  death,  that  they  would  not  allow  him 
to  be  whipped  or  even  to  be  bound. 

His  labours  to  acquire  knowledge  have  been  productive  of 
great  success  and  satisfaction. 

He  was  a man  of  the  greatest  prudence,  justice,  modesty, 
and  virtue. 

His  favour  or  disapprobation  was  governed  by  the  success  or 
the  failure  of  an  enterprise. 

He  had  a grateful  sense  of  the  benefits,  received,  and  did  every 
thing  in  his  power  to  serve  his  benefactor. 

Many  persons  give  evident  proof,  that  either  they  do  not 
believe  the  principles  of  religion,  or  that  they  do  not  feel  their 
power. 

As  the  guilt  of  an  officer,  if  he  prove  negligent,  will  be  greater 
than  that  of  a common  servant ; so  the  reward  of  his  fidelity 
will  be  proportionably  greater. 

The  comfort  annexed  to  goodness  is  the  pious  man’s  strength. 
It  attaches  his  heart  to  religion.  It  inspires  his  zeal.  It  supports 
his  constancy ; and  accelerates  his  progress. 


SECTION  III. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  128. 

These  are  the  rules  of  the  master,  who  niust  be  obeyed. 
They  attacked  the  house  of  Northumberland,  whom  they  put 
to  death.. 


260  KEY.  Clearness^. 

He  laboured  to  involve  in  ruin  his  minister,  who  had  been 
the  author  of  it.  Or-^^o  ruin  his  minister^  &c. 

What  he  says,  is  true^  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  point. 

The  French  marched  precipitately  as  to  an  assured  victory ; 
whereas  the  English  advanced  very  slowly,  and  discharged  such 
flights  of  arrows,  as  did  great  execution.  When  the  former 
drew  near  the  archers,  the  latter  perceiving  that  they  were  out 
of  breath,  charged  them  with  great  vigour. 

He  was  at  a window  in  Litchfield,  taking  a view  of  the  Catlie- 
dral,  where  a party  of  the  royalists  had  fortified  themselves. 

We  no  where  meet  with  a more  splendid  or  pleasing  show 
in  nature,  than  what  is  formed  in  the  heavens  at  the  rising  and 
setting  of  the  sun,  hy  the  different  stains  of  light,  which  show 
themselves  in  clouds  of  different  situations. 

There  will  be  iound,  throughout  this  Jdngdom,^  round  million 
of  creatures  in  human  figure,  whose  whole  subsistence,  &c. 

It  is  the  custom  of  the  Mahometans,  if  they  see  upon  the 
ground,  any  printed  or  written  paper,  to  take  it  up,  and  lay  it 
aside  carefully,  as  not  knowing  but  it  may  contain  some  piece 
of  their  Alcoran. 

The  laws  of  nature  are,  truly,  what  lord  Bacon  styles  his 
aphorisms,  laws  of  laws.  Civil  laws  are  always  imperfect,  and 
are  often  false  deductions  from  them,  or  applications  of  them : 
nay,  civil  laws  stand,  in  many  instances,  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  laws  of  nature. 

It  has  not  a sentiment  in  it,  says  Pope,  that  the  author  does 
not  religiously  believe. 

Many  act  so  directly  contrary  to  this  method,  that,  from  a 
habit  which  they  acquired  at  the  University,  of  saving  time  and 
paper,  they  write  in  so  diminutive  a manner,  that  they  can 
hardly  read  what  they  have  written. 

Thus  I have^  fairly  given  you  my  own  opinion,  relating  to 
this  weighty  affair,  as  well  as  that  of  a great  majority  of  both 
houses  here ; upon  which  I am  confident  you  may  securely 
reckon. 

li,from  the  earliest  period  of  life,  we  trace  a youth  who  has 
been  well  educated,  we  shall  perceive  the  wisdom  of  the  max- 
ims here  recommended. 


Unity. 


PERSPICUITY,  &c. 


261 


CHAPTER  II. 


Corrections  of  the  errors  relating  to  the  UNITY  of  a 
sentence. 

SECTION  I. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  129. 


A SHORT  time  after  this  injury,  he  came  to  himself ; and  the 
next  day  was  put  on  board  his  ship,  and  conveyed  first  to  Corinth, 
and  thence  to  the  island  of  ^Egina. 

The  Britons,  daily  harassed  by  cruel  inroads  from  the  Piets, 
were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence.  These  people 
reduced  the  greater  part  of  the  island  to  their  own  power ; and 
drove  the  Britons  into  the  most  remote  and  mountainous  parts. 
The  rest  of  the  country,  in  customs,  religion,  and  language, 
became  wholly  Saxons. 

By  eagerness  of  temper,  and  precipitancy  of  indulgence,  men 
forfeit  all  the  advantages  which  patience  would  have  procured ; 
and  incur  the  opposite  evils  to  their  full  extent. 

This  prostitution  of  praise  affects  not  only  the  gross  of  man- 
kind, who  take  their  notion  of  characters  from  the  learned  ; but 
also  the  better  sort  of  people,  who,  by  this  means,  lose  some  part 
at  least  of  their  desire  of  fame,  w^hen  they  find  it  promiscuously 
bestowed  on  the  meritorious  and  on  the  undeserving.  Or— iVb^ 
only  the  gross  part  of  mankind,  who  take  their  notion  of  characters 
from  the  learned,  are  affected  hy  this  prostitution  of  praise  ; the 
better  sort  must  also,  by  this  means,  ^c. 

All  the  precautions  of  prudence,  moderation,  and  condescen- 
sion, which  Eumenes  employed,  were  incapable  of  mollifying 
the  hearts  of  those  barbarians,  and  of  extinguishing  their  jealousy. 
He  must  have  renounced  his  merit  and  virtue  which  occasioned 
it,  to  have  been  capable  of  appeasing  them. 

He  who  performs  every  employment  in  its  due  place  and 
season,  suffers  no  part  of  time  to  escape  without  profit.  He 
multiplies  his  days  ; for  he  lives  much  in  little  space. 

Desires  of  pleasure  usher  in  temptation,  and  forward  the 
growrti  of  disorderly  passions. 


262 


KEY. 


Unity. 


SECTION  II. 
See  Vol.  2.p.  130. 


The  notions  of  lord  Sunderland  were  always  good.  This 
nohleman,  however,  was  a man  of  great  expense. 

In  this  uneasy  state,  both  of  his  public  and  private  life,  Cicero 
was  oppressed  by  a new  and  deep  affliction,  the  death  of  his 
beloved  daughter  Tullia ; which  happened  soon  after  her  divorce 
from  Dollabella.  The  manners  and  humours  of  this  man  were 
entirely  disagreeable  to  Tullia. 

The  sun  approaching  melts  the  snow,  and  breaks  the  icy 
fetters  of  -the  main.  Here,  vast  sea-monsters  pierce  through 
floating  islands,  with  arms  which  can  withstand  the  crystal 
rock ; whilst  others,  that  of  themselves  seem  great  as  islands, 
are,  by  their  bulk  alone,  armed  against  all  but  man.  The  superi- 
ority which  he  possesses  over  creatures  of  a size  and  force  so 
stupendous,  should  make  him  mindful  of  his  privilege  of  reason  ; 
and  force  him  humbly  to  adore  the  great  Composer  of  these 
wondrous  frames,  and  the  Author  of  his  own  superior  wisdom. 

I single  Strada  out  among  the  moderns,  because  he  had  the 
foolish  presumption  to  censure  Tacitus,  and  to  write  history 
himself.  My  friend  will  forgive  this  short  excursion  in  honour 
of  a favourite  writer. 

Boast  not  thyself  of  to-morrow  ; for  thou  knowest  not  what 
a day  may  bring  forth.  For  the  same  reason,  despair  not  of 
to-morrow;  it  may  bring  forth  good  as  well  as  evil.  Vex  not 
thyself  with  imaginary  fears.  The  impending  black  cloud, 
which  is  regarded  with  so  much  dread,  may  pass  by  harmless : 
or  though  it  should  discharge  tlie  storm,  yet  before  it  breaks, 
thou  mayst  be  lodged  in  that  lowly  mansion  which  no  storms 
ever  touch.  ^ 


SECTION  III. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  131. 

D^appointments  will  often  happen  to  the  best  and  wisest 
men ; sometimes  to  the  wisest  and  best  coiicerted plans.  They  may 
happen  too,  not  through  any  imprudence  of  those  who  have  devis- 
ed the  plan,  nor  even  through  the  malice  or  ill  design  of  others ; 
but  merely  in  consequence  of  some  of  those  cross  incidents  of 
life  which  could  not  be  foreseen. 

Without  some  degree  of  patience  exercised  under  injuries, 


Strength.  perspicuity,  &c.  263 

human  life  would  he  rendered  a state  of  perpetual  hostility: 
oflences  and  retaliations  would  succeed  to  one  another  in  end- 
less train. 

Never  delay  till  to-morrow,  what  reason  and  conscience  tell  you 
ought  to  be  performed  to-day.  To-morrow  is  not  yours  ; and 
though  you  should  live  to  enjoy  it,  yoq.  must  not  overload  it  with 
a burden  not  its  own. 

We  must  not  imagine  that  there  is,  in  true  religion,  any  thing 
which  overcasts  the  mind  with  sullen  gloom  and  melancholy 
austerity  ; or  which  derogates  from  that  esteem,  which  men  are 
generally  disposed  to  yield  to  exemplary  virtues.  False  ideas 
may  be  entertained  of  religion,  as  false  and  imperfect  concep- 
tions of  virtue  have  often  prevailed  in  the  world. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Corrections  of  the  errors  which  respect  to  the  STRENGTH  of 
a sentence. 

, SECTION  I. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  130. 

It  is  six  months  since  I paid  a visit  to  my  relations. 

Suspend  your  censure,  till  your  judgment  on  the  subject  can 
be  wisely  formed. 

The  reason  of  his  having  acted  in  the  manner  he  did,  was  not 
fully  explained. 

If  I were  to  give  a reason  for  their  looking  so  well,  it  would 
be,  that  they  rise  early. 

If  I mistake  Hot,  he  is  improved  both  in  knowledge  and  be- 
haviour. Or — I think  he  has  improved  both  in  knowledge  and  be- 
haviour. 

Those  two  boys  appear  to  be  equal  in  capacity. 

Whenever  he  sees  me,  he  inquires  concerning  his  friends. 

The  reason  of  his  conduct  will  appear  in  the  conclusion  of 
this  narrative.  Or — His  conduct  will  be  accounted  for  in 
the,  &LC. 

I hope  this  is  the  last  time  of  my  acting  so  imprudently. 

The  reason  of  his  sudden  departure,  was,  that  the  case  did  not 
admit  of  delay. 

The  people  gained  nothing  farther  by  this  st^p,  than  to  suspend 
their  misery.  Or— nothing  by  this  step,  but  the  suspension  of 
their  misery. 


264  key.  Strength. 

I have  here  supposed  that  the  reader  is  acquainted  with  that 
great  modern  discovery,  which  is,  at  present,  universally  ac- 
knowledged by  the  inquirers  into  natural  philosophy. 

Few  words  in  the  English  language,  are  employed  in  a more 
loose  and  uncircumscribed  sense,  than  fancy  and  imagination. 

I intend  to  make  use  of  these  words  in  my  following  specula- 
tions, that  the  reader  may  rightly  conceive  the  subject  upon 
which  I proceed. 

Commend  me  to  an  argument  like  a flail,  against  which  there 
is  no  fence. 

How  many  are  there,  by  whom  these  good  tidings  were  never 
heard ! 

These  points  have  been  illustrated  in  so  plain  a manner,  that 
the  perusal  of  the  book  has  given  me  satisfaction. 

However  clear  the  conduct  which  he  ought  to  have  pursued, 
he  had  not  resolution  to  set  about  it. 

I was  much  moved  on  this  occasion,  and  left  the  place  full  of 
serious  reflections. 

They  are  of  those  that  rebel  against  the  light : they  know  not 
its  ways,  nor  abide  in  its  paths. 

This  measure  may  afford  some  profit,  and  some  amusement. 
Or — both  profit  and  amusement. 

By  a multiplicity  of  words,  the  sentiments  are  not  set  off  and 
accommodated  : but,  like  David  equipped  in  Saufs  armour,  they 
are  encumbered  and  oppressed. 

Though  closely  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  the  nation,  he  did 
not  neglect  the  concerns  of  his  friends. 

on  the  contrary^  secrecy  had  been  enjoined,  his  conduct 
was  very  culpable. 

’ Less  capacity,  but  more  time,  is  required  for  this  business. 

He  did  not  mention  Leonora,  nor  her  father^  s death. 

The  combatants,  encountered  with  such  rage,  that  eager  only 
to  assail,  and  thoughtless  of  defence,  they  fell  dead  upon  the 
field  together. 

I shall  begin  with  remarking  the  defects,  and  shall  then  pro- 
ceed to  describe  the  excellencies,  of  this  plan  of  education. 

Numberless  orders  of  beings,  to  us  unknown,  people  the  wide 
extent  of  the  universe. 

His  extraordinary  beauty  struck  observers  with  admiration. 
Or — His  beauty  was  so  extraordinary,  that  it  struck,  &c. 

Thought  and  language  act  and  re-act  upon  each  other.  Or — 
act  upon  each  other  mutually. 

Their  interests  were  inseparably  connected. 

Employing  all  the  circumspection  which  reason  can  suggest, 
let  your  prayers,  at  the  same  time,  continually  ascend  to  heaven 
for  support.  Or — While  you  employ  all  the  circumspection 


Strength.  perspicuity,  &c.  265 

lohicli  reason  can  suggest,  let  your  prayers  continually  ascend 
to  heaven  for  support. 

SECTION  II. 

See  Vcl.^.  p.  133. 

The  enemy  said,  I will  pursue,  I will  overtake,  I will  divide 
the  spoil. 

While  the  earth  remaineth,  seed-time  and  harvest,  cold  and 
heat,  summer  and  winter,  and  day  and  night,  shall  not  cease. 

A man  should  endeavour  to  make  the  sphere  of  his  innocent 
pleasures  as  wide  as  possible,  that  he  may  retire  to  them  with 
safety,  and  find  in  them  such  a satisfaction  as  a wise  man  would 
not  blush  to  take.  This  advantage  we  gain  by  means  of  the 
pleasures  of  imagination.  Or — Jliis  satisfaction  we  enjoy  by 
means  of  &c. 

The  army  was  composed  of  Grecians,  and  Carians,  and  Ly- 
cians,  and  Pamphylians,  and  Phrygians. 

The  body  of  this  animal  was  strong,  proportionable,  and 
beautiful. 

Nothing  promotes  knowledge  more  than  steady  application, 
and  a habit  of  observation. 

Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from  the  advantages  of 
fortune,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by  them. 

The  knowledge  which  he  has  acquired,  and  the  habits  of 
application  which  he  possesses,  will  probably  render  him  very 
useful. 

Their  idleness,  their  luxury  and  pleasures,  their  criminal 
deeds,  their  immoderate  passions,  their  timidity  and  baseness 
of  mind,  have  dejected  them  to  such  a degree,  as  to  make  them 
weary  of  life. 

I was  greatly  affected,  so  that  I was  obliged  to  leave  the 
place,  though  my  assistance  had  been  pressingly  solicited. 

I strenuously  opposed  those  measures,  but  it  was  not  in  my 
power  to  prevent  them. 

1 yielded  to  his  solicitation,  for  I perceived  the  necessity  of 
doing  so. 

For  the  wisest  purposes,  Providence  has  designed  our  state 
to  be  checkered  with  pleasure  and  pain.  AssudiXei  us  receive 
it,  and  make  the  best  of  what  is  appointed  to  be  our  lot. 

In  the  time  of  prosperity,  he  had  stored  his  mind  with  use- 
ful knowledge,  with  good  principles,  and  virtuous  dispositions  : 
and  these  resources  remain  entire,  when  the  days  of  trouble 
come. 

VoL.  II 


34 


266 


KEY. 


Strength, 


He  had  made  considerable  advances  in  knowledge,  though 
he  was  very  young,  and  l^oured  under  several  disadvantages. 


SECTION  nr. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  134. 


I HAVE,  with  a good  deal  of  attention,  considered  the  subject 
upon  which  I was  desired  to  communicate  my  thoughts. 

Whether,  in  any  country,  a choice  altogether  unexception- 
able has  been  made,  seems  doubtful. 

Let  us  endeavour  to  establish  to  ourselves  an  interest  in  Him, 
who  in  his  hands  holds  the  reins  of  the  whole  creation. 

Virgil,  who,  in  the  sixth  hook  of  his  JFmeid,  has  cast  the 
whole  system  of  Platonic  philosophy,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the 
soul  of  man,  into  beautiful  allegories,  gives  us  the  punishment, 
&c. 

And,  at  last,  in  the  Pyrenean  treaty,  Philip  the  fourth  was 
obliged  to  conclude  a peace,  on  terms  repugnant  to  his  inclina- 
tion, to  that  of  his  people,  to  the  interest  of  Spain,  and  to  that 
of  all  Europe. 

By  a late  calculation,  it  appears  that,  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, there  are  upwards  of  fifteen  millions  of  inhahitants. 

And  although  persons'  of  a virtuous  and  learned  education, 
when  they  come  forward  into  the  great  world,  may  be,  and  too 
often  are,  drawn  by  the  temptations  of  youth,  and  the  opportu- 
nities of  a large  fortune,  into  some  irregularities,  it  is  ever  with 
reluctance  and  compunction  of  mind,  because  their  bias  to 
virtue  still  continues. 

Were  instruction  an  essential  circumstance  in  epic  poetry, 
I doubt  whether,  in  any  language,  a single  instance  could  be 
given  of  this  species  of  composition. 

Some  of  our  most  eminent  writers  have,  as  far  as  it  regards 
the  subsistence  of  our  affections  after  death,  made  use  of  this 
Platonic  notion,  with  great  beauty  and  strength  of  reason. 

On  surveying  the  most  indifferent  works  of  nature,  men  of 
the  best  sense  have  been  touched,  more  or  less  with  these 
groundless  horrors  and  presages  of  futurity. 

Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

Not  every  one  that  puts  on  the  appearance  of  goodness,  is 
good. 

And  there  appeared  to  them  Elias  with  Moses. 

Your  fathers,  where  are  they  t and  the  prophets,  do  they  live 
for  ever. 


Strength.  perspicuity.  267 

At  last,  after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and  had 
weather,  ijoe  came  hith  no  small  difficulty,  to  our  journefs  end. 

The  praise  of  judgment,  Virgil  has  justly  contested  with 
Homer ; but  his  invention  remains  yet  unrivalled. 

Instead  of  being  critics  on  others,  let  us  employ  our  criticism 
on  ourselves. 

Leaving  others  to  he  judged  hy  Him  who  searcheth  the  heart, 
let  us  implore  his  assistance,  for  enabling  us  to  act  well  our  own 
part. 

After  passion  has  for  awhile  exercised  its  tyrannical  sway,  its 
vehemence  may  by  degrees  subside. 

This  fallacious  art,  instead  of  lengthening  life,  debars  us  from 
enjoying  it. 

Indulging  ourselves  in  imaginary,  often  deprives  us  of  real 
enjoyments.  • 

When  reduced  to  poverty,  how  will  that  nobleman  be  able  to 
conduct  himself,  who  was  educated  only  to  magnificence  and 
pleasure  ? 

It  is  highly  proper  that  a man  should  be  acquainted  with  a 
variety  of  things  the  utility  of  which  is  above  a child’s  compre- 
hension : but  is  it  necessary,  or  even  possible,  that  a child  should 
learn  every  thing  that  it  behoves  a man  to  know  ? 

When  they  fall  into  sudden  difficulties,  they  are  less  per- 
plexed, and  when  they  encounter  dangers  they  are  less  alarmed, 
than  others  in  the  like  circumstances. 

For  all  your  actions,  and  'pajdicidarly  for  the  employments  of 
youth,  you  must  hereafter  give  an  account. 

SECTION  IV. 


^ See  Vol.  2.  p.  136. 

Charity  breathes  habitual  kindness  towai^ds  friends,  courtesy 
towards  strangers,  long-suffering  to  enemies. 

Gentleness  ought  to  form  our  address,  to  regulate  our  speech, 
and  to  diffuse  itself  over  our  whole  behaviour. 

The  propensity  to  look  forward  into  life,  is  too  often  immod- 
erately indulged,  and  grossly  abused. 

The  regular  tenor  of  a virtuous  and  pious  life,  will  prove  the 
best  preparation  for  old  age,  for  death,  and  for  immortality. 

These  rules  are  intended  to  teach  young  persons  to  write 
with  propriety,  perspicuity  and  elegance. 

Sinful  pleasures  degrade  human  honour,  and  blast  the  open- 
ing prospects  of  human  felicity. 

In  this  state  of  mind,  every  object  appears  gloomy,  and  every 
employment  of  life  becomes  an  oppressive  burden. 


KEY. 


268 


Strength. 


They  will  acquire  different  views  by  entering  on  a virtuous 
course  of  action,  and  applying  to  the  honourable  discharge  of 
the  functions  of  their  station. 

By  the  perpetual  course  of  dissipation,  in  which  sensualists 
arc  engaged  ; hy  the  excesses  which  they  indulge ; by  the  riotous 
revel,  and  the  midnight,  or  rather  morning  hours,  to  which  they 
prolong  their  festivity  ; they  debilitate  their  bodies,  wear  out 
their  spirits,  and  cut  themselves  off  from  the  comforts  and 
duties  of  life. 


SECTION  V. 


See  Vol.  2.p.  136. 

By  what  I have  already  expressed,  the  reader  will  perceive 
the  business  upon  which  I am  to  proceed. 

May  the  happy  message  be  applied  to  us,  in  all  its  virtue, 
strength,  and  comfort ! 

Generosity  is  a showy  virtue,  of  which  many  persons  are 
very  fond. 

These  arguments  were,  without  hesitation,  and  with  great 
eagerness,  embraced. 

It  is  proper  to  be  long  in  deliberating,  but  we  should  execute 
speedily. 

Form  your  measures  with  prudence  ; but  divest  yourselves  of 
anxiety  about  the  issue. 

We  are  struck,  we  know  not  how,  with  the  the  symmetry  of 
any  thing  we  see  : and  immediately  acknowledge  the  beauty  of 
an  object,  without  inquiring  into  the  cause  of  that  beauty. 

With  Cicero’s  writings,  these  persons  are  more  conversant, 
than  with  those  of  Demosthenes,  who,  by  many  degrees,  as  an 
orator  at  least,  excelled  the  other. 


SECTION  VI. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  137. 

Our  British  gardeners,  instead  of  following  nature,  love  to 
deviate  from  it  as  much  as  possible.  Or — instead  of  humour- 
img,  &c.  love  to  thwart  it,  &c. 

I have  observed  of  late  the  style  of  some  great  ministers, 
very  much  to  exceed  that  of  any  other  writers. 

The  old  may  inforrh  the  young  ; and  the  young  may  animate 
the  old. 


Strength.  perspicuity,  &c.  269 

The  account  is  generally  balanced ; for  what  we  lose  on  the 
one  hand,  we  gain  on  the  other. 

The  laughers  will  be  for  those  who  have  most  wit ; the  se- 
rious, for  those  who  have  most  reason  on  their  side.  . 

If  men  of  eminence  are  exposed  to  censure  on  the  one  hand, 
they  are  as  much  exposed  to  flattery  on  the  other.  If  they  re- 
ceive reproaches  which  are  not  due,  they  likewise  receive  praises 
that  are  not  due. 

He  can  bribe  but  he  cannot  seduce.  He  can  buy,  but  he 
cannot  gain.  He  can  lie,  but  he  cannot  deceive. 

He  embraced  the  cause  of  liberty  faintly,  and  pursued  it 
irresolutely ; he  grew  tired  of  it,  when  he  had  much  to  hope ; 
and  gave  it  up,  when  he  had  nothing  to  fear. 

There  may  remain  a suspicion  that  we  overrate  the  greatness 
of  his  genius,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  overrate  the  greatness  of 
bodies  that  are  disproportioned  and  misshapen. 

SECTION  VII. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  13S. 


Sobriety  of  mind  suits  the  present  state  of  man. 

As  supporters  of  unlawful  assemblies,  these  people  ase  seized 
and  punished. 

To  use  the  divine  name  habitually,  and  without  serious  con- 
sideration, is  highly  irreverent. 

" From  the  kindness  with  which  he  was  first  received,  great 
hopes  of  success  were  entertained. 

They  conducted  themselves  craftily,  and  ensnared  us  before 
we  had  time  to  escape. 

To  our  confined  and  humble  station,  it  belongs  not  to  censure, 
but  to  submit,  trust,  and  adore. 

The  solace  of  the  mind,  under  all  its  labours,  is  hope  ; and 
there  are  few  situations  which  exclude  it  entirely. 

The  humiliation  of  the  mighty,  and  the  fall  of  ambition  from 
its  towering  height,  little  concern  the  bulk*  of  mankind. 

Tranquillity,  and  magnanimity,  with  the  pious 
resigned  man. 

Idleness.,  ease  and  prosperity,  have  a natural  tendency  to 
generate  folly  and  vice. 

By  a cheerful,  candid,  Viud  uniform  temper,  he  conciliated 
general  favour. 

We  reached  the  mansion  before  noon.  It  was  a strong, 
magnificent.  Gothic  edifice. 

I had  a long  and  perilous  journey,  but  ^pleasing  companion, 
who  relieved  the  fatigue  of  it. 


270  KEY.  Figures. 

The  speech  was  introduced  by  a sensible  exordium,  which 
made  a favourable  impression. 

The  commons  made  a warm  remonstrance  against  so  arbitra- 
ry a requisition. 

The  truly  illustrious  are  they  who  do  not  court  the  praise  of 
the  world,  but  who  perform  the  actions  which  deserve  it. 

By  means  of  society,  our  wants  are  supplied,  and  our  lives 
are  rendered  comfortable;  our  capacities  are  enlarged, and  our 
virtuous  affections  called  forth  into  their  proper  exercise. 

Life  cannot  but  prove  vain  to  them  who  affect  a disrelish  of 
every  pleasure,  that  is  not  both  exquisite  and  new ; who  meas- 
ure enjoyment,  not  by  their  own  feelings,  but  by  the  standard  of 
fashion  ; who  think  themselves  miserable,  if  others  do  not  ad- 
mire their  state. 

By  the  experience  of  distress,  an  arrogant  insensibility  of  tem- 
per is  most  effectually  corrected  ; as  the  remembrance  of  our 
own  sufferings,  naturally  prompts  us  to  feel  for  others,  when 
they  suffer.  But  if  Providence  has  been  so  kind  as  not  to  sub- 
ject us  to  much  of  this  discipline,  in  our  own  lot,  let  us  draw  im- 
provement from  the  harder  lot  of  others.  Let  us  sometimes 
step  aside  from  the  smooth  and  flowery  paths,  in  which  we  are 
permitted  to  walk,  in  order  to  view  the  tcrilsopae  march  of  our 
fellows  through  the  thorny  desert. 

As  no  one  is  without  his  failings,  jfew;  also  are  void  of  amiable 
qualities. 

Providence  delivered  them  up  to  themselves,  and  they  became 
their  own  tormentors. 

From  disappointments  and  trials,  we  learn  the  insufficiency 
of  temporal  things  to  happiness,  and  are  taught  to  seek  it  in  re- 
ligion and  virtue. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Corrections  of  the  errors  that  relate  to  FIGURES  of  Speeeh. 

SeeVol.  2.  p.  139. 

No  human  happiness  is  pure  as  not  to  contain  any  alloy; 
There  is  a time  when  factions,  by  their  vehemence, 
and  disable  one  another. 

I intend  to  make  use  of  these  words  in  my  following  specula- 
tions. Or — in  the  course  of  my  speculations. 

Hope,  the  cheering  star  of  life,  darts  a ray  of  light  through  the 
thickest  gloom. 


Figures.  perspicuity,  &c.  S'?! 

The  scheme  was  highly  expensive  to  him,  and  proved  the 
gulf  of  his  estate. 

He  was  so  much  skilled  in  the  exercise  of  the  oar,  that  few 
could  equal  him. 

The  death  of  Cato  has,  if  I may  he  allowed  to  say  so,  rendered 
the  senate  an  orphan. 

Let  us  be  careful  to  suit  our  sails  to  the  wind  and  weather ; 
and  to  steer  our  vessels  aright,  that  we  may  avoid  the  rocks  and 
shoals,  which  lie  every  where  around  us. 

At  length  Erasmus,  that  great  injur’d  name, 

(The  glory  of  the  priesthood  and  the  shame,) 

Stemm'^d  the  wild  torrent  of  a barb’rous  age, 

And  drove  those  holy  Vandals  off  the  stage. 

In  this  our  day  of  proof,  our  land  of  hope, 

The  good  man  has  his  clouds  that  intervene  ; 

Clouds  that  may  dim  his  sublunary  day. 

But  cannot  darken  : even  the  best  must  own, 

Patience  and  resignation  are  the  pillars 
Of  human  peace  on  earth. 

On  the  wide  sea  of  letters,  ’twas  thy  boast 
To  crowd  each  sail,  and  touch  at  every  coast : 

From  that  rich  deep  how  often  hast  thou  brought 
The  pure  and  precious  pearls  of  splendid  thought  ! 

How  did’st  thou  triumph  on  that  subject  tide. 

Till  vanity’s  wild  gust,  and  stormy  pride. 

Drove  thy  strong  bark,  in  evil  hour,  to  split 
Upon  the  fatal  rock  of  impious  wit  ! 

Since  the  time  that  reason  began  to  exert  her  powers ; thought, 
during  our  waking  hours,  has  been  active  in  every  breast,  with- 
out a moment’s  suspension  or  pause.  The  current  of  ideas  has 
been  always The  wheels  of  the  spiritual  engine  have 
circulated  with  perpetual  motion. 

The  man  who  has  no  rule  over  his  own  spirit,  possesses  no 
defence  against  dangers  of  any  sort.  He  lies  open  to  every 
insurrection  of  ill-humour  and  every  invasion  of  distress. 
Whereas  he*  who  is  employed  in  regulating  his  mind,  is  making 
provision  against  all  the  accidents  of  life.  He  is  erecting  a for- 
tress into  which,  in  the  day  of  danger,  he  can  retreat  with 
safety. 

Tamerlane  the  Great,  writes  to  Bajazet,  emperor  of  the  Ot- 
tomans, in  the  following  terms : — “ Where  is  the  monarch  who 
dares  resist  us  ? Where  is  the  potentate  w’ho  does  not  glory 
in  being  numbered  among  our  attendants  ? As  for  thee,  ignobly 


272 


KEY. 


Promiscuous. 


descended,  since  thy  unbounded  ambition  hath  subverted  all  thy 
vain  expectations^  it  would  be  proper  that  thou  shouldst  repress 
thy  temerity,  repent  of  thy  peifdy^  and  become  just  and  sincere 
in  all  thy  transactions.  This  will  secure  to  thee  a safe  and  quiet 
retreat ; and  preserve  thee  from  falling  a victim  to  that  vengeance, 
which  thou  hast  so  highly  provoked,  and  so  justly  deserved 

It  is  pleasant  to  be  virtuous  and  good  ; because  that  is  to 
excel  many  others : it  is  pleasant  to  grow  better;  because  that  is 
to  excel  ourselves  : it  is  pleasant  even  to  mortif  y and  subdue  our 
lusts  ; because  that  is  victory  : it  is  pleasant  to  command  our 
appetites  and  passions,  and  to  keep  them  in  due  order,  within 
the  bounds  of  reason  and  religion  ; because  this  is  empire. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CORRECTIONS  OF  THE  ERRORS  IN  THE  CHAPTER  OF  PROMISCUOUS 

EXERCISES. 

SECTION  1. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  141. 


What  is  human  life  to  all,  but  a mixture,  of  some  scattered 
joys  and  pleasures,  with  various  cares  and  troubles  ? 

Favours  of  every  kind  are  doubled,  when  they  are  speedily 
conferred. 

He  that  is  himself  weary , will  soon  weary  the  company. 

He  that  will  have  the  kindness  of  others,  must  endure  their 
follies. 

The  first  years  of  man  must  make  provision  for  the  last. 

Perpetual  levity  must  end  in  ignorance. 

In  these  and  in  similar  cases,  we  should  generally,  in  our  alms, 
suffer  no  one  to  be  witness  but  Plim  who  must  see  every  thing. 

The  neglect  of  his  studies,  and  opportunities  of  improvement, 
is  the  ground  of  his  being  so  badly  qualified  for  the  business. 
Or — is  the  reason  that  he  is  so  badly,  &c. 

That  Plutarch  wrote  the  lives  of  Demosthenes  and  Cicero  at 
Chmronea,  is  clear  from  his  own  account. 

I wish  to  cultivate  a further  acquaintance  with  you. 

He  may  make  the  attempt,  but  he  cannot  succeed. 

No  pains  were  spared  by  his  tutor,  to  improve  him  in  all  useful 
knowledge. 


Propriety.  perspicuity,  &c.  273 

In  no  scene  of  her  life  was  Mary’s  address  more  remarkably 
displayed. 

This  was  the  original  cause  of  so  barbarous  a practice. 

By  a variety  of  false  insinuations  he  craftily  endeavoured  to 
turn  the  emperor  to  his  purpose. 

The  beauty  displayed  in  the  earth  equals  the  grandeur  con- 
spicuous in  the  heavens. 

In  the  health  and  vigour  of  the  body,  and  in  the  flourishing 
state  of  worldly  fortune,  all  rejoice. 

What  passes  in  the  hearts  of  men,  is  generally  invisible  to 
the  public  eye. 

Many  associations  ^reformed  by  laws  the  most  arbitrary. 

These  instances  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  sufficient  to  satisfy  every 
reasonable  mind. 

By  rules  so  general  and  comprehensive  as  these  are,  the 
clearest  ideas  are  conveyed. 

He  determined  not  to  comply  with  the  proposal,  unless  he 
should  receive  a fair  compensation. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  health  is  preferable  to  riches. 

We  believe,  said  they  to  their  friends,  that  the  perusal  of  such 
books  has  ruined  our  principles.  Or*^ — ruined  your  principles. 

John’s  temper  greatly  indisposed  him  for  giving  instruction. 
Or — for  receiving  instruction. 

Vegetation  is  constantly  advancing,  though  no  eye  can  trace 
its  gradations. 

His  importunity  was  the  reason  of  my  consenting  to  the 
measure. 

I conceived  a great  regard  for  him,  and  I could  not  but 
mourn  for  the  loss  of  him.  Or — for  the  loss  he  had  sustained. 

He  was  confined  in  his  own  house,  by  the  officer  who  had 
apprehended  him.  Or — He  was  conflned  in  the  house  of  the 
officer  by  whom  he  had  been  apprehended. 

Charlotte,  the  friend  of  Amelia,  to  whom  no  one  imputed 
blame,  was  too  prompt  in  her  friend’s  vindication.  Or — in  her 
own  vindication. 

Men  who  are  rich  and  avaricious,  drown  themselves  in  a 
spring  which  might  have  watered  all  around  them. 

I should  prefer  his  being  of  rather  slow  parts,  than  of  a bad 
disposition. 

As  soon  as  Eugenius  undertook  the  care  of  a parish,  it  en- 
grossed his  attention. 

The  plan  will  at  once  contribute  to  general  convenience,  and 
to  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  the  town. 

Together  with  the  national  debt,  the  greatest  national  advan- 
tages are  transmitted  to  succeeding  generations. 


VoL.  II. 


35 


274 


KEY. 


Promiscuous, 


Their  intimacy  had  probably  commenced  in  the  happier 
period  of  their  youth  and  obscurity. 

His  subject  is  precisely  of  that  kind,  which  only  a daring 
imagination  could  have  adopted. 

This  emperor  conjured  the  senate,  that  the  purity  of  his  reign 
might  not  be  stained  by  the  blood  of  even  a guilty  senator. 

It  is  a happy  constitution  of  mind,  to  be  able  to  view  succes- 
sive objects  so  steadily,  that  the  more  important  may  never 
prevent  us  fioni  doing  justice  to  those  which  are  of  less  conse^ 
quence. 

This  activity  drew  over  to  Virginia^  great  numbers  of  enter- 
prising men  ; who  came  either  in  search  of  fortune,  or  of  liberty, 
which  was  the  only  compensation  for  the  want  oi fortune. 

The  erroneous  judgment  of  parents,  respecting  the  conduct 
of  schoolmasters,  has  paved  the  way  to  the  ruin  of  hopef  ul  boySj 
and  disturbed  the  peace  of  many  an  ingenious  man,  who  had 
engaged  in  the  care  of  youth. 

SECTION  II. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  143. 

The  Greek  is,  doubtless,  a language  much  superior,  in  rzc/i- 
ness,  harmony,  and  variety,  to  the  Latin. 

Those  three  great  geniuses,  flourished  in  the  same  period. 

He  has  made  a judicious  adaptation  of  the  examples  to  the 
rule. 

This  part  of  knowledge  has  been  always  growing,  and  it  will 
continue  to  grow,  till  the  subject  be  exhausted. 

A boy  of  twelve  years  of  age  may  study  these  lessons.  Or 
— a boy  twelve  years  old. 

The  servant  produced  from  his  late  master  an  unexceptionable 
character. 

I am  surprised  that  so  great  a philosopher  should  spend  his 
time  in  the  pursuit  of  such  chimeras. 

The  ends  of  a divine,  and  those  of  a human  legislator,  are 
vastly  different. 

Scarcely  had  the  “Spirit  of  Laws”  made  its  appearance, 
when  it  was  attacked.  Or — No  sooner — than,  &c. 

His  donation  was  the  more  acceptable,  because  it  was  given 
without  solicitation.  Or — as  it  was  given,  &c. 

This  subject  is  an  unwelcome  intruder,  affording  an  uneasy 
sensation,  and  always  bringing  with  it  a mixture  of  concern  and 
compassion. 

He  accordingly  draws  out  his  forces,  and  offers  battle  to  Hiero, 
who  iinmmediately  accepts  it. 


Promiscuous,  PERsncuirv,  &c.  275 

James  lay  late  in  bed  yesterday,  and  this*  moniing  he  lies  still 
later. 

The  reason  of  this  strange  proceeding  will  be  explained^  when 
I make  my  defence. 

I have  often  observed  him,  and  this  is  his  mode  of  proceeding ; 
\\e  first  enjoins  silence  ; and  then,  &c. 

Kot  having  known  or  considered  the  subject,  he  made  a crude 
decision. 

All  of  them  were  deceived  by  his  fair  pretences,  and  all  of 
them  lost  their  property. 

It  is  more  than  a year  since  I left  school. 

He  was  guilty  of  conduct,  so  atrocious,  that  he  was  entirely 
deserted  by  his  friends. 

No  other  employment  than  that  of  a bookseller,  suited  his 
taste.  Or — No  other  employment  but  that  of  a bookseller,  &c. 

By  this  I am  instructed,  and  by  that  I am  honoured. 

I pleaded  that  I was  sincere and  after  some  time,  he  as- 
sented to  the  truth  of  it ; by  which  I entirely  escaped  punish- 
ment. 

To  this  I am  the  more  disposed,  as  it  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
principles  above  advanced. 

From  what  I have  said,  you  v^\][  readily  perceive  the  subject 
on  which  1 am  to  proceed. 

These  are  points  too  trivial  to  be  noticed.  They  are  objects, 
with  which  I am  totally  unacquainted. 

The  nearer  the  men  approach  to  each  other,  the  more  nu- 
merous are  the  points  of  contact,  and  the  greater  be  their 
pleasures  or  their  pains. 

Thus  I have  endeavoured  to  render  the  subject  more  intelli- 
gible. 

This  is  the  most  useful  art  which  men  possess. 

In  dividing  their  subjects,  the  French  writers  of  sermons  study 
neatness. 

There  is  not  more  beauty  in  one  of  them  than  in  another. 


SECTION  III. 


See  Vol.  2.  p.  144. 

Study  to  unite  gentleness  of  manners  with  firmness  of  prin- 
ciple, affable  behaviour  with  untainted  integrity. 

In  that  work,  we  are  frequently  interrupted  by  unnatural 
thoughts. 

If  we  except  one  or  two  expressions,  the  composition  is  not 
liable  to  censure. 


376  key.  Promiscuous. 

To  answer  his  purpose  effectually,  he  selected  a very  moving 
story. 

I am  not  able  to  discover  whether  these  points  are  in  any 
manner  connected. 

These  are  arguments  which  cannot  be  refuted  by  all  the 
cavils  of  infidelity. 

/ was  much  inclined  to  reply  to  this  matter. 

I hope  that  I shall  not  be  troubled  in  future,  on  this  or  any 
similar  occasion. 

It  is  difficult  to  unite  copiousness  with  precision. 

Let  us  consider  the  proper  means  to  effect  our  purpose. 

We  must  pay  attention  to  what  precedes,  and  what  immedi- 
ately follows. 

The  more  this  track  is  pursued,  and  the  more  eloquence  is 
studied,  the  better  we  shall  be  guarded  against  a false  taste. 

True  believers  of  everv  denomination  compose  the  church  of 

God. 

This  is  the  substance  of  what  has  been  said  on  the  subject. 

A perfect  union  of  wit  and  judgement,  is  one  of  the  rarest 
things  that  occur. 

Praise,  like  gold  and  diamonds,  owes  its  value  only  to  its 
scarcity. 

Intemperance,  though  it  may  fire  the  spirits  for  an  hour,  will 
make  life  short  or  miserable. 

From  the  errors  of  their  education,  all  their  miseries  have  pro- 
ceeded. 

The  disinterestedness  of  their  conduct  produced  general  ad- 
miration. 

I viewed  the  habitation  of  my  departed  friend — Venerable 
shade  ! I gave  thee  a tear  then : accept  of  one  cordial  drop  that 
falls  to  thy  memory  now. 

We  are  here  to-day ; and  gone  to-morrow. 

This  author  is  more  remarkable  for  strength  of  sentiment, 
than/br  harmony  of  language. 

Many  persons  are  more  delighted  with  correct  and  elegant 
language,  than  with  the  important  sentiments  and  accurate  rea- 
soning. 

I feel  myself  grateful  to  my  friend,  for  all  the  instances  of 
kindness,  which  he  has  manifested  to  me.  Or— for  all  his  proofs 
of  kindness. 

It  is  not  from  this  world  that  any  ray  of  comfort  can  procee  d, 
to  cheer  the  gloom  of  the  last  hour. 


Promiscuous, 


PERSPICUITY,  &C* 


a77 


SECTION  IV. 


See  Yol.  2.  p.  145. 


It  is  dangejous  for  mortal  heauty^  or  terrestrial  virtue,  to  be 
examined  by  too  strong  a light. 

Beautiful  women  seldom  possess  any  great  accomplishments 
of  mind^  because  they, /br  the  most  part,  study  behaviour  rather 
than  solid  excellence. 

To  fret  and  repine,  at  every  disappointinent  of  our  wishes,  is 
to  discover  the  temper  of  froward  children,  not  of  men,  far  less 
of  Christians. 

It  is  decreed  by  Providence,  that  nothing  truly  valuable  shall 
be  obtained  in  our  present  state,  but  with  difficulty  and  danger. 

Labour  necessarily  requires  pauses  of  ease  and  relaxation; 
and  the  deliciousness  of  ease  commonly  makes  us  unwilling  to 
return  to  labour. 

Nothing  can  be  great  which  is  not  right ; notliing  which  rea- 
son condemns,  can  be  suitable  to  the  dignity  of  the  human  mind. 

In  youth  we  have  warm  hopes  which  are  soon  blasted  by  rash- 
ness and  negligence  ; and  great  designs  \\diich  are  defeated  by 
inexperience. 

To  the  children  of  idleness,  the  haunts  of  dissipation  open 
many  a wide  and  inviting  gate  by  night  and  by  day. 

True  virtue  must  form  one  complete  and  entire  system.  All  its 
parts  are  connected  ; piety  with  morality,  charity  with  justice, 
benevolence  with  temperance  and  fortitude. 

Dissimulation  degrades  parts  and  learning ; obscures  the  lus- 
tre of  every  accomplishment;  and  sinks  us  into  universal 
contempt. 

Positive  as  you  are  in  your  opinions,  and  confident  in  your 
assertions,  be  assured  that  the  time  approaches,  when  both  men 
and  things  will  appear  to  you  in  a different  light. 

In  this  age  of  dissipation  and  luxury,  how  many  avenues  are 
constantly  open,  that  lead  to  the  temjke  of  folly  ! 

By  extravagance  and  idleness,  and  the  vain  ambition  of  emulat- 
ing others  in  the  splendid  show  of  life,  many  run  into  expense 
beyond  their  fortune. 

Objects  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  qualities  : 
they  are  separated  by  the  distance  of  time  or  place. 

Clarendon  being  a man  of  extensive  capacity,  stored  his  mind 
with  a variety  of  ideas ; which  circumstance  contributed  to  the 
successful  exertiofi  of  his  vigorous  abilities. 


378 


KEY, 


Promiscuous. 


SECTION  V. 

SeeVol.  2.  p.  146. 

The  highest  degree  of  reverence  should  be  paid  to  youth ; and 
nothing  indecent  should  be  suffered  to  approach  their  eyes  or 
ears. 

He  who  is  blessed  with  a clear  conscience,  enjoys  in  the  worst 
conjunctures  of  human  life,  a peace^  a dignity,  an  elevation  of 
mind,  peculiar  to  virtue. 

In  a few  years,  the  hand  of  industry  may  change  the  face  of  a 
country  ; hut  it  often  requires  as  many  generations,  to  change  the 
sentiments  and  manners  of  a people. 

When  the  human  mind  dwells  long  and  attentively  on  any 
subject,  the  passions  are  apt  to  grow  warm,  interested,  and 
enthusiastic  ; and  often force  into  their  service  the  understanding 
which  they  ought  to  obey. 

Some  years  afterwards,  being  released  from  prison,  he  was, 
hy  reason  of  his  consummate  knowledge  of  civil  and  military 
affairs,  exalted  to  the  supreme  power. 

The  discontented  man  is  never  found  without  a great  share  of 
malignity.  Kis  spleen  irritates  and  sours  his  temper,  and  leads 
him  to  discharge  its  venom  on  all  with  whom  he  stands  con- 
nected. 

We  cannot  doubt  that  all  the  proceedings  of  Providence, 
when  fully  understood,  will  appear  as  equitable,  as  now  they 
seem  irregular. 

All  that  great  generally  giwes  above  a moderate  fortune, 

is,  more  room  for  the  freaks  of  caprice,  and  more  privilege  for 
ignorance  and  vice ; a quicker  succession  of  flatteries,  and  a 
larger  circle  of  voluptuousness. 

The  miscarriages  of  the  great  designs  of  princes  are  recorded 
in  the  histories  of  the  world,  but  are  of  small  use  to  the  bulk  of 
mankind,  who  seem  very  little  interested  in  admonitions  against 
errors  which  they  cannot  commit. 

W ere  there  any  man  who  could  say,  that  he  had  never,  in  the 
course  of  his  life  suffered  himself  to  be  transported  by  passion, 
or  given  just  ground  of  offence  to  any  one,  such  a man  might  have 
some  plea  for  impatience,  when  he  received  from  others  unreason- 
able treatment. 

Christianity  will,  at  some  future  period,  influence  the  conduct 
of  nations  as  well  as  of  individuals.  But  this  event,  though  its 
greatest,  will  probably  be  its  latest  triumph ; for  it  can  be  effected 
only  through  the  medium  of  private  character  ; and  it  will,  there- 
fore, he  a change  not  rapid  in  its  progress,  and  visible  at  every 


Promiscuous.  perspicuity,  &c.  ^79 

step  ; but  gradual  in  its  advances,  and  ^ercepiihle  only  when  con- 
siderable effects  have  been  produced. 

The  British  constitution  among  the  nations  of  the  earth, 

like  an  ancient  oak  in  the  wood,  which,  after  having  overcome 
many  a blast,  overtops  the  other  trees  of  the  forest^  and  com- 
mands respect  and  veneration. 


SECTION  VI. 

See  Vol.  2.  p.  148. 

What  an  anchor  is  to  a ship  in  a dark  night,  on  an  unknown 
coast,  and  amidst  a boisterous  ocean,  that  is  the  hope  of  future 
happiness  to  the  soul,  distracted  by  the  confusions  of  the 

world.  In  danger,  it  gives  security ; amidst  general  fluctuation, 
it  affords  one  fixed  point  of  rest. 

Our  pride  and  self-conceit,  render  us  quarrelsome  and  content 
tious,  by  nourishing  a weak  and  childish  sensibility  to  every  fan- 
cied point  of  our  own  honour  or  interest,  while  they  shut  up  all 
regard  to  the  honour  or  interest  of  our  brethren. 

If  there  be  any  first  principle  of  wisdom,  it  is  undoubtedly 
this : the  distresses  that  are  removable,  endeavour  to  remove  : 
those  which  cannot  he  removed,  bear  with  as  little  disquiet  as  you 
can  : in  every  situation  of  life,  there  are  comforts  : find  them  out, 
and  enjoy  them. 

Instead  of  aspiring  beyond  your  proper  level,  bring  down 
your  mind  to  your  state  ; lest,  by  aiming  too  high,  you  spend  your 
life  in  a train  of  fruitless  pursuits,  and  bring  yourself  at  last  to 
a state  of  entire  insignificance  and  contempt. 

Often  have  we  seen,  that  what  we  considered,  at  the  time, 
as  a sore  disappointment,  has  proved  in  the  issue  to  be  a merciful 
providence ; and  that,  if  what  we  once  eagerly  wished  for  had 
been  obtained,  it  would  have  been  so  far  from  making  us  happy, 
that  it  would  have  produced  our  ruin. 

Can  the  stream  continue  to  flow,  when  it  is  cut  off  from  the 
fountain  ? Can  the  branch  flourish,  when  torn  away  from  the 
stock  which  gave  it  nourishment  ? No  more  can  dependent 
spirits  be  happy,  when  deprived  of  all  unioU  with  the  Father  of 
spirits,  and  the  fountain  of  happiness. 

Prosperity  is  redoubled  to  a good  man,  by  his  generous  use  of 
it.  It  is  reflected  back  upon  him  from  every  one  whom  he 
makes  happy.  In  the  intercourse  of  domestic  affection,  in  the 
attachment  of  friends,  the  gratitude  of  dependents,  the  esteem  and 
good  will  of  all  who  know  him,  he  sees  blessings  multiplied  round 
him  on  every  side. 


380 


key. 


Promiscuous, 


He  that  would  pass  the  latter  part  of  life  with  honour  and 
decency,  must,  when  he  is  young,  consider  that  he  shall  one  day 
be  old  ; and  remember  when  he  is  old,  that  he  once  was  young. 
In  youth,  he  must  lay  up  knowledge  for  his  support,  when  his 
powers  of  acting  shall  forsake  him  ; and  in  age,  forbear  to  Ani- 
madvert, with  rigour,  on  faults  which  experience  only  can  cor- 
rect. 

Let  us  consider  that  youth  is  not  of  long  duration  ; and  that 
in  maturer  age,  when  the  enchantments  of  fancy  shall  cease, 
and  phantoms  dance  no  more  about  us,  we  shall  have  no  comforts 
but  the  approbation  of  our  own  hearts,  the  esteem  of  wise  men, 
and  the  means  of  doing  good.  Let  us  live  as  men  who  are  some 
time  to  grow  old ; and  to  whom  it  will  be  the  most  dreadful  of  all 
evils,  to  count  their  past  years  only  by  follies,  and  to  be  reminded 
of  their  former  luxuriance  of  health,  only  by  the  maladies  which 
riot  has  produced. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


TO 


BOTH  THE  VOLUMES. 


P 


* 1 


/ 


W'  < 


i;. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  * 


Page. 

ABSOLUTE.  Case  absolute — its  nature  explained,  66,  145,  155,195 

It  belongs  to  no  veirb,  expressed  or  implied,  144,  145 

How  to  be  parsed.  232 

How  to  be  pointed,  271 

ACCENT.  Its  nature  and  distinctions,  235 — 239 

Accent  dignifies  syllables ; emphasis,  words,  244 

Manner  of  pronouncing  the  unaccented  vowels,  denotes  the  speaker’s 

education,  18 

By  what  marks  signified,  282 

ACCUSATIVE  case.  The  same  as  the  objective,  in  nouns,  43 

Generally  diflTerent  in  pronouns,  51,  52 

ADDRESS  to  young  students,  on  the  use  and  abuse  of  their  literary 

attainments,  372 — 376 

ADJECTIVE.  The  definition  of  it,  46 

It  is  varied  only  by  degrees  of  comparison,  46 

Whether  the  positive  is  a degree  of  comparison,  46,  47 

Various  modes  of  forming  the  degrees  of  comparison,  47 

How  adjectives  become  nouns,  and  nouns  adjectives,  47,  48,  169,  170 

ADJECTIVE.  Though  the  degrees  of  comparison  are  indefinite  in 

number,  yet  language  requires  but  few  of  them,  48 

The  superlative  of  Eminence,  and  the  superlative  of  Comparison 

distinguished,  49 

Some  qualities  do  not  admit  of  comparison,  49,  50 

Every  adjective  has  its  substantive,  161 

Adjectives  improperly  used  as  adverbs,  166 

This  impropriety  exemplified.  Exercises^  55,  56,  Key,  190,  191 

Rules  for  avoiding  this  impropriety.  Exercises,  95 

Adjective  pronoun  such  is  often  misapplied,  166 

Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  improper,  167 

This  point  exemplified.  Exercises,  56,  Key,  192 

Adjectives  having  a superlative  signification,  do  not  admit  of  comparison,  167 
This  point  illustrated.  Exercises,  57,  Key,  192 

Degrees  of  it  often  inaccurately  applied,  167,  163 

In  particular  cases,  the  adjective  and  noun  should  not  be  separated,  168 

When  placed  before,  when  after  its  noun,  168 

A plural  adjective  pronoun  will  sometimes  associate  with  a singular  noun,  169 
In  what  cases  to  be  omitted,  in  what  repeated,  218 

How  to  be  pointed,  269,  270 

ADJECTIVE  pronoun.  See  pronoun. 

ADJUNCTS.  Their  nature  and  punctuation,  268,  274 

ADVANTAGES  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  Grammar, 

. ^ vii,  viii,  288,  289,  356,  365 

ADVERB.  Its  nature,  origin,  varieties,  114 — ii6 

reader  who  consults  this  index,  will  observe  that  the  references  to  the  pages  always  point 
to  the  first  volume,  unless  the  Exercises  or  Key  are  mentioned. 


384 


INDEX. 


The  same  word  occasionally  used  as  an  adverb,  an  adjective,  or  a 

substantive,  114,  115 

See  Words, 

Adverbs  of  time  not  superseded  by  the  tenses  of  verbs — and  why,  1 16 

Adverbs  improperly  used  as  adjectives,  166 

This  point  exemplified,  Exercises,  56,  Key,  190,  191 

Rules  to  determine  when  the  adverb,  and  when  the  adjective  should 

be  used.  Exercises,  95 

Its  appropriate  situation  in  general,  196,  307 

The  adverb  never  commonly  precedes  the  verb,  197 

The  adverb  where  improperly  used  for  in  which,  197 

Adverbs  improperly  used  for  substantives,  198 

When  to  be  omitted,  219 

How  to  be  pointed,  270,  275 

See  J^egatives^ 

AFFIRMATION  is  not  the  essence  of  the  verb,  61,  62,  65 

ALLEGORY.  Its  nature.  Rules  for  using  it  properly,  341 — 343 

ALPHABET.  Nature  of  a perfect  one,  6 

The  English  alphabet  imperfect,  • 5,  6 

AMPLIFICATION.  The  nature  and  use  of  this  figure,  354 

AN.  When  to  be  used  before  h not  silent,  31 

ANTITHESIS.  Its  nature  and  use  explained,  349 — 351 

APOSTROPHE.  The  nature  and  use  of  this  figure,  34S 

See  Characters. 

APPOSITION.  Rule  respecting  the  cases  of  nouns  in  apposition,  174,  ISl,  182 
Nouns  in  this  state  how  to  be  pointed,  271 

See  JsTouns. 


ARRANGEMENT.  Principle  on  which  the  rules  of  syntax  are 

arranged,  142,  143 

A skilful  arrangement  of  words  and  members,  promotes  perspicuity, 

158,  167,  168,  196,  197,  307—311 
This  point  amply  illustrated.  Exercises,  67,  128,  Key,  202,  259 

ARRANGEMENT.  It  also  promotes  the  strength  of  a sentence,  321 — 324 

This  point  elucidated.  Exercises,  134 — 137,  Key,  266,  268 

It  conduces  to  the  harmony  of  language,  326 — 328 

This  point  exemplified.  Exercises',  138,  139,  Key,  269,  270 

ARTICLE.  Its  nature,  use,  and  importance,  31 — 33,  149 

The  common  definition  of  the  article  defended,  34 — 36 

The  article  a agrees  with  nouns  in  the  singular  number  only  j the 

article  the  with  nouns  in  both  numbers,  170 

Omitting  or  using  the  article  a forms  a nice  distinction  in  the  sense,  171 

Examples  of  this  distinction,  Exercises,  58,  Key,  193 

When  to  be  omitted,  yvhen  repeated,  172,  217,  296 

* , ^ 

172 

172 

173 
192 

2,  3,  19—21 
2 

359—365 


Article  the  used  as  an  epithet  of  distinction. 

Article  the  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  possessive  pronoun. 

Its  distinguishing  effect. 

Particular  use  of  the  indefinite  article. 

It  sometimes  governs  the  participle, 

ARTICULATION.  The  nature  of  it  explained. 

Different  from  the  voices  of  brute  animals, 

AUTHORS.  Of  what  sort  are  they  who  give  the  law  to  language, 
AUXILIARY  verbs.  Their  nature,  use,  and  importance,  61,  66,  67,  75,  85 — 89 
The  same  verb  is  sometimes  an  auxiliary,  sometimes  a principal,  87 

Their  form  is  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  80,  89,  206 — 21 1 

This  form  largely  exemplified,  Exercises,  73—75,  Key,  207—209 

Auxiliary  and  principal  constitute  but  one  verb,  75,  76,  91,  99,  100 

Auxiliary  and  principal  form  a compound  sense,  91 


INDEX. 


285 


Auxiliaries,  should,  would,  &c.  refer  occasionally  to  present,  past,  and 


future  time,  ^ 73,  181,  187 

The  auxiliary  let  governs  the  objective  case,  182 

AUXILIARY.  When  to  be  omitted,  or  repeated,  207 

Auxiliary  words  abound  in  English,  and  in  other  modern  tongues,  109,  114 
More  numerous  than  in  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome,  1 10 

Why  they  are  more  numerous.  111 — 1 14 


B. 


THE  BIBLE.  The  present  translation  of  it  is  the  best  standard  of  the 

English  language,  165,  365 

Dr.  BLAIR’S  recommendation  of  the  study  of  grammar  and  composition,  viii 
BUT  and  THAN  explained  at  large,  215 — 217 

c. 


CADENCE.  Its  nature,  and  how'  to  be  managed,  250 

The  close  of  a sentence  should  not  be  abrupt  or  unpleasant,  329 

CANONS  of  language  explained,  367 — 371 

CJESURA  and  demi-csesura.  The  nature  of  these  poetical  pauses  ex- 
plained, 259 — 261 

CAPITAL  Letters.  Rules  respecting  the  use  of  them,  283 

Mode  of  exercising,  the  student  in  them.  Exercises,  106 


CASE.  Only  three  in  English,  43 

Mode  of  forming  cases  in  Latin,  not  applicable  to  our  language,  44 

Reasons  in  support  of  an  objective  case  attached  to  English  nouns,  45,  100 
What  often  represents  two  cases,  154 

The  verb  to  be  has  the  same  case  before  and  after  it,  181 

This  rule  applies  also,  if  the  verb  is  not  expressed,  182 

Passive  verbs  of  naming  have  the  same  case  before  and  after  them,  182 

Certain  other  neuter  verbs  require  the  same  case  before  and  after  them,  182 

Rules  which  determine  the  possessive  case,  174 — 179,  195 

These  rules  illustrated.  Exercises,  59,  60,  Key,  194 — 195 

Rules  which  determine  the  objective  case,  179 — 183 

These  Rules  elucidated.  Exercises,  61,  62,  Key,  195 — 197 

The  same  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns  are  connected  by  conjunctions,  204 
This  point  exemplified,  Exercises,  72,  Key,  206,  207 

See  JsTominative  Case.  Possessive  Case, 

CASE  absolute.  See  Absolute, 


CHARACTERS.  Particular  ones  used  in  composition,  281 — 285 

CLASSIC  tongues,  not  planned  by  philosophers,  113 

CLAUSE  of  a sentence  explained,  141 

CLEARNESS  of  a sentence.  Rules  to  promote  it,  viz 
The  proper  position  of  adverbs. 

Examples  of  this  position. 

The  due  position  of  Circumstances, 

Instances  of  this  position. 

The  proper  disposition  of  relatives,  &c. 

Examples  of  this  disposition, 

CLIMAX.  The  nature  of  this  figure, 

COLON.  Directions  for  using  it. 

These  directions  illustrated  by  examples, 

COMMA.  Rules  for  applying  it  in  all  its  varieties,  268 — 275 

These  rules  exemplified  at  large.  Exercises,  97 — 104,  Key,  229 — 236 

COMPARATIVE  DEGREE.  Its  objects  are  in  direct  opposition,  49 


307 

Exercises,  125,  Key,  256,  257 
307—310 

Exercises,  125 — 128,  Key,  257 — 259 
310 

Exercises,  128,  129,  Key,  259 — 260 
354 
276 

Exercises,  105,  Key,  237,  238 


286 


INDEX. 


COMPARISON.  Its  nature  and  rules,  as  a figure  of  speech,  343—345 

Comparative  members  how  to  be  pointed,  272 

See  Adjectives, 

CONCORD  and  government  explained,  142 

CONJUGATION.  See  Verb, 

CONJUNCTIONS.  Their  nature  and  distinctions,  123 

Their  peculiar  use  and  importance,  124 — 123 

They  mark  the  connexions  of  human  thought,  124,  125 

The  best  authors  of  Greece  and  Rome  abound  in  them,  125 

The  omission  of  them  has  often  a bad  effect  on  the  writer  and  the  reader,  125 
The  copulative  and  disjunctive  conjunctions  operate  differently  on  the 

verb,  149 — 152 

This  difference  elucidated,  Exercises,  46 — 48,  Key,  182 — 184 

Their  power  in  determining  the  mood  of  verbs,  94,  204 

In  what  cases  they  influence  the  form  of  verbs,  and  in  what  cases  they 

do  not,  205 — 211 

This  point  amply  explained  by  examples.  Exercises,  73 — 75,  Key,  207 — 210 
Some  of  them  require  correspondent  conjunctions,  211 

Numerous  instances  of  this  rule,  Exercises,  76,  Key,  210 

Often  used  improperly,  both  singly  and  in  pairs,  212 

This  improper  usage  exemplified.  Exercises,  76,  Key,  210 

Different  efects  of  omitting  or  repeating  them,  127,  220,  319 

The  nature  and  construction  of  than  and  but,  explained  at  large,  215 — 217 

CONJUNCTIVE  termination.  The  instances  stated,  in  which  it  is  to 

be  applied  to  the  verb,  94,  206 — 211 

CONSONANT.  Its  precise  nature  and  division,  7,  8 

Distinction  between  its  name  and  nature,  is  of  great  importance,  8 

How  to  apply  consonants  most  advantageously,  325 — 327 

See  Vowels  and  Consonants, 

CRITICISM  and  Grammar.  The  province  assigned  to  them,  lfi4,  365,  371 
CUSTOM,  or  established  usage,  the  standard  of  language,  164,  357 


D. 


DASH.  In  what  cases  to  be  applied,  278 

DECLENSION.  The  noun  and  pronoun  declined,  43,  52 

But  one  declension  in  English,  44,  45 

More  than  one  would  be  useless  and  improper,  44,  45 

DERIVATION.  Ways  in  which  words  are  derived  from  one  another,  130 — 132 
Specimen  of  words  derived  from  the  Saxon  tongue,  132,  133 

Remarks  on  the  system  of  Horne  Tooke,  134 

Discussion  on  the  impropriety  of  remote  derivations,  134-^136 

Various  sources  whence  the  English  language  is  derived,  136 — 138 

DERIVATIONS  from  established  terms  reprehensible,  30,  139 

DISPOSITION  of  words  and  members.  See  Arrangement, 


E. 


ELLIPSIS.  Its  nature  and  importance,  217 

It  is  frequently  unnecessary,  217 

It  is  sometimes  improper,  218 

The  propriety  or  impropriety  of  Ellipsis,  with  respect  to  all  the  parts 

of  speech,  217 — 220 

Special  cases  of  proper  ellipsis,  220,  221 

Special  cases  of  Improper  Ellipsis,  221,  222 

Propriety  or  impropriety  ofEllipsis,  exemplified.  Exercises,  78 — 81,  ITci/,  212 — 215 
In  what  cases  Auxiliaries  are  to  be  omitted,  or  repeated,  before  the 

principal  verb,  219 


INDEX. 


287 


EMPHASIS.  Nature  and  necessity  of  it  explained,  242 — 248 

The  great  regulator  of  Gluantity — and  sometimes  of  Accent,  246,  247 

The  great  rule  of  managing  it,  247 

ENGLISH  language.  Its  own  idiom  and  principles  must  be  observed, 

75,  76,  95,  99—101 

Its  advantages  in  the  gender  of  its  nouns,  38 

And  in  its  articles,  32,  170 — 172 

Its  principles  and  canons.  See  Use, 

EQUIVALENCE  in  sense  does  not  imply  similarity  in  grammatical  con- 
struction, 61,  62,  108 

ETYMOLOGY,  27—140 

See  Article^  Mim,  and  the  other  parts  of  Speech. 

Etymological  and  Syntactical  parsing,  225 — 234 

EXCEPTIONS  to  the  Second  Rule  of  Syntax,  Key,  190 

EXCLAMATION.  Rules  for  applying  the  point,  279 

These  rules  illustrated.  Exercises,  107,  Key,  239,  240 

A figure  of  speech,  353 

EXERCISES.  Of  great  importance  to  the  student.  Exercises,  iv — vi 

Promiscuous  Exercises  in  Orthography,  Exercises,  33 — 41,  Key,  168—177 

— in  Syntax,  “ 

in  Punctuation, 

• in  Perspicuity, 


Best  mode  of  correcting  the  errors. 
See  Grammatical  Exercises, 


Exercises,  83 — 95,  Key,  217 — 228 
Exercises,  108 — 116,  Key,  240 — 248 
Exercises,  141 — 149,  Key,  272 — 280 
Exercises,  iv  — vi,  IS — 25,  161 


F. 


FEET.  See  Poetical  Feet, 

FIGURES  of  Speech.  Their  nature  and  use,  and  the  rules  for  apply- 
ing them  properly,  335 — 356 

These  rules  elucidated  by  examples,  Exercises,  139 — 141,  Key,  270 — 272 

See  Metaphor,  Allegory,  Comparison,  &c. 

FINITE  verbs.  Their  nature  as  distinguished  from  verbs  in  the  in- 
finitive mood,  141 

TO  FOUND,  by  what  preposition,  followed,  203 

FRENCH  idioms.  Some  of  them  imitated  in  English,  158,  172 

Some  of  them  to  be  avoided,  171,  180,  197,  295 


G. 

GENDER.  Three  methods,  in  English,  of  distinguishing  the  sex,  38,  39 

No  common  gender  in  English,  39 

GENITIVE  case.  Its  meaning,  43 

The  double  genitive  in  what  cases  allowable,  178 

See  Possessive  Case, 

GRAMMAR.  Its  utility  and  importance,  vii,  viii,  238 

The  philosophy  of  grammar  recommended,  ” vi,  ix,  288 

The  grammar  of  other  languages,  and  the  sentiments  of  various  En- 
glish grammarians  occasionally  noted,  vi 

The  grammatical  discussions,  dispersed  through  the  book,  peculiarly 

useful  to  students,  ix 

The  study  of  Grammar  vindicated,  288,  289 

GRAMMARIAN  and  critic.  Their  prcwince  and  limitations,  164,  365,  371 
GRAMMATICAL  exercises.  Their  use  and  importance,  Exercises,  iv,  v 


■288 


INDEX. 


Vulgar  and  glaring  errors  totally  improper  for  such  a work,  Exercises^  v 

General  directions  for  using  the  exercises,  Exercises,  vii,  viii 

GRAMMATICAL  discussions  in  this  work  peculiarly  useful  to  the  in- 
genious student,  iv,  ix 

GREEK  and  Latin.  When  to  be  imitated,  when  to  be  deviated  from, 

in  English  construction,  45,  76,  95,  100 


H. 

H.  Particular  attention  due  to  the  sound  of  this  letter,  6,  12,  31 

HARMONY  of  words  and  members  promotes  the  strength  of  a sen- 
tence, 325 — 334 

Rules  to  promote  harmony  in  words  themselves,  326 

Rules  to  promote  the  harmony  of  words,  with  respect  to  one  another,  326 

Rules  to  promote  harmony,  with  regard  to  the  members  of  sentences,  328 

These  various  rules  exemplified.  Exercises,  138,  139,  Key,  269,  270 

Sense  should  not  be  sacrificed  to  sound,  329 

Poetical  harmony — its  principles,  261 — 265 

HYPERBOLE.  This  figure  explained  and  exemplified,  353 

HYPHEN.  When  to  be  used  and  when  to  be  omitted,  between  two  nouns,  169 
Its  general  nature  and  use,  282 


I. 


IDIOMS  of  other  languages  may  be  adopted : but  with  proper  limita- 
tions, 76,  95,  100 

IMPERATIVE  mood.  See  Mood, 

IMPERSONAL  verbs.  See  Verbs. 

INDEX.  This  Index  calculated  for  two  purposes,  Exercises,  iii 

INFINITIVE  mood.  See  Moods. 

INFLECTIONS  of  language.  Theory  respecting  them  j 110 

INNOVATIONS  in  some  parts  of  English  grammar  are  easily  made,  30,  58,  59 
They  should  be  omitted  with  caution,  . 30,  58,  59,  134 — 136,  364 

Dr.  Johnson’s  opinion  of  them,  30 

INSTRUCTION,  moral  and  religious,  should  be  occasionally  blended 


with  the  elements  of  learning, 
INTERJECTION.  Its  nature  and  extent. 

Cautions  respecting  its  use, 

When  to  be  omitted,  or  repeated. 

Rules  of  Syntax  respecting  it, 
INTERROGATION.  What  case  follows  it, 
Sentences  containing  it  parsed. 

Rules  for  applying  the  point. 

Sometimes  used  as  a figure  of  speech, 
INTERROGATIVE.  See  Pronoun  and  Subsequent. 
IRONY.  The  nature  and  use  of  this  figure, 
IRREGULAR  verbs.  See  Verb. 


viii.  Exercises,  v,  162 
29,  128,  129,  224,  225 
129 

220,  Exercises,  81,  Key,  214 
158,  220,  224 
160 
229 
279 
353 

353,  354 


K. 


KEY  to  the  Exercises.  The  use  of  it  to  private  learners. 
Advantages  of  the  mode  of  forming  it. 


Exercises,  161,  162 
Exei'cises,  161,  162 


INDEX. 


289 


How  to  be  consulted,  Exercises^  162 

It  indicates  important  sentiments,  as  well  as  grammatical  rules,  Exercises,  162 


L. 

LANGUAGE.  Nouns  and  verbs  are  its  only  indispensable  requisites,  29 

Its  principle  and  canons.  See  Use, 

See  English  language. 

LEARNING.  Its  elements  should  be  occasionally  blended  with  moral 

and  religious  instruction,  ix.  Exercises,  v.  162 

Its  happiest  application,  289,  372 — 377 

LETTERS.  See  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

Several  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  superfluous,  6 


M. 


141 
272,  373 

337—341 

345 


MEANS.  The  phrases  this  means  and  that  means  vindicated,  162 — 165 

MELODY,  harmony,  and  expression,  with  regard  to  Versification,  261 — 265 

As  they  regard  Prose.  See  Harmony. 

MEMBER  of  a sentence  distinguished  from  a Clause, 

Members  how  to  be  pointed. 

See  Arrangement  and  Sentences. 

METAPHOR.  The  nature  of  it — Rules  to  be  observed  in  using  it, 

METONEMY.  The  nature  of  this  figure  of  speech, 

MODE  of  parsing  adapted  to  produce  a radical  knowledge  of  the  rules. 

Exercises,  18 — 25 

MOODS.  Their  nature  and  variety  explained,  63,  64 

The  extent  and  limitation  of  English  Moods,  67,  95 

The  Potential  mood  in  English  supported,  67 

The  Potential  mood  furnished  with/owr  tenses,  81 

The  Potential  converted  into  the  Subjunctive,  83 

The  Subjunctive  mood  when,  and  how,  varied  in  its  form,  from  the 
Indicative,  80,  SI,  89,  94,  210 

The  existence  of  a Subjunctive  mood,  in  English,  proved,  94,  95,  211 

Various  opinions  of  grammarians,  respecting  the  existence,  nature,  and 

extent  of  the  English  Subjunctive  mood,  210,  211 

In  what  cases  conjunctions  require  the  Subjunctive  mood,  205 — 209 

When  contingency  and  futurity  concur,  the  termination  of  the  verb  is 
varied,  207—210 

These  two  points  largely  exemplified.  Exercises,  73 — 75,  Key,  206 — 209 

Indicative  mood  different  from  the  Potential,  66,  67 

Indicative  different  from  the  Subjunctive,  ‘ 66,  80^,  94 

Infinitive  mood.  Its  great  simplicity,  64  65 

How  the  Infinitive  is  governed  and  applied,  183  134 

The  sign  to  is  often  misapplied,  183 

When  the  present,  and  when  the  perfect,  of  the  infinitive,  is  to  be  used, 

m>-  • - 187—192 

This  point  elucidated  by  examples. 

The  infinitive  mood  further  explained. 

The  infinitive  mood  often  made  absolute. 

How  it  is  to  be  pointed. 

Imperative  mood,  variously  applied. 

Extent  of  the  Imperative,  strictly  considered, 

A verb  in  this  mood,  is  not  affirmative. 

The  same  moods  connected  by  conjunctions. 

This  connexion  exemplified, 

MOVEMENT  and  measure,  how  distinguished, 

VoL.  II.  37 


Exercises,  64,  65,  Key,  198,  199 
184 
184 
271 

63,  78,  142 
78,  234 
61,  62 
204,  205 

Exercises,  72,  Key,  206,  207 
259 


290 


INDEX. 


152 

153 

109 


no 

361 

198 

199 
203 
153 

43 

142 

143 
180 

144 
144 
144 

These  three  rules  elucidated  by  examples,  Exercises^  45,  46,  Key,  180 — 182 


In  certain  circumstances,  a verb  between  two  nouns,  may  have  either 
for  its  nominative,  145 

It  may  also  have  either  of  two  clauses  for  its  nominative,  145 

A nominative  before  a participle,  &c.  forms  the  case  absolute,  145 

The  nominative  is  commonly  placed  before  the  verb — in  what  cases  after  it,  146 
In  the  construction  of  the  phrases  as  follows,  as  appears,  grammarians  are 
divided,  146,  147 

A plural  verb  improperly  applied  in  certain  constructions,  147,  148 

A singular  verb  improper  in  other  constructions,  149 

The  nominative  to  the  verb  is  sometimes  not  easily  ascertained,  150, 151 

Various  examples  of  this  position.  Exercises,  47,  Key,  182,  183 

In  what  instance  the  relative  is  the  nominative  to  the  verb,  159 

When  there  are  two  nominatives  of  different  persons,  to  which  should 

the  verb  apply,  160,161 

Rules  for  pointing  the  nominative,  268,  274 

See  Case, 

NOUNS.  Their  nature  and  divisions,  36 

Three  modes  of  distinguishing  their  gender,  38,  39 

But  few  in  English,  with  variable  terminations,  40 

The  number  of  nouns,  how  formed,  40 — 42 

English  nouns  have  but  three  cases,  43 — 46 

Two  successive  nouns  in  the  possessive  case  to  be  avoided,  45,  46 

Nouns  are  often  formed  by  participles,  66 

They  are  often  derived  from  verbs  and  adjectives,  131 

Singular  nouns,  joined  by  a copulative,  require  their  verbs,  &c.  to  be  in 

the  plural  number,  149 

This  required  even  when  the  nouns  are  nearly  related,  149 

These  two  rules  elucidated.  Exercises,  46,  Key,  182,  183 

Cases  of  difficulty  stated  and  resolved,  150 

These  cases  further  illustrated.  Exercises,  47,  Key,  182,  183 

When  the  nouns  are  of  different  persons,  which  is  to  be  preferred,  151 

Singular  nouns  connected  by  a disjunctive,  require  the  verb,  &c.  to  be 
in  the  singular  number,  151 

This  rule  variously  exemplified.  Exercises,  47,  Key,  183,  184 


MULTITUDE.  Nouns  of  this  kind  operate  variously  on  the  verb, 
Erroneous  opinions  respecting  them, 

MUST  and  ought.  These  verbs  shown  to  have  both  a present  and  past 
signification,  103, 

N. 

NATIONS.  Different  nations  have  used  various  contrivances  to  mark 

the  moods,  tenses,  and  cases,  44,  95,  99,  100, 

NATIONAL  USE,  what  it  is, 

NEGATIVES.  Two,  in  English,  form  an  affirmative. 

Two  of  them  are  often  used  instead  of  one. 

This  point  elucidated.  Exercises,  69,  Key, 

NEUTER  pronoun  it,  very  variously  applied, 

NEUTER  verb.  See  Verb, 

NOMINATIVE  case.  Its  nature  explained. 

It  follows  the  verb  in  interrogative  and  imperative  sentences. 

It  agrees  with  the  verb,  in  number  and  person. 

This  point  variously  exemplified.  Exercises,  43,  44,  Key,  179, 

The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a sentence,  is  often  the  nominative  case 
to  a verb, 

NOMINATIVE  case.  Every  verb  has  a nominative  case,  except,  &c. 
Every  nominative  belongs  to  some  verb,  except,  &c. 


INDEX. 


291 


151 

152 


153 


When  the  disjunctive  noun  and  pronoun  are  of  different  persons,  the  verb 
agrees  with  the  nearer, 

A disjunctive  between  a singular  and  plural  noun,  requires  the  verb  to  be 
plural. 

Nouns  of  multitude  somdtimes  require  a singular  verb,  sometimes  a 
plural  one,  ••  152, 

This  point  exemplified.  Exercises j 49,  Key jlS5 

Erroneous  opinion  respecting  nouns  of  multitude,  153 

One  noun  governs  another  in  the  possessive  case,  173 

If  the  noun  signify  the  same  thing,  there  is  no  variation  of  case,  174 

The  nouns  are  then  in  apposition,  174 

This  construction  changed  by  a relative  and  verb,  ^ 174 

Rules  for  applying,  or  omitting,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case,  175 — 179 

These  rules  elucidated  by  examples.  Exercises,  59,  60,  Key,  194,  195 

The  preposition  of  is  frequently  preferred  to  the  sign  of  the  possessive 

case,  177,  178 

A noun  may  be  formed  by  the  article  and  participle,  and  by  the  pronoun 

and  participle,  192 — 194 

This  point  largely  exemplified.  Exercises,  65,  66,  Key,  200,  201 

In  what  cases  the  noun  is  omitted,  in  what  repeated,  218 

How  to  be  pointed,  269,  271,  272 

See  Case,  Declension. 

NUMBER.  The  nature  of  it  shown,  40 

How  the  plural  number  of  nouns  is  formed,  40 — 43 

Applicable  to  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  40,  51,  62 


o. 

OBJECTIONS  to  this  system  of  grammar,  obviated,  ix 

Objections  to  the  study  of  Grammar  answered,  288,  289,  365 

OBJECTIVE  case.  Part  of  a sentence  may  be  termed  an  objective  phrase,  180 
See  Case. 

OBSCURITY.  It  arises  from  a wrong  choice  of  words,  296 — 300 

And  from  a wrong  arrangement  of  them,  306 — 311 

Three  chief  causes  of  writing  obscurely,  298,  299 

OPPOSITION.  Words  opposed,  how  to  be  pointed,  272 

Sentiments  opposed,  how  to  be  expressed,  324 

ORDER  of  words  and  members.  See  Arrangement. 

ORTHOGRAPHY,  1_26 

. Par  from  being  uniform,  in  English,  25 

Rules  for  forming  primitive  and  derivative  words,  22 — 25 

The  orthography  of  Dr.  Johnson,  not  to  be  altered  on  slight  grounds,  25 
Orthography  not  to  be  regulated  by  pronunciation,  26 

See  Alphabet,  Syllables,  Vowels  and  Consonants,  &c. 

p. 


PARAGRAPHS.  Rules  for  dividing  a work  into  paragraphs,  285 — 287 

PARENTHESIS.  In  what  cases  it  is  proper,  in  what  improper,  280 

The  point  to  be  placed  within  the  marks,  281 

PARSING.  Its  nature  and  use,  225 

Etymological  parsing,  225—227,  Exercises,  1—8 

Syntactical  parsing,  227—234,  Exercises,  9—25 

Etymological  parsing  table.  Exercises,  1 

Syntactical  parsing  table.  Exercises,  8,  9 

Mode  of  parsing  sentences  verbally.  Exercise's,  18,  25 

PARTICIPLE.  Its  nature  and  properties  explained,  64,  65 

Perfect  and  passive  participle  distinguished,  65 


292 


INDEX. 


It  is  not  a distinct  part  of  speech,  93 

Its  use  in  conjugating  both  the  active  and  passive  verbs,  93,  96,  99 

The  participle  and  its  adjuncts  form  a substantive  phrase,  194,  234 

The  participle  has  the  same  government  as  its  verb,  192 

It  becomes  a substantive,  by  means  of  the  article,  193 

And  also  by  means  of  the  pronoun,  193 

Numerous  examples  of  these  two  rules.  Exercises,  65,  66,  Key,  200,  201 

The  perfect  participle  and  imperfect  tense  not  to  be  confounded,  194 

The  participle  often  appears  independent  of  any  noun  or  pronoun,  195 

The  participle  with  its  dependences,  how  to  be  pointed,  270 

Reasons  for  assigning  it  a distinct  place  in  Syntax,  193 

PARTICLE  as,  is  not  always  equivalent  to  the  pronoun  it,  or  that,  or  which,  213 
PARTS  of  speech.  Variously  enumerated  by  grammarians,  29 

The  same  word  forms  different  parts  of  speech.  See  Words. 

PAUSES.  Their  nature,  kinds,  and  uses,  248,  249 

Rules  for  applying  them  properly,  249,  250 

The  closing  and  suspending  pauses  distinguished,  250 

Poetical  pauses  of  two  sorts,  259,  261 

PERIOD.  Directions  for  using  it,  277 

These  directions  exemplied.  Exercises,  106,  107,  Key,  238,  239 

PERSONIFICATION.  Its  nature  and  use,  346—343 

PERSONS.  Applicable  to  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,.  37,  51,  62 

Three  necessary  in  each  number,  51,  62 

The  second  takes  place  of  the  third,  and  the  first  of  both,  151 

The  second  person  is  the  object  of  the  Imperative,  78 

The  nominative  and  verb  agree  in  person,  143 

How  to  avoid  the  confusion  of  persons,  151 

Relative  and  antecedent  are  of  the  same  person,  154 

The  person  is  variable  when  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nominatives 

of  different  persons,  160 

Persons  of  the  verb,  when  to  be  varied,  when  not,  94,  205 — 211 

This  point  amply  illustrated.  Exercises,  73 — 75,  Key,  207,  210 

PERSPICUITY  and  accuracy  : Rules  to  promote  them,  293 — 371 

See  Purity,  Propriety,  Precision,  Clearness,  Unity,  and  strength. 

PHRASE.  Its  nature,  142,  267 

How  to  be  pointed,  268,  269 

Diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the  phrase  as  follows,”  146,  147 

The  phrase,  “ if  he  desire  it,”  is  properly  arranged  under  the  present  tense,  211 
The  phrase,  “ every  leaf  and  every  twig,”  requires  a singular  verb. 

Exercises,  190,  the  Note. 

The  phrase  averse  to,^^  is  more  correct  than  averse  from,  201 

POETICAL  feet.  Why  called  Feet,  252,253 

Formed,  in  English,  by  accented  aTid  unaccented  syllables,  253 

Their  kinds,  divisions,  and  subdivisions,  253,  259 

Poetical  harmony.  See  Harmony  and  Melody. 

Poetical  pauses.  See  Pauses. 

POSITION  of  words.  Great  importance  of  the  situation,  in  which  words 

are  placed  in  the  sentence,  326 — 328 

The  place  of  adverbs,  relatives,  and  circumstances,  necessary  to  the 

clearness  of  a sentence,  306 — 310 


Numerous  examples  explaining  this  rule.  Exercises,  125 — 129,  Key,  256 — 260 
See  Arrangement. 

POSSESSIVE  CASE.  The  sign  of  it  when  and  where  to  be  applied,  175—177 
In  what  instances,  both  the  sign  and  the  preposition  of  are  to  be  used,  178 
This  case  is  sometimes  governed  by  the  clause  of  a sentence,  178,  195 

His,  hers,  ours,  &c.  proved  to  be  possessives,  52 

POTENTIAL  mood.  See  Mood. 

PRECISION  of  language.  In  what  it  consists. 


301 


INDEX. 


293 


Three  faults  opposed  to  precision,  301 

Words  termed  synonymous  are  the  great  source  of  a loose  style,  302 — 304 

Precision  of  language  exemplified,  Exercises,  124,  Key,  256 


PREPOSITIONS.  Their  nature  and  office. 

They  often  give  verbs  a new  meaning, 

Certain  syllables  improperly  termed  inseparable  prepositions. 
The  peculiar  use  of  prepositions  shown. 

Variety  of  meaning  attached  to  the  preposition  for, 
Prepositions  derived  from  the  Latin  and  Greek, 

Prepositions  are  often  properly  omitted, 


117 
117 
117 
117,  ns 
119,  120 
120—122 
199,219 

They  are  not,  in  general,  to  be  separated  from  the  relative,  or  the  noun, 

199,  200 

They  govern  the  objective  case,  199 

This  point  elucidated.  Exercises,  69,  Key,  204 

Different  relations  require  different  prepositions,  though  connected  by 

the  same  verb,  200 

Averse  to  is  more  correct  than  averse  from,  201 

A copious  list  of  errors  in  applying  the  diferent  prepositions,  201 — 203 

The  correct  use  of  the  prepositions  exemplified.  Exercises,  70,  71,  Key,  204 — 206 
— • • - • 203 

219 
272 
69 
362 
50 

50 

51 
51 

51 

52 
53,  54 

55 

55—58 
58,  59 
154 

154 
155,  179 

155 

156 
156 
156 


What  prepositions  are  proper  before  nouns  of  place^ 

When  the  preposition  is  to  be  omitted, 

How  to  be  pointed, 

PRESENT  TIME  considerably  extended, 

PRESENT  USE,  what  it  is, 

PRONOUN.  Its  general  nature  and  use. 

It  sometimes  represents  an  adjective,  sometimes  a*  phrase  or  sentence, 

Three  kinds  of  pronouns. 

Three  persons  to  each  number  of  the  pronoun. 

Why  the  third  person  only  is  marked  by  gender, 

The  Personal  pronouns  how  declined. 

The  Relative  pronoun  and  its  varieties  explained. 

The  Relative  and  Interrogative  not  distinct  species. 

The  Adjective  pronoun  and  its  four  subdivisions  explained. 

Various  opinions,  respecting  the  Adjective  pronouns,  and  the  articles. 

Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents,  in  gender  and  number, 

The  pronoun  what  often  represents  two  cases. 

Relatives,  though  in  the  objective  case,  are  placed  before  the  verb. 

Personal  pronouns  are  unnecessary,  when  the  noun  itself  is  expressed. 

The  pronoun  that  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  to  things. 

This  is  sometimes  indispensable. 

The  pronouns  whichsoever,  &c.  may  be  elegantly  divided, 

The  objective  case  of  the  personal  pronouns,  is  improperly  used  instead 

these  those,  156 

What  is  improperly  used  for  that  156 

The  pronoun  who  is  often  misapplied  for  which,  157 

The  relative  who  not  applicable  to  little  children,  157 

When  the  name  of  a person  is  used,  merely  as  a name,  which  should  be 

used  instead  of  who,  157 

The  relative  often  attended  with  ambiguity,  158,  310,  311 

The  preceding  rules  illustrated  by  examples.  Exercises,  50, — 52,  Key,  185 — 187 
It  is  and  it  was,  are  often  used  in  a plural  construction,  158 

W^Eil  case  of  the  pronoun  does  the  Interjection  require,  158 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  often  refers  to  the  masculine  and  the  feminine 
gender. 

The  pronoun  it  has  various  applications,  158, 159 

The  relative  is  sometimes  the  nominative  to  the  verb,  159 

In  what  cases  it  has  a different  construction,  159 

When  the  pronoun  is  interrogative,  what  case  follows  it,  160 

This  point  further  explained  by  examples.  Exercises,  53,  Key,  188 

The  relative  may  agree  with  either  of  two  nominatives  of  different  persons,  160 
Instances  of  this  agreement,  Exercises,  53,  Key,  1S3 


294 


INDEX. 


Adjective  pronouns  agree  in  number  with  their  nouns,  161 

This  means,  that  means,  are  correct  phrases,  162 — 165 

That  refers  to  the  former,  this  to  the  latter,  165 

Each,  every,  either,  refer  to  the  singular  number,  165 

This  rule  exemplified.  Exercises,  24,  54,  55,  Key,  189 

The  copulative  and  makes  no  difference,  with  regard  to  this  rule. 

Exercises,  190,  The  Note 

In  what  cases  the  pronoun  should  be  omitted ; in  what  cases  repeated,  218 
How  to  be  pointed,  273 

PRONUNCIATION.  What  is  its  standard,  360 

PROPRIETY  of  language.  Rules  to  promote  it,  viz. 

Low  expressions  to  be  avoided,  295 

Words  that  are  wanting,  to  be  supplied,  295 

The  same  word  not  to  be  used  in  different  senses,  296 

The  improper  use  of  technical  terms  to  be  avoided,  296 

Ambiguous  words  not  to  be  used,  296,  297 

Unintelligible  expressions  to  be  avoided,  297,  298 

All  words  that  are  not  fully  adapted  to  the  meaning,  to  be  rejected,  300 

These  rules  illustrated  by  examples.  Exercises,  118, — 123,  Key,  250 — 255 
PROSE  and  verse  distinguished,  260 

PROSODY,  235—265 

See  Accent,  (Quantity,  Emphasis,  Pauses,  Tones,  Feet,  and  Melody, 
PUNCTUATION,  266—283 

It  is  a modern  art,  266 

The  doctrine  of  it  necessarily  imperfect,  267 

Varied  according  to  the  length  and  proportion  of  the  clauses,  267,  275 

It  may  be  considered  as  either  long  or  short,  267 

Properly  treated  as  a distinct  article,  266 

See  Comma,  Semicolon,  Colon,  and  Period, 

See  also  Characters, 

PURITY  of  style.  Rules  for  promoting  it,  294 

These  rules  amply  exemplified.  Exercises,  177,  Key,  249,  250 

Q. 

CtUANTITY.  Its  nature  and  variations,  239 

General  Rules  for  determining  the  quantities  of  vowels,  240,  241 

Long  vowels  have  degrees  in  their  length,  / 241,  242 

For  the  variety  of  quantity  in  each  of  the  vowels.  See  page  10,  &c. 


R. 


RELATION.  Things  related  in  point  of  time,  should  have  a corres- 
pondent expression,  185 — 192 

This  position  amply  exemplified.  Exercises,  63,  65,  Key,  198,  199 

In  relating  particular  declarations  of  others,  what  tense  should  be  used,  191, 192 
RELATIVES.  See  Pronouns. 

REPETITION  of  words,  when  proper,  when  improper,  see  Ellipsis  and 

Exercises,  78 — 81,  Key,  212,  215 

REPUTABLE  USE,  what  it  is,  358 

RHYME.  Its  definition.  252 


s. 

SEMICOLON.  Rules  for  applying  it. 
These  rules  elucidated  by  examples, 
SENTENCES.  They  are  of  various  kinds. 
Long  and  short  should  be  duly  blended, 


275 

Exercises,  104,  Key,  236,  237 
141,  142,  267 
313,  314 


INDEX. 


295 


Their  members  should  be  proportionably  arranged,  328,  329 

Part  of  a sentence  may  be  the  antecedent  to  a pronoun,  50,  221 

It  may  be  the  nominative  to  a verb,  143,  146 

It  may  be  in  the  objective  case,  180,  194 

It  may  have  a noun  in  apposition  to  it,  174 

Erroneous  sentences,  ho>v  verbally  corrected,  Exercises,  18 — 25 

See  Member  and  Clause, 


SHALL  and  will.  Their  peculiar  application,  80,  88,  89 

SIMILE.  Its  nature  and  use — Directions  for  using  it  most  advanta-  * 

geously,  343,  344 

SIMPLE  and  compound  tenses  how  formed,  91 

SKETCH  of  the  progress  of  the  English  language,  136,  138 

SOUND  of  the  letters.  See  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

SOUND  of  words  represents  three  classes  of  objects,  117 — 122 

SPEECH  implies  thought,  consciousness,  &c.  2,  3 

In  what  manner  it  is  formed,  19,21 

See  Parts  of  Speech, 

SPELLING.  Fruitless  attempts  to  alter  it,  26 

See  Words. 


STANDARD  of  propriety.  What  forms  it  in  language,  163,  164,  357 

STRENGTH  of  a sentence,  rules  to  promote  it,  viz. 

All  redundant  expressions  to  be  pruned,  316,  318 

The  use  of  copulatives,  relatives,  &c.  to  be  attended  to,  318,  321 

The  capital  words  to  be  judiciously  disposed,  321,  322 

A weaker  assertion  not  to  be  followed  by  a stronger  one,  323 

An  adverb,  a preposition,  &c.  should  not  conclude  the  sentence,  323 

Where  there  is  resemblance,  or  contrast,  the  language  should  be 

correspondent,  324 

The  harmony  of  the  words  and  members  must  be  regarded,  325,  334 


These  seven  rules  Copiously  exemplified.  Exercises,  131 — 1 39,  Kei/,  263 — 270 
SUBJUNCTIVE  mood.  Its  true  nature  and  extent  in  English, 

See  Mood  ; and  also  pages  80,  94,  95 
SUBORDINATE  rules  of  Grammar,  Exercises,  and  Key,  numbered  to 

denote  their  correspondence,  144,  Exercises,  45 

SUBSEQUENT  to  the  interrogative.  In  what  cases  this  term  is  proper, 

53,  55,  160 


SUBSTANTIVE  phrase.  See  Participle. 

SYLLABLES.  General  rules  for  dividing  words  into  syllables,  21, 22 

Degrees  in  the  length  of  long  syllables,  241,  242 

Words  with  a mixture  of  long  and  short  syllables,  are  the  most  melo- 
dious, 326 

SYNEDOCHE.  The  nature  of  this  figure,  345 

SYNONYMOUS  words.  Injudicious  use  of  words  termed  synonoymous, 

is  the  great  source  of  a loose  style,  302 — 304 

Few,  if  any  words,  are  perfectly  synonymous,  303,  304 

SYNTAX,  141,234 

See  its  rules  under  the  Article,  the  Mun,  and  the  other  parts  of  speech. 
Principle  on  which  the  rules  of  syntax  are  arranged,  142,  143 

Its  most  comprehensive  rule,  222 

This  rule  exemplified.  Exercises,  81 — 83,  Key  21 5,  216 


T. 


TENSES.  Six  lenses  belong  to  the  English  verb. 
Their  nature  and  distinctions  explained  at  large. 
They  are  definite  or  indefinite,  perfect  or  imperfect. 


75 

68—72 
72,  73 


293 


INDJPX. 


Their  definite  and  indefinite  nature  explained  at  large,  73,  74 

They  are  composed  of  the  principle  verb  and  its  auxiliaries,  and  these 

parts  constitute  one  verb,  75,  76,  94,  95,  99 — 101 

The  present  names  of  the  tenses  justifiable,  30,  69 — 72,  78 

The  perfect  tense  often  denotes  a future  action,  71 

How  far  the  tenses  of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive  moods  vary  in 

thek-  foiTn,  80,  81,  94,  205—21 1 

This  point  largely  exemplified.  Exercises,  73 — 75,  Key,  207,  210 

The  tenses  of  verbs  should  exactly  correspond  with  relative  actions 

and  events,  185 

When  the  present,  and  when  the  perfect,  of  the  infinitive,  should  be 

used,  ^ 187—192 

Examples  to  illustrate  this  point,  Exercises,  64,  65,  Key,  199 

The  same  tenses  are  connected  by  conjunctions,  204,  205 

TERMINATION  of  a verb  is  altered,  when  contingency  and  futurity 

concur,  207, 208 

This  point  elucidated.  Exercises,  73 — 75,  Key,  207,  210 

TERMS  used  to  designate  the  three  past  tenses,  supported,  69 — 71,  78 

Established  terms  and  arrangements,  not  to  be  rejected,  30,  59,  76,  78,  79 
New  terms  and  phrases  to  be  admitted  with  caution,  136,  364 

THAN  and  but,  explained  at  large,  215 — 217 

THAT,  as  a relative,  often  useful,  sometimes  indispensable,  156 

THEORY  respecting  the  inflections  of  language,  110 — 115 

TIME.  Present  time  admits  of  considerable  extension,  69 

See  Relation  and  Tenses, 

TONES.  Their  nature  and  use,  250 

In  what  respect  different  from  Emphasis,  240,  250 

Rules  and  limitations  respecting  them,  251,  252 

u. 

U.  A,  instead  of  an,  is  to  be  used  before  words  beginning  with  the  long  u,  16,  31 
UNITY  of  a sentence.  Rules  to  promote  it,  viz. 

The  scene  to  be  changed  as  little  as  possible,  312 

Things  but  slightly  connected  should  not  be  crowded  into  one  sentence, 

312—315 

Every  unnecessary  parenthesis  to  be  avoided,  315 

These  three  rules  further  explained  by  examples, 

Exercises,  129,  130,  Key,  261 — 263 
USE.  Reputable,  national,  and  present  use  decides  the  propriety  of 

language,  317 

Good  use  not  always  uniform  in  her  decisions,  366 

All  that  is  favoured  by  good  use,  is  not  proper  to  be  retained,  369 


V. 

VARIATION.  What  degree  of  it  constitutes  a distinct  mood  of  the  verb,  94,  95 
When  proper  in  the  auxiliaries  of  the  verb,  207 — 211 

VERB.  How  divided.  The  division  justified,  59,  60 

Distinction  between  active  and  neuter  verbs,  59,  60 

The  true  nature  of  the  English  verb  explained  and  vindicated, 

61,  62,  99—101 

The  terminations  of  the  English  verb,  though  few,  are  sufficient 

for  every  purpose,  62 

Conjugation  explained,  77 

The  advantage  to  the  student  of  conjugating  the  verb  in  all  its  tenses,  8 1 
The  peculiar  uses  of  conjugating  the  active  verb  with  the  present 

participle  and  verb  to  be,  93 

Mode  of  conjugating  a passive  verb,  96 


Observations  on  passive  verbs. 


99—101 


INDEX. 


297 


The  conjugation  of  an  English  verb  at  large,  is  a regular  and  beau- 
tiful exhibition,  100 

A comprehensive  list  of  irregular  verbs,  101 — 108 

Particular  contractions  and  obsolete  words  to  be  avoided,  107 

When  the  regular  or  the  irregular  verb  is  to  be  preferred,  107 

Defective,  verbs.  Their  nature — A list  of  them,  108 

But  one  conjugation  of  English  verbs,  and  why,  109 

Impersonal  verbs.  None  in  the  language,  109 

Reasons  alleged  to  support  them,  109 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  mode  of  conjugating  the 

English  verb,  110 

The  phrases,  as  follows,  as  appears,  are  variously  construed,  146,  147 

A plural  verb  improperly  applied  in  certain  constructions,  148 

Peculiar  cases  of  difficulty  in  determining  whether  the  verb  is  to 

be  in  the  singular,  or  the  plural  number,  150,  151 

These  cases  stated  more  at  large.  Exercises,  47,  Key,  182,  183 

Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case,  179 

This  rule  exemplified.  Exercises,  61,  Key,  195, 196 

Neuter  verbs  govern  no  case,  179 

In  what  instances  neuter  verbs  may  be  transitive,  180 

Irregular  practice  of  writers,  in  using  certain  neuter  verbs  as  if  they 

were  active,  ' 180 

Active  verbs  sometimes  improperly  made  neuter,  180 

The  neuter  verb  is  generally  varied  like  the  active,  but  sometimes  it 

admits  the  passive  form,  99,  180 

The  verb  to  be  is  a conductor  of  cases,  181 

Other  neuter  verbs  are  conductors  of  cases,  182 

Various  examples  of  this  rule.  Exercises,  62,  Key,  196,  197 

Passive  verbs  of  naming,  their  construction,  182 

One  verb  governs  another  in  the  Infinitive,  183 

The  Infinitive  is  often  improperly  used,  187 

Rules  for  ascertaining  the  proper  use  of  the  Infinitive,  with  a variety 

of  examples,  187 — 192 

The  verb  to  found,  by  what  preposition  followed,  203 

In  what  cases  the  form  of  the  verb  is  influenced  by  a conjunction  j in 

what  cases  it  is  not,  206 — 211 

When  the  verb  should  be  omitted,  whem  repeated,  219 

How  it  should  be  pointed,  270,  274 

See  Mood,  Tense,  JsTumher,  Person,  Participle,  Jluxiliary,  and  J^ominative  Case. 
VERBAL  corrections  of  erroneous  sentences  recommended,  Exercises,  18 — 25 
VERSE.  Distinction  between  verse  and  prose,  260 

Trochaic,  lambic,  and  other  verses  explained,  253,  254 

Their  diflbrent  effects  exhibited,  254 — 259 

VERSIFICATION.  Its  constituents  and  rules,  252 — 265 

VISION.  This  figure  explained,  352 


VOICES  of  brute  animals  different,  in  three  respects,  from  human  speech,  2 
VOWELS  and  Consonants.  A minute  scale  of  them,  5,  6 

Their  peculiar  and  various  sounds  explained  and  exemplified,  10—18 

Importance  of  being  able  to  pronounce  them  accurately,  7,  20,  21 

Vowels  give  softness,  consonants  strength,  to  words,  326 

See  Consonant, 


w. 

W,  shown  to  be  sometimes  a vowel,  sometimes  a consonant,  7,  71 

WORDS.  Number  of  them  in  the  English  language,  138 

The  same  word  often  forms  different  parts  of  speech,  54,  1 14.  1 19,  123 

’This  point  exemplified,  Exercises,  8,  9 

Rules  for  spelling  them,  22—26 

The  variety  of  words,  138 

Yol,  II,  38 


298 


INDEX. 


Their  extensive  signification,  139 

They  are  arbitrary  signs  of  ideas,  139 

The  customary  sense  of  them  should  be  observed,  139 

How  to  be  altered  and  improved,  140 

The  choice  of  words  with  respect  to  their  sound  and  harmony,  325 — 328 

The  sound  of  words  adapted  to  their  sense,  329 — 334 

Three  capital  faults  in  using  them,  301 

Redundant  words  and  members  to  be  pruned,  316 — 318 

The  little  words  but,  and,  or,  then,  &c.  arc  frequently  of  the  greatest 

importance,  ' 318,  319 

This  point  elucidated,  Exercises,  133,  134,  Key,  265 

The  chief  word  or  words  of  a sentence,  how  to  be  placed,  321 — 323 

This  direction  exemplified,  Exercises,  134,  135,  Key,  266,  267 

Words  and  phrases  related  in  point  of  time,  185,  192 

This  relation  further  explained,  Exercises,  63 — 65,  Key,  198,  199 

WRITING  unintelligibly.  The  principal  causes  of  it  enumerated,  298, 299 

X. 

X,  This  letter  does  not  represent  a simple  sound,  6 

It  has  three  distinct  sounds,  17 

It  is  a semi- vowel,  8 

Y. 

Y,  in  some  situations  is  a vowel,  in  others  a consonant,  7, 18 

It  represents  a simple  sound,  6,  18 

z. 

Z,  is  a semi- vowel,  8 

It  has  the  flat  sound  of  s,  81 


FINIS. 


RECOMMENDATIONS  OF  THIS  WORK. 


We  have  had  no  grammarian,  within  the  compass  of  our 
critical  career,  who  has  employed  so  much  labour  and  judg- 
ment upon  our  native  language,  as  the  author  of  these  vol- 
umes.— We  are  of  opinion,  that  this  edition  of  Mr.  Murray’s 
works  on  English  Grammar,  deserves  a place  in  Libraries,  and 
will  not  fail  to  obtain  it.”  British  Critic,  Nov.  1809. 

We  have  read  this  work  with  sufficient  care  to  be  able  to 
pronounce  upon  it,  as  a work  of  great  correctness  and  perfec- 
tion.— The  parts  which  we  would  select  as  deserving  of  pecu- 
liar praise,  and  as  calculated  to  afford  most  satisfaction  to  the 
person  who  reads  the  Grammar  in  more  advanced  life,  for  the 
purpose  of  recovering  and  re-impressing  what  he  learned  in  his 
youth,  are,  that  on  Syntax,  and  the  Appendix  to  the  first  vol- 
ume, ‘containing  rules  and  observations  for  assisting  young 
persons  to  write  wdth  perspicuity  and  accuracy,  &c.’  There  is 
considerable  acuteness  displayed  under  both  these  important 
heads. — The  large  number  of  examples  in  this  w^ork  is  of  great 
importance,  not  only  as  illustrating  the  several  rules  which  the 
author  lays  down,  but  as  putting  a reader,  even  of  inferior  ability, 
into  a capacity  of  judging  for  himself  how  far  the  rules  them- 
selves are  just.  We  cannot  dismiss  these  volumes  without 
observing,  that  as  they  are  intended  for  the  higher  classes  of 
readers,  they  will  be  found  particularly  serviceable  to  instructors, 
to  young  persons  who  have  left  school,  and  to  foreigners.” 

Christian  Observer,  Nov.  1809. 

Mr.  Murray’s  English  Grammar  and  Exercises  have  long 
maintained  their  reputation,  as  the  works  best  adapted  for  the 
initiation  of  students  in  the  principles  of  the  English  language. 
They  are  now  united  with  an  improved  edition  ; printed  with  a 
larger  letter,  and  on  a finer  paper,  in  a form  suited  to  the  Li- 
brary. The  additions,  it  is  stated,  occupy  more  than  ninety 
pages  of  the  first  volume  ; and  are  interspersed  throughout  the 
book.  The  whole  well  deserves  the  careful  perusal  of  every 
student  of  our  language  ; containing  a copious  and  skilful  analy- 
sis of  its  principles,  and  many  just  and  acute  remarks  on  the 
peculiarities  of  its  idiom  and  construction.” 

Annual  Review.  1808. 

Recommendations  of  the  Author^  Duodecimo  Grammar^ 
Exercises,  and  Key. 

Mr.  Murray’s  Grammar,  Exercises,  and  Key  to  the  Exer- 
cises, form  altogether,  by  far  the  most  complete  and  judicious 
analyisis  of  the  Enlish  language  that  has  hitherto  been  published. 
The  rules  for  composition  are  excellent;  the  examples  are 


selected  with  taste  and  judgment ; and  the  execution  of  the 
whole  displays  an  unusual  degree  of  critical  acuteness  and 
sagacity.”  Annual  Review,  1802. 

Mr.  Murray’s  English  Grammar,  English  Exercises,  and 
Abridgment  of  the  English  Grammar,  claim  our  attention,  on 
account  of  their  being  composed  on  the  principle  we  have  so 
frequently  recommended,  of  combining  religious  and  moral  im- 
provement with  the  elements  of  scientific  knowledge.  But  as 
it  is  not  a part  of  our  plan,  to  enter  into  a particular  examina- 
tion of  works  of  this  nature,  we  shall  only  say,  that  they  have 
long  been  in  high  estimation.” 

“ The  late  learned  Dr.  Blair  gave  his  opinion  of  them  in  the 
following  terms  : — ‘ The  Grammar,  with  the  Exercises  and  the 
‘ Key  in  a separate  volume,  I esteem  as  a most  excellent  per- 
‘ formance.  I think  it  superior  to  any  work  of  that  nature  we 
‘ have  yet  had  ; and  am  persuaded  that  it  is,  by  much,  the  best 
‘ Grammar  of  the  English  language  extant.  Most  useful  these 
‘ books  must  certainly  be  to  all  who  are  applying  themselves  to 
‘ the  arts  of  composition.’  ” 

Guardian  of  Education,  July^  1803. 

This  Grammar  is  a publication  of  much  merit,  and  fully 
answers  the  profession  in  the  title.  The  Appendix  contains 
some  of  the  best  rules  for  writing  elegantly,  and  with  propriety 
that  we  recollect  to  have  seen.” 

Monthly  Review,  July,  1796. 

“ We  have  been  much  pleased  with  the  perusal  of  Mr.  Mur- 
ray’s ‘ English  Exercises.’  They  occupy  with  distinguished 
excellence  a most  important  place  in  the  science  of  the  English 
language  ; and  as  such,  we  can  warmly  recommend  them  to 
the  teachers  of  schools,  as  well  as  to  all  those  who  are  desirous 
of  attaining  correctness  and  precision  in  their  native  tongue.” 

Monthly  Review,  July,  1797. 

‘‘  This  book  (English  Exercises)  has  been  accidently  mislaid  ; 
but  we  willingly  repeat  the  praise  we  formerly  gave  the  author 
for  his  English  Grammar.  There  is  great  judgment  shown  in 
these  exercises  ; and,  what  is  no  common  merit,  the  greatest 
perspicuity  in  the  adaptation  of  the  examples  to  the  several 
rules.”  British  Critic,  Nov.  1798. 

“ These  exercises  are  in  general  well  calculated  to  promote 
the  purpose  of  information,  not  only  with  regard  to  orthography 
and  punctuation,  but  also  in  point  of  phraseology.  Syntax,  and 
precise  perspicuity  of  composition.” 

Critical  Review,  Oct.  1797. 


“ The  very  general  approbation,  which  this  grammar  has  re- 
ceived from  the  public,  is  sufficiently  indicative  of  its  merits : 
and  we  have  much  pleasure  in  confirming  the  decision  of  the 
public,  respecting  its  superiority  over  all  other  English  Gtram- 
mars.  We  request  the  author  to  continue  his  exertions  for  the 
instruction  of  the  rising  generation.” 

Critical  Review,  June^  1817. 

‘‘  The  materials  of  this  Grammar  have  been  carefully  and  ju- 
diciously selected ; its  arrangement  is  distinct,  and  well  adapted 
to  the  purpose  of  instruction ; and  its  expression  is  simple,  per- 
spicuous, and  accurate.  The  Appendix  contains  a great  variety 
of  useful  instructions  on  purity,  propriety,  precision,  perspicuity, 
strength,  and  elegance  of  language.” 

Analytical  Review,  June^  1796. 

“The  examples  contained  in  these  Exercises  are  selected 
with  great  judgment ; and  are  very  happily  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose of  correcting  common  errors  in  writing  and  speaking.  They 
afford  the  learner  a large  field  of  employment,  which,  carefully 
gone  through,  either  in  writing  or  orally,  will  not  fail  to  produce 
a habit  of  attention  to  accuracy. — ^With  respect  to  the  matter, 
as  well  as  the  language,  of  these  examples,  we  are  much  pleased 
with  the  author’s  choice : both  vulgarity  and  peculiarity  of  sen- 
timent, are  judiciously  avoided.” 

Analytical  Review,  September,  1797. 

“ The  principle  upon  which  all  the  publications  of  Mr.  Mur- 
ray, for  the  instruction  of  the  rising  generation,  are  founded,  is 
such  as  gives  him  an  unquestionable  claim  to  public  protection. 
The  man  who  blends  religion  and  morals  with  the  elements  of 
scientific  knowledge,  renders  an  eminent  service  to  society : and 
where  ability  of  execution  is  added  to  excellence  of  design,  as 
in  the  present  case,  the  claim  becomes  irresistible.” 

Anti-Jacobin  Review,  January,  1804. 

“ Mr.  Murray’s  Grammar,  as  well  as  his  other  publications, 
has  received  the  uniform  approbation  of  literary  characters  and 
journalists.  We  do  not  hesitate  warmly  to  recommend  them 
to  the  instructers  of  youth  in  every  part  of  the  United  States, 
as  eminently  conducive  to  pure  morality  and  religion,  and  to  the 
acquisition  of  a correct  and  elegant  style.  They  deserve  to  take 
place  of  all  other  works  of  the  same  kind  which  are  now  used 
in  our  schools.” 

The  American  Review  and  Literary  Journal, /or 
July,  August,  and  September,  1801. 


Mr.  Lindley  Murray’s  Grammar  of  the  English  tongue,  has 
grown  into  high  repute.  The  demand  for  it  is  so  frequent,  that 
already  a ninth  edition  is  published.  This  contains  many  cor- 
rections and  additions,  by  which  it  is  greatly  improved,  as  well 
as  somewhat  enlarged.  In  Great  Britain,  the  sale  and  circula- 
tion are  uncorimiouly  rapid  and  extensive.  And  as  a proof  of 
the  good  opinion  entertained  of  it  in  America,  the  professors  of 
the  colleges  at  New- York,  at  Princeton,  and  at  New-Haven, 
have  adopted  it  as  an  elementary  book  of  instruction,  in  their 
respective  seminaries.  A work  so  well  calculated  to  be  useful 
and  popular ; so  judiciously  arranged ; and  executed  with  so 
much  taste  and  critical  skill,  well  deserves  to  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  eve:i^  person  who  studies  the  language  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  elucidate.” 

Medical  and  Literary  Repository, /or  May,  June, 
and  July,  1804,  published  at  New-York. 

‘‘The  celebrity  which  this  grammar  has  obtcined,  renders  it 
needless  for  us  to  say  more,  than  that,  in  a short  space  of  time, 
it  has  come  to  the  ninth  edition.” 

Imperial  Review,  April,  1804. 

“ Our  sentiments  with  regard  to  the  omission  or  insertion  of 
the  relative  pronoun,  are  exactly  stated  by  Mr.  Lindley  Murray, 
the  ingenious  author  of  the  best  English  Grammar,  beyond  all 
comparison,  that  has  yet  appeared.” 

Imperial  Review,  September,  1805. 

“ We  have  to  close  our  avowal  of  the  pleasure,  with  which 
we  have  read  this  excellent  work,  (the  Grammar,)  by  expressing 
our  entire  approbation  of  the  author’s  Appendix ; which  will  en- 
able the  student  to  make  a proper  use,  in  composition,  of  the 
instructions  dispersed  through  the  grammar.  It  concludes  with 
a serious  and  affectionate  exhortation  to  youth ; which  manifests 
the  purity  and  dignity  of  the  author’s  principles,  as  the  general 
execution  of  his  work  demonstrates  his  talents  and  research. 
We  rejoice  that  it  has  attained  to  so  extensive  a circulation ; 
and  we  earnestly  recommend  it  to  all  who  are  desirous  of  ac- 
quiring a clear  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  English 
language  ; but  more  especially  to  those  who  are  engaged  in  the 
grammatical  instruction  of  youth ; as  we  have  no  doubt  that 
they  will  derive  from  it  the  most  valuable  assistance  to  their  la- 
bours.”—Eclectic  Review,  September,  1805. 


